Painting is divided into the following types. Styles and movements in fine arts

Outline - linear outlines of the depicted figure, its contour.

Abstract art - one of the formalist trends in fine art that arose in late XIX- early 20th century Abstractionists abandoned the depiction of objects and phenomena of the objective world (hence another name for abstractionism - non-objective art). Their work is an attempt to express their feelings and thoughts through color combinations of spots or lines by themselves, without depicting real objects and objects. Abstractionists abandoned drawing, perspective, color and all other means of the visual language of the art of painting. By doing this they violated the professional foundations of painting and destroyed its authentic artistic possibilities. Abstractionism disfigures people's aesthetic tastes and takes them away from understanding the beauty of nature and life.

Adaptation - the ability of the eye to adapt to certain lighting conditions. There are adaptations to light, darkness, and color. The peculiarity of the latter is the ability of the eye not to notice the color of lighting on objects.

In twilight conditions and generally in low light, the nerve endings (photoreceptors) called rods in the eye are most sensitive to light. With their help, the eye perceives black and white gradations. In strong light during the daytime, other photoreceptors, the cones, through which color is perceived, are more sensitive. When adapting to light, vision sensitivity decreases, and when adapting to darkness it increases. When the eye adapts to darkness, we begin to clearly distinguish the details of the landscape. Due to the increased sensitivity of the eye to darkness on a cloudy day and at twilight, the novice artist loses sight of the level of general illumination, which in these conditions is much weaker than on a sunny or light gray day. At twilight, light objects do not seem to him to be reduced in lightness to the extent that the illumination has become lower than the previous daylight illumination. He also poorly notices the closer tonal relationships characteristic of twilight and gray day. In addition, despite the darkening, the beginning artist distinguishes in nature (or shadow) very subtle gradations of light and shade on objects and allows for excessive variegation and fragmentation. Thus, at first he is not able to accurately assess and convey those actual changes in lightness and color that occur in nature.

Adaptation is based on various changes that occur in our eye when the intensity of illumination changes. For example, during the day the pupil decreases by 1-2 mm, as a result of which little light passes into the eye. In the dark it expands by 8-10 mm, letting in a lot of light. Knowing that the area of ​​the pupil is proportional to the square of the diameter, we can establish that if the pupil doubles in size, then the amount of light it transmits increases fourfold; if the pupil enlarges four times, the amount of light it transmits increases by 16 times. This is partly the reason that we distinguish the main light ratios at twilight. The pupillary reflex to light and darkness thus compensates to some extent for the decrease in illumination.

Academicism - an evaluative term referring to those movements in art whose representatives are entirely oriented towards established artistic authorities, believe the progress of modern art not in a living connection with life, but in its closest approximation to the ideals and forms of art of past eras, and defend absolute, independent from place and time, the norm of beauty. Historically, academism is associated with the activities of academies that educated young artists in the spirit of unreasoningly following the art models of antiquity and Italian Renaissance. Originating for the first time in the Bologna Academy of the 16th century, this trend was widely developed in the academies of subsequent times; it was also characteristic of the Russian Academy of Arts in the 19th century, which caused a struggle with the academy of advanced realist artists. By canonizing classicist methods and subjects, academicism fenced off art from modernity, declaring it “low”, “base”, unworthy of “high” art.

The concept of academism cannot be identified with all the activities of art academies of the past. The academic education system had many advantages. In particular, based on a long tradition, a high culture of drawing, which was one of the strongest aspects of academic education.

Watercolor paints - water-based adhesive made from finely ground pigments mixed with gum, dextrin, glycerin, sometimes with honey or sugar syrup; They are produced dry - in the form of tiles, semi-raw - in porcelain cups or semi-liquid - in tubes.

In watercolor you can paint on dry or damp paper immediately, in full color, and you can work with glazes, gradually clarifying the color relationships of nature. You need to know that watercolor does not tolerate corrections, torture, or numerous re-paintings with mixed paints.

Often, painters use the watercolor technique in combination with other materials: gouache, tempera, charcoal. However, in this case the main qualities are lost watercolor painting- saturation, transparency, purity and freshness, that is, exactly what distinguishes watercolor from any other technique.

Accent - the technique of emphasizing with a line, tone or color of any expressive object, details of the image to which it is necessary to direct the viewer’s attention.

Alla prima -- technical technique in watercolor or oil painting, which consists in the fact that a sketch or picture is painted without preliminary markings and underpainting, sometimes in one go, in one session.

Animal painter - an artist who mainly devoted his work to the depiction of animals.

Achromatic colors - white, gray, black; They differ only in lightness and lack color tone. In contrast, there are chromatic colors, which have a color shade of different lightness and saturation.

Blik - element of chiaroscuro, most bright place on the illuminated (mostly shiny) surface of an object. With a change in point of view, the highlight changes its location on the shape of the object.

Valeur - a term of artistic practice that defines the qualitative side of a separate, predominantly light and shadow tone, in its relationship with surrounding tones. In realistic painting, material properties objective world are transmitted mainly through objectively regular tonal relationships. But in order to vividly, holistically reproduce the materiality, plasticity, and color of an object under a certain state of illumination and in a certain situation, the artist must achieve very great accuracy and expressiveness in the relationships of tones; the richness and subtlety of the relationships between transitions leading to the expressiveness of painting are the main characteristics of valeur. Among the greatest masters of the 17th-19th centuries. - such as Velasquez, Rembrandt, Chardin, Repin - painting is always rich in value.

The vision is picturesque - vision and understanding of the color relationships of nature, taking into account the influence of the environment and the general state of illumination, which is characteristic of nature at the time of its depiction. As a result of such a vision, the truthfulness of light and color relationships, the richness of warm and cold shades, their color unity and harmony appear in the sketch, conveying nature with all the reverence of life. In this case, they talk about the picturesqueness of a sketch or painting.

Artistic vision - the ability to give the necessary aesthetic assessment of the qualities inherent in nature. Before depicting nature, the artist already sees in its main features its figurative painting solution, taking into account a certain material.

Stained glass - painting on glass with transparent paints or an ornament made up of pieces of multi-colored glass fastened with a metal binding, used to fill window and door openings. Rays of light penetrating through the glass acquire increased brightness and form a play of color reflections in the interior.

Aerial perspective - apparent changes in some characteristics of objects under the influence air environment and space. All nearby objects are perceived clearly, with many details and texture, while distant objects are perceived in a general way, without details. The contours of nearby objects appear sharp, while those of distant objects appear soft. On long distance Light objects appear darker, and dark objects appear lighter. All close objects have contrasting chiaroscuro and appear three-dimensional, all distant objects have weak chiaroscuro and appear flat. Due to the air haze, the colors of all distant objects become less saturated and acquire the color of this haze - blue, milky pale or violet. All nearby objects appear multi-colored, while distant objects appear single-colored. The artist takes into account all these changes to convey space and the state of illumination - important qualities of plein air painting.

Visual perception - the process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in all the diversity of their properties that directly affect the organs of vision. Along with visual sensations, past experience of knowledge and ideas about a particular object also participates in perception. It is possible to comprehend and understand the essence of what is perceived only if the observed objects and phenomena are compared with previously seen ones (aconstant and constant visual perception). To this it should be added that visual perception is accompanied by associative feelings, a sense of beauty, which are associated with personal experience of sensory experiences from the influence of the environment.

Color range - colors that predominate in this work and determining the nature of its color system. They say: a range of cold, warm, pale shades of color, etc.

Harmony - connection, proportionality, consistency. In fine art - a combination of forms, the relationship of parts or colors. In painting, this is the correspondence of details to the whole, not only in size, but also in color (color unity, range of related shades). The source of harmony is the patterns of color changes in natural objects under the influence of the strength and spectral composition of lighting. The harmony of the color structure of a sketch or painting also depends on the characteristics of the physiology and psychology of visual perception of light and color qualities of the objective world (contrasting interaction of colors, the phenomenon of a halo, etc.).

Engraving- printed reproduction of a drawing cut or etched on a wooden board (woodcut), linoleum (linocut), metal plate (etching), stone (lithography), etc. A special feature of an engraving is the possibility of its replication: from one board engraved by the artist, you can print a large number of multi-colored prints (stamps). Based on the nature of processing of the printing form (board or plate) and the printing method, a distinction is made between convex and in-depth engraving.

Graphic arts - one of the types visual arts, close to painting in terms of content and form, but having its own tasks and artistic possibilities. Unlike painting, the main visual means of graphics is a monochromatic drawing (i.e. line, chiaroscuro); the role of color remains relatively limited in it. On the technical side, graphics include drawing in the proper sense of the word in all its varieties. As a rule, graphic works are executed on paper, and other materials are occasionally used.

Depending on the purpose and content, graphics are divided into easel graphics, which include works of independent significance (which do not require an indispensable connection with the disclosure of their content). literary text and not limited to a narrowed, strictly defined practical purpose), book, forming an ideological and artistic unity with the literary or accompanying text and at the same time intended for decorative and artistic design of the book, poster, which is the most widespread type of fine art, designed to carry out political tasks by artistic means, propaganda, artistic and production or applied (labels, certificates, postage stamps, etc.).

Grisaille - image in black and white paint (or one-color, for example, brown); It is often used for auxiliary work when performing underpainting or sketching, as well as for educational purposes when mastering the techniques of tonal images performed with watercolor or oil paints. The image is created on the basis of only the tonal (lightness) relationships of the objects in the full-scale setting.

Priming - a thin layer of a special composition (adhesive, oil, emulsion) applied on top of canvas or cardboard in order to give their surface the desired color and texture properties and limit excessive absorption of the binder (oil). If you work with oil paints on a non-primed base (for example, canvas), the paints do not adhere, they dry out, the oil from the paint is absorbed into the fabric, destroying the canvas and the paint layer. Based on the composition of the binder, soils are distinguished: oil, adhesive, emulsion, synthetic. By color - tinted and colored. The primer, as a rule, consists of 3 elements: a thin layer of glue that covers the entire surface of the canvas with a film (that is, sizing), and several layers of primer paint, including a thin finishing layer. Sizing - a thin layer of glue (carpentry, casein or gelatin) - protects the canvas from penetration of primer paint or oil into the fabric or onto the back side of the canvas, and firmly binds subsequent layers of primer to the canvas. Primer paint levels the surface of the canvas, creates the required (usually white) color and ensures a strong connection of the paint layer with the primer.

Primer - in painting technology: the process of applying primer to a surface intended for painting.

Gouache - water-based paint with great coverage capabilities. Paints lighten quickly after drying, and considerable experience is required to anticipate the extent to which their tone and color will change. They use gouache paints to write on paper, cardboard, and plywood. The works have a matte velvety surface.

Detailing - careful study of the details of the shape of objects in the image. Depending on the task that the artist sets for himself, the degree of detail may vary.

Additional colors - two colors that produce white when optically mixed (red and bluish-green, orange and blue, yellow and blue, violet and greenish-yellow, green and purple). When these pairs of complementary colors are mechanically mixed, shades with reduced saturation are obtained. Complementary colors are often called contrasting colors.

Genre - historically established internal division in all types of art; the type of a work of art in the unity of the specific properties of its form and content. The concept of “genre” generalizes the features characteristic of a vast group of works of any era, nation or world art in general. Each art form has its own system of genres. In fine arts - based on the subject of the image (portrait, still life, landscape, historical and battle painting), and sometimes the nature of the image (caricature, cartoon).

Painting - one of the main types of fine art. True transmission appearance the subject, its external signs It is also possible by graphic means - line and tone. But only painting can convey all the extraordinarily diverse colors of the surrounding world.

According to the technique of execution, painting is divided into oil, tempera, fresco, wax, mosaic, stained glass, watercolor, gouache, pastel. These names come from the binder or from the material and technical means used. The purpose and content of a painting require the choice of such visual means with the help of which the artist’s ideological and creative intent can be most fully expressed.

By genre, painting is divided into easel, monumental, decorative, theatrical and decorative, and miniature.

Decorative painting has no independent meaning and serves as decoration for the exterior and interior of buildings in the form of colorful panels, which with realistic images create the illusion of a “breakthrough” of the wall, increasing the size of the room, or, on the contrary, with deliberately flattened forms, they visually narrow and enclose the space. Patterns, wreaths, garlands and other types of decor that adorn works of monumental painting and sculpture tie together all the elements of the interior, emphasizing their beauty and consistency with the architecture. Decorative painting also decorates things: caskets, caskets, trays, chests, etc. Its themes and forms are subordinated to the purpose of things.

Miniature painting received great development in the Middle Ages, before the invention of printing. Handwritten books were decorated with the finest headpieces, endings, detailed illustrations, and miniatures. Russian artists of the first half of the 19th century skillfully used the painting technique of miniatures when creating small (mainly watercolor) portraits. Pure deep watercolor colors, their exquisite combinations, and exquisite fineness of writing distinguish these portraits.

Monumental painting - special type paintings large scale, decorating the walls and ceilings of architectural structures (fresco, mosaic, panel). It reveals the content of major social phenomena that have had a positive impact on the development of society, glorifies them and perpetuates them. The sublimity of the content of monumental painting, the significant size of its works, and the connection with architecture require large color masses, strict simplicity and laconicism of composition, clarity of silhouettes and generality of plastic form.

Easel painting - the name comes from the machine (easel) on which the painting is created. The material base used is wood, cardboard, paper, but most often canvas stretched on a stretcher. The painting is inserted into the frame and is perceived as independent piece of art, independent of the environment. In this regard, to create works of easel painting, slightly different artistic means are used, more subtle and detailed color and tonal relationships are given, and a more complex and detailed psychological characteristics characters.

Theater and decorative painting - scenery, costumes, makeup, props, made according to the artist’s sketches; help to reveal the content of the performance more deeply. Special theatrical conditions for the perception of painting require taking into account the multiple points of view of the public, their greater distance, the influence of artificial lighting and color highlights. The scenery gives an idea of ​​the place and time of the action, and activates the viewer’s perception of what is happening on stage. In sketches of costumes and makeup, the theater artist strives to acutely express the individual character of the characters, their social status, the style of the era, and much more.

Academic painting - painting made for any educational purpose.

Painting on wet - technical technique of oil and watercolor painting. When working with oils, it is necessary to finish the work before the paints dry and exclude such steps as underpainting, glazing and re-painting. Painting in the raw has well-known advantages - the freshness of the paint layer, good preservation, and the comparative simplicity of the execution technique.

In watercolors, before starting to work on wet paper, the paper is evenly moistened with water. When the water is absorbed into the paper and dries a little (after 2-3 minutes), they begin to write; strokes of paint, lying on a damp surface, blur, merge with each other, creating smooth transitions. Thus, you can achieve softness in conveying the outlines of objects, airiness and spatiality of the image.

Witheredness - undesirable changes in the drying paint layer, due to which the painting loses its freshness, loses its shine, the sonority of the colors, darkens, and becomes blackish. The reason for the dryness is an excessive reduction in the binder oil in the paint, absorbed by the soil or underlying paint layer, as well as the application of paints to a previous layer of oil paints that has not completely dried.

Completeness .- this stage in the work on a sketch or painting when the greatest completeness of the embodiment of the creative concept has been achieved, or when a certain visual task has been completed.

“Batches” of base paints - preliminary preparation on the palette of a mixture of colors that correspond to the basic tonal and color relationships of natural objects (landscape). During the work process, various shade variations are introduced into these basic mixtures, and new colors are added. However, the colors of the main objects prepared on the palette do not allow one to fall into excessive coloring and do not allow one to lose the character of the basic color relationships. In watercolor, these supporting “mixes” are made in separate cups.

Sketch - a drawing from life, made primarily outside the workshop for the purpose of collecting material for more significant work, for the sake of exercise, and sometimes for some special purpose (for example, on the instructions of a newspaper, magazine). Unlike a technically similar sketch, the execution of a sketch can be very detailed.

Idealization in art - a deviation from the truth of life due to the artist’s intentional or involuntary embellishment of the subject of the image. Idealization usually manifests itself in the exaggeration and absolutization of the positive principle as some kind of ultimate, supposedly already achieved perfection; in smoothing out life's contradictions and conflicts; in the embodiment of an abstract, supra-vital ideal, etc. Idealization always means a break with the principles of realism and one way or another turns out to be associated with the ideology of reactionary classes who are inclined to move away from the truthful picture of life and replace the study of reality with subjectively embellished ideas about it.

One should distinguish from idealization the reflection in realistic art of a certain socially progressive life ideal, which, being an important aspect of the ideological content of any realistic artistic image, can sometimes be the determining principle in the artistic solution of the image.

The idea of ​​the painting - the main idea of ​​the work, determining its content and figurative structure, expressed in the appropriate form.

Illusory - similarity of the image with nature; borders on optical illusion. Due to illusory nature, the artistic expressiveness of the work and the depth of its content may be lost if in the picture the desire for external similarity obscures the main thing - its intention.

Impressionism - a direction in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, whose representatives sought to most naturally and impartially capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions. Impressionism began in the 1860s. in French painting. E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas introduced into art a freshness and spontaneity of perception of life, the depiction of instantaneous, seemingly random movements and situations, apparent imbalance, fragmentary composition, unexpected points of view, angles, sections of figures. In 1870-80 Impressionism emerged in the French landscape. C. Monet, C. Pizarro, A. Sisley developed a consistent plein air system. In addition to painters, sculptors (O. Rodin, M. Rosso, P. P. Trubetskoy) took an interest in instantaneous movement and fluid form.

Impressionism developed the realistic principles of art, but the work of its followers was often reflected in a departure from the study of the basic phenomena of social reality, the constant stable qualities of the material world. This direction of creativity led the late impressionists to formalism.

Interior - interior view of the room. Depicting an interior requires a thorough knowledge of perspective. It is important to find a place from where you can compose the image in a more interesting way. The finished image of the interior, in addition to an interesting composition, correct perspective construction, placement of objects in space, should give an idea of ​​​​the lighting.

Painting - a work of easel painting that truthfully embodies the artist’s intention, distinguished by the significance of its content, truthfulness and completeness of the artistic form. The painting is the result of the artist’s long observations and reflections on life. It is preceded by sketches, sketches, sketches, in which the artist records individual phenomena of life, collects material for future painting, looking for the basis of its composition and color. When creating a picture, the artist relies on nature, proceeds from it both in the general concept and in individual details. Observation, imagination, and design play a big role in this process. The painting in its own way carries a certain ideological and figurative concept, and the forms of expression are visually reliable. Every detail, part is correlated with the whole, every element expresses an image. Decadent formalistic trends are characterized by a crisis in the plot and thematic picture, a rejection of significant ideological issues and psychologism. Not only is the subject expelled from the paintings, but there is also a break with the subject image in general. According to the form of the image, the picture becomes pointless, abstract.

Adhesive paints - dry paints, produced in powders and mixed by the artist himself with glue water. Well ground, they are sometimes used by artists when decorating reproduction originals as substitutes for gouache paints. Most often they are used for theatrical decorations.

Nag - a type of soft eraser used in cases where you need to lighten the tone of shading in pencil drawings. The nag is soft and can be easily kneaded with your fingers; the pencil is not erased with it, but is lightly pressed against those parts of the drawing that are being lightened: the graphite sticks to the mark and is held by it after it is taken away from the paper. If the areas being lightened are very small, the nag is given the appearance of a pointed cone.

The nag can be made as follows. An ordinary gum is placed in gasoline for two to three days (or kerosene), then it is kept for another two days. After this, the softened rubber is kneaded with potato flour (starch), the flour should be taken in pinches and the viscosity of the knead should be adjusted using its quantity.

Color (study or painting) - the nature of the relationship of all the color elements of the image, its color structure. Its main advantage is the richness and consistency of colors that correspond to nature itself, conveying, in unity with chiaroscuro, the objective properties and state of illumination of the depicted moment. The coloring of the sketch is determined by: 1) consistency of color relationships proportional to nature, taking into account the general tonal and color state of illumination, 2) the richness and variety of reflexes of the light-air and object environment, 3) the contrasting interaction of warm and cold shades, 4) the influence of the color of lighting, which unites colors of nature, makes them subordinate and related.

A true reflection of the state of real lighting conditions affects the viewer’s feelings, creates a mood, and evokes appropriate aesthetic experiences.

Brushes . Brushes come in kolinsky, squirrel, and bristle brushes. Bristle brushes are designed for working with oil paints, but can be used in painting with tempera and gouache paints. Squirrel and kolinsky brushes are used in watercolors. The shapes are flat and round. The size of the brush is indicated by a number. The numbers of flat brushes and flute brushes correspond to their width in millimeters, and the numbers of round brushes correspond to their diameter (also expressed in millimeters).

After working with oil paints, wash brushes with warm water and soap. Do not wash brushes in acetone: this will damage your hair. Watercolor brushes are washed in clean water after use. Under no circumstances should brushes be allowed to dry out, especially after working with oil paints; put brushes in the jar with the hair down, as the hair will become deformed. The washed brush should be wrapped in paper, then it will retain its shape.

Composition - construction of a sketch or painting, coordination of its parts. When depicting from nature: selection and placement of objects, choosing the best point of view, lighting, determining the format and size of the canvas, identifying the compositional center, subordinating the secondary parts of the work to it. When creating a painting: choosing a theme, developing a plot, finding the format and size of the work, characterization characters, their relationships to each other, poses, movements and gestures, expressiveness of faces, the use of contrasts and rhythms - all these are integral elements of the compositional structure of the picture, serving the best embodiment of the artist’s intention. In such a composition, everything is taken into account: the masses of objects and their silhouettes, the rhythm with which they are placed on the canvas, perspective, the imaginary horizon line and point of view of what is depicted, the color of the picture, the grouping of characters, the direction of their views, the direction of the line of perspective reduction of objects, distribution chiaroscuro, poses and gestures, etc.

Constancy of visual perception - the tendency to perceive an object, its size, shape, lightness, color as stable and unchanged, regardless of changes occurring to it (distance from the viewer, changes in lighting, environmental influences, etc.) - Constancy of size - the tendency to perceive the size of an object as constant, despite the change distance to it. As a rule, beginning draftsmen do not notice any promising changes.

Constancy of form - the tendency to perceive the actual shape, even if the object is rotated so that its image on the retina differs from the actual shape. (For example, a square piece of paper lying on a table appears square even if its projection on the retina is not square.)

Brightness constancy - the tendency to perceive the lightness of an object as constant, despite changes in illumination; depends mainly on a constant ratio of the intensity of light reflected from both the object and its surroundings.

Color constancy - the tendency to perceive an object’s color (its local color) regardless of changing lighting conditions, its strength and spectral composition (daytime, evening, artificial).

Due to the phenomenon of constancy, the perception and transmission in painting of objects and phenomena exactly as they appear to the eye under specific lighting conditions, in a certain environment and at a certain distance, pose a certain difficulty at the beginning of learning. A novice artist, although he knows that color changes depending on lighting conditions, sees it unchanged and does not dare, for example, to paint green trees in the rays of the setting sun as reddish or to paint the blue sky as complex pink-ocher, as it appears at sunset.

To an inexperienced painter, it seems that a white object is white in all its parts, and a dark object is dark. Meanwhile, in a full-scale setting, the surface of a dark object facing the light will reflect more light rays than the shadow part of a white object, and therefore the shadow of a white object will be darker than the light part of a dark object.

While working on a landscape sketch, an inexperienced painter does not notice how dusk is approaching, although the lighting has decreased significantly.

Surrounding objects can be illuminated by light of different spectral composition, which changes the spectral composition of the light reflected from objects. However, the eye of a novice artist does not even notice this change in color.

The constancy of perception can increase and intensify for many reasons. The stronger the chromatic illumination, and the greater the distance from which the object is observed, the weaker the manifestation of constancy. The ability of the surface of an object to strongly reflect light rays also contributes to constant perception: light-colored objects more noticeably show the influence of the color of lighting. Light and color adaptations enhance the constancy of perception. Observing a winter landscape in cloudy weather, you can only notice complex grayish shades. If you look at the same winter motif from the window of an electrically lit room, the landscape outside the window will be perceived as intensely bluish. If you leave the room under the open sky, then after a few minutes blue tone the landscape will disappear. Similarly, zero constancy in viewers appears under colored lighting. theater stage; after the warm electric lighting in the hall fades away, the curtain opens and the viewer is delighted with the scene of winter, lunar or other lighting conditions.

As a result of practice, the artist acquires the ability to notice changes in the color of an object in nature due to the environment and lighting, sees and conveys all the richness and diversity of the external world, a great variety of color gradations. As a result, convincing lighting appears on the canvas, the color looks complicated and enriched by the environment and lighting. Many artists and teachers performed special exercises, creating visual models in order to understand the coloristic features of different lighting conditions. K.. Monet, for example, wrote a series of studies depicting the same object (a haystack), and thus studied the change in color under different lighting conditions in nature. To develop aconstant perception, N. N. Krymov placed a white cube, painted on one side with black paint, and illuminated it from this side with a powerful lamp, leaving the white side in shadow. At the same time, his students were convinced that the black, illuminated side of the cube was lighter than the white, in the shadow. Krymov invited students to create a small cardboard accordion screen, the planes of which were painted in different colors and illuminated from two sides: on one side by an electric lamp, on the other by daylight. The rays from the lamp were directed towards areas painted with cool colors, while warm colors were directed towards daylight. Students became convinced that lighting conditions significantly change object colors, and thus freed themselves from constant perception of colors.

A beginning painter must get rid of the constancy of perception and be able to perceive the shape of an object, its lightness and color, determined by the light environment, lighting and space.

Design - in fine art, an essence, a characteristic feature of the structure of a form, suggesting a natural relationship between the parts of the form and its proportions.

Contrast - 1) a sharp difference, the opposition of two quantities: size, color (light and dark, warm and cold, rich and neutral), movement, etc.; 2) light and chromatic contrast - a phenomenon in which the perceived difference is significantly greater than the physical basis. On a light background, the color of an object appears darker; on a dark background, it appears lighter. Light contrast appears most clearly at the border of dark and light surfaces. Chromatic contrast is a change in hue and saturation under the influence of surrounding colors (simultaneous contrast) or under the influence of previously observed colors (sequential contrast). For example: green next to red increases its saturation. Gray color on a red background takes on a greenish tint. Chromatic contrast is stronger when interacting colors are approximately equal in lightness.

Copy - the process of obtaining copies of a drawing or drawing; can be produced different ways: by pinching, tracing, squeezing, redrawing in the light, redrawing on a grid, as well as using a pantograph and epidiascope.

Peeling - a method of copying without changing the scale: the original is placed on a blank sheet of paper and, using a thin needle, all the characteristic points of the picture or drawing are pricked, through which pencil lines are then drawn on the pricked paper.

Tracing - a method of copying without changing the scale. Tracing paper is applied to the original, on which an image is drawn with pencil or ink; The working surface of the tracing paper should first be degreased - wiped with chalk powder or magnesium carbonate.

Squeezing - a method of copying without changing the scale: dry transfer paper is placed under the original or its copy on tracing paper; a sharpened needle is drawn along the lines of the original image, due to which clean slate The translated image is imprinted on paper. Reverse side The original (tracing paper) can be rubbed with a soft pencil, in which case the transferred image becomes clearer.

Redrawing against the light - a method of copying without changing the scale. The original is placed on glass and covered with clean paper or tracing paper; behind the glass there is a light source (daylight or electric); The lines of the original showing through the paper are outlined with a pencil. There are special copying machines adapted for this purpose.

Redraw on grid - a method of copying with a possible change in scale (increasing or decreasing the picture) using a coordinate grid made on the original and a blank sheet of paper. The image is drawn “in cells”. Cells are built square or rectangular. Redrawing in cells is very labor-intensive and cannot accurately convey the lines of the original, since it is done by eye and by hand.

Body (pasty) paint strip - execution of a sketch or painting with a dense, opaque, relatively thick layer of oil paint, often having a relief texture.

Crocs - a quick sketch from life, less often a cursory fixation of a compositional concept in the form of a drawing. The term "croki" is not commonly used; in its general meaning it is close to the broader term “sketch”.

Woodcut - wood engraving, the main technical type of raised engraving, the oldest engraving technique in general. Woodcut is performed by cutting out on a board, usually pear or beech wood, those parts of the engraving design applied on top of it that should remain white. In longitudinal or edged engraving, the fibers of the board are parallel to its surface, and the work is carried out mainly with pointed knives. The capabilities of this technique are relatively limited, but the difficulties are significant (since the resistance of the fibrous material to the knife is uneven in different directions). End engraving is performed on a board with the grain perpendicular to the surface; her main instrument is the gravel, which allows for a very subtle and varied technique.

Unlike any type of in-depth engraving, woodcut can be printed together with typesetting on a regular printing press, and is therefore often used in book illustration.

Lucky . Artists varnish the soils to protect them from the penetration of oils from the paints, introduce varnishes into the composition of the paint binder, apply them to the hardened paint layer before further work (for better bonding of the layers) and, finally, varnish the finished works. At the same time, the varnish enhances the richness of the colors. The varnish film protects the painting from direct contact with harmful atmospheric gases, dust and soot in the air. Varnishes in oil paint help it dry more evenly and quickly, and the paint layers bond better with the ground and with each other. It is better to coat paintings with turpentine varnishes than with oil varnishes (then they darken less). Fixing varnish fixes works done with charcoal, sanguine, pastels, and watercolors.

Modeling the shape with color - the process of modeling an object, identifying its volume and material with color shades, taking into account their changes in lightness and saturation.

Glaze - one of the techniques of painting technique, consisting of applying very thin layers of durable and translucent paints on top of a dried dense layer of other paints. In this case, a special lightness and sonority of colors is achieved, which is the result of their optical mixing.

Linocut - engraving on linoleum, a type of raised engraving. In terms of technique and artistic means, linocut is similar to woodcut and often differs from it in the print only by the absence of fine details.

Lithography - in the fine arts, a widespread type of graphic technique associated with working on stone (dense limestone) or a metal plate replacing it (zinc, aluminum).

The artist performs a lithograph by drawing on the grainy or smooth surface of a stone with a thick lithographic pencil and special ink. After etching the stone with acid (acting on a surface not covered with grease), the design is washed off: instead, printing ink is applied, which sticks only to unetched particles of the stone that exactly match the design. The paint is rolled with a roller onto the moistened stone; printing is done on a special machine.

Local color - color characteristic of of this subject(its color) and has not undergone any changes. In reality this does not happen. The color of an object constantly changes somewhat under the influence of the strength and color of lighting, the environment, spatial distance, and it is no longer called local, but conditioned. Sometimes local color does not mean an object color, but a homogeneous spot of a conditioned color, taken in basic relationships to neighboring colors, without revealing a mosaic of color reflexes, without nuances of these main spots.

Manner - with regard to artistic practice: character or manner of performance as a purely technical feature (for example, "broad manner").

In the history of art, the term “manner” sometimes refers to the general properties of execution characteristic of an artist or art school during a certain period of creative development (for example, “Titian’s late manner”).

Manerity - in artistic practice: properties of approach and execution that lack simplicity and naturalness, leading to pretentious, far-fetched or conventional results. Most often, mannerism is called a predilection for any outwardly spectacular, memorized manner and all kinds of preconceived artistic techniques, a tendency towards stylization. The extreme expression of mannerism is given by the formalistic practice of modern bourgeois art.

Oil paints - dyes mixed with vegetable oil: linseed (mainly), poppy or nut oil; Oil paints gradually harden when exposed to light and air. Many substrates (canvas, wood, cardboard) are primed in advance to work on them with oil paints. The most commonly used primer is the following: the material is coated with liquid wood glue, and when it dries, it is wiped with pumice, after which it is coated with fine chalk powder mixed with glue water to the consistency of sour cream. To clean brushes, wash them in kerosene, turpentine or gasoline and finally in warm water with soap, squeezing the paint from the root of the brush, then rinse in clean water.

Materiality The depicted objects are conveyed primarily by the nature of chiaroscuro. Objects consisting of different materials have characteristic gradations of light and shade. The cylindrical gypsum object has smooth transitions from light through penumbra, shadow and reflex. The glass cylindrical vessel does not have pronounced gradations of light and shade. There are only highlights and reflexes on his form. Metal objects are also characterized mainly by glare and reflections. If you convey the nature of chiaroscuro in the drawing, then the objects will look material. Another, even more important condition on which the depiction of the material qualities of objects depends is the consistency in the drawing or pictorial sketch of tonal and color relationships between objects that are proportional to nature. When perceiving the material qualities of objects, our consciousness relies mainly on their tonal and color relationships (differences). Therefore, if the nature of chiaroscuro, tonal and color relationships are conveyed according to the visual image of nature, we obtain a truthful image of the material qualities of still life objects or landscape objects.

Multilayer painting - the most important technical variety of oil painting, requiring the division of the work into a number of successive stages (underpainting, registration, glazing), separated by breaks for complete drying of the paint. When performing a large thematic composition, as well as during long-term work in general, multi-layer painting is the only complete oil painting technique. Until the middle of the 19th century. all the major advanced artists of the past used this technique as their main one. Later, the Impressionists and their followers abandoned it.

From a narrow technological point of view, not related to the technique of the old masters, the concept of multi-layer painting can only correspond to registration on a dried paint layer (without underpainting or glazing).

Modeling - in the fine arts: the transfer of volumetric-plastic and spatial properties the objective world through light and shadow gradations (painting, graphics) or the corresponding plasticity of three-dimensional forms (sculpture, in particular relief). Modeling is usually carried out taking into account perspective, and in painting, in addition, with the help of color gradations inextricably linked with chiaroscuro. The tasks of modeling are not limited to simple reproduction of the objective world: by participating in the ideological and figurative characteristics of an object, it generalizes, enhances and reveals the most essential and characteristic.

Modernism - general designation of trends in art and literature of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, dadaism, surrealism, futurism, expressionism, abstract art, etc.). The main features of modernism: denial of the cognitive and social role of art, its ideological nature, nationality, replacement of art with all kinds of tricks, complete distortion or ignorance of the professional traditions of the realistic artistic heritage.

Mosaic - a special technical variety of monumental painting, based on the use of multi-colored solids - smalt, natural colored stones, colored enamels over baked clay, etc. as the main artistic material. The image is made up of pieces of such materials, well fitted to each other, mounted on cement or special mastic and then polished. Using the so-called direct set method, the mosaic is made from the front side - in the place intended for it (wall, vault, etc.) or on a separate slab, which is then embedded in the wall. When setting in reverse, the colored pieces are visible to the artist only from the back, since they are glued with their front surface onto a temporary thin lining (removed after transferring the mosaic to the wall). The first of these methods is relatively complex and time-consuming, but more perfect from an artistic point of view.

Easel - a machine (hence the definition of “easel painting”), necessary for the artist to maintain the desired tilt of the painting while working. The main requirement for an easel is stability.

Monotype - a special type of graphic technique associated with the printing process, but sharply different from any type of engraving in the complete absence of mechanical or technical influences on the surface of the board. Paints are applied by hand onto a smooth surface and then printed on a machine. The resulting print is the only one

and unique.

Mmonumentality in works of easel painting is determined by the social significance of the subject of the painting, its heroic pathos, the depth and power of embodiment of ideas in appropriate images - simple, strict, majestic and expressive.

Sketch in color - the sketch is not large sizes, fluently and quickly executed. The main purpose of such a sketch is to acquire the ability to holistically perceive nature, to find and convey the correct color relationships of its main objects. It is known that the full-fledged pictorial structure of an image is determined by the proportional transfer of differences between the main color spots of nature. Without this, no careful study of details, reflexes, mosaics of color shades will lead to a full-fledged pictorial image.

Nationality - the connection of art with the people, the conditioning of artistic phenomena by the life, struggle, ideas, feelings and aspirations of the masses, the expression in art of their interests and psychology. One of the basic principles of socialist realism.

Nature - in the practice of fine art, these are any natural phenomena, objects and objects that the artist depicts, observing directly as a model. As a rule, only a sketch, a sketch, a sketch, a portrait, and sometimes a landscape are performed from life.

Naturalism - in the visual arts it is expressed in isolation from broad generalizations, from ideological ideas and leads to a method of purely external copying of everything that is in the field of view. Beginning painters also sometimes think that a reliable depiction of nature while conveying its volumetric, material and spatial qualities is the absolute goal of fine art. Of course, it is necessary to master visual literacy and technical techniques of painting. However, it is equally important to simultaneously develop the ability to see reality through the eyes of an artist. A pictorial image is not a mirror image of nature. “Painting,” said I. I. Levitan, “is not a protocol, but an explanation of nature through pictorial means.” The painter selects and summarizes in the colorful diversity of nature those elements that can expressively convey the ideological and figurative concept. He tries to reveal the essence of what is being depicted, shows what excited him. This reveals the artist’s personality, his worldview, as well as his taste and practical experience in using colorful materials and techniques.

Still life - one of the genres of fine art, dedicated to the reproduction of household items, fruits, vegetables, flowers, etc. The task of the artist depicting a still life through painting is to convey the coloristic beauty of the objects surrounding a person, their volumetric and material essence, and also to express his attitude towards what is depicted . The image of a still life is especially useful in educational practice for mastering painting skills. In still life, the artist comprehends the laws of color harmony and acquires the technical skill of pictorial modeling of form.

Artistic generalization - the artist’s ability to cognize objective reality, identifying the main, essential things in objects and phenomena through comparison, analysis and synthesis. A work of fine art is the result of the expressiveness of the general, while preserving at the same time all the uniqueness of the concrete visual image.

In a narrow professional understanding, generalization is the last stage of the process of drawing or painting from life, following the detailed elaboration of the form. At this stage of work, details are generalized in order to create a holistic image of nature based on its integral visual perception.

Artistic image - a specific form of reflection of reality in a concretely sensual, visually perceived form. The creation of an artistic image is closely related to the selection of the most characteristic, with emphasizing the essential aspects of an object or phenomenon within the individual unique nature of these objects and phenomena. It is known that human consciousness reflects not only the objective visual image of an object or phenomenon, but also the emotional qualities of their perception. Therefore, the artistic image in painting contains not only the real features of the depicted object, but also its sensory and emotional significance. Each image is both a truthful reflection of objective reality and an expression of the artist’s aesthetic feelings, his individual, emotional attitude towards what is depicted, taste and style.

Reverse perspective - an erroneous technique for drawing perspective, the essence of which is that parallel and horizontal lines in space in the picture are depicted not converging, but diverging; found quite often in ancient icon painting, as a result of the artists’ ignorance elementary rules constructing a perspective (in some cases, a deliberate violation of the rules of perspective construction is allowed).

General tonal and color state of nature - the result of different lighting strengths. To convey the state of different illumination (in the morning, afternoon, evening or on a gray day), when constructing the color structure of the sketch, light and bright colors of the palette are not always used. In some cases, the artist builds a relationship in a reduced range of lightness and color strength (gray day, dark room), in other cases with light and bright colors (for example, a sunny day). In this way, the artist maintains the tonal and color relationships of the sketch in different tonal and color ranges (scales). This helps convey the lighting state, which is especially important in landscape painting, since it is this state that determines its emotional impact (see the tonal and color scale of the image).

Volume - image of a three-dimensional form on a plane. It is carried out primarily by the correct constructive and perspective construction of the subject. Another important means of conveying volume on a plane is the gradation of light and shade, expressed in color: highlight, light, penumbra, proper and falling shadow, reflex. The image of volume on the pictorial plane is also facilitated by the direction of the stroke or shading, their movement in the direction of the form (on flat surfaces they are straight and parallel, on cylindrical and spherical surfaces they are arched).

Halo - a phenomenon also known as “irradiation”; occurs as a result of the scattering of bright light in a transparent liquid filling eyeball. Due to the increased sensitivity of the eye in the dark, it reacts strongly when observing bright light sources (a fire or a lit lamp). During the day they do not seem bright, but at dusk or at night they can blind the eyes. The eye almost does not perceive the color of bright light sources, but the halo around luminous bodies or strongly illuminated objects has a more pronounced color. The candle flame appears almost white, and the halo around it appears yellow. A strong highlight on a shiny surface appears white, and the halo around it takes on the color property of the light source. Thin tree trunks against the background of the sky are completely enveloped in a halo, that is, they look blue, and against the background of a yellow sunset they appear orange or red. When a halo is conveyed in an image, the eye perceives objects as luminous (candles, bright windows day and night, stars in the sky, etc.). Depicted without a halo, an indispensable companion of bright light, the tree trunk and its crown look like a hard appliqué against the background of a light sky, stars without a halo give the impression of specks of paint sprayed on a dark background, bright highlights without a halo against the background of a jug look like light patches.

The basis - in painting technology: the material on which the primer and paint layer of the painting are applied. The most common type of base is canvas, wood (it was the most common base in antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance); cardboard, paper, metal, glass, linoleum, etc. are less commonly used. In some types of painting (for example, fresco, watercolor and etc.) the base is used without special preparation.

Washing - 1) watercolor technique using very liquid paint or ink. To paint a relatively large area with a light tone, tint about one-half glass of water with paint, let the paint settle (it’s better to filter it later) and use a brush to take the “solution” from above, without touching the bottom of the glass; 2) lightening the paint or removing it from the paper using a brush dipped in clean water, and collecting the soaked paint with blotting paper (the procedure is repeated several times).

Relationships are tone-colored - differences in lightness and color of objects: what is lighter in nature, what is darker, plus differences in color and its saturation.

Hue (nuance) - a small, often barely noticeable difference in color, lightness, or color saturation.

Etching - needle or line etching, a widely used technical type of in-depth engraving on metal. Working on an etching by scratching the engraving ground with special needles, usually using the free line drawing technique. The uneven duration of etching of image details with acids results in differences in the strength and richness of the stroke. The etching technique is characterized by comparative simplicity and great flexibility.

Visual sensation - the result of the interaction of radiant energy with the organ of vision and the perception of this interaction by consciousness. As a result, a person receives a variety of sensations of light and color, rich color gradations that characterize the shape of objects and natural phenomena in various conditions of lighting, environment and space.

Palette - 1) a small thin board of a quadrangular or oval shape on which the artist mixes paints while working; 2) an exact list of paints that a particular artist uses in his creative practice.

Panorama - a painting canvas in the form of a closed circular ribbon. Various real prop objects are placed on the canvas in front of the pictorial image, which create the illusion of a direct transition of the real foreground space into the pictorial space of the picture. The panorama is located in a specially built picture hall with a central, usually darkened, viewing platform. Unlike a panorama, a diorama is a pictorial picture in the form of a curved semicircular ribbon.

Unsurpassed examples so far are the panoramas created by the artist F. A. Rubo “Defense of Sevastopol” (1902-1904) and “Battle of Borodino” (1911).

Pastel - rimless colored pencils made from colorful powder. They are obtained by mixing paint powder with an adhesive (cherry glue, dextrin, gelatin, casein). They work with pastels on paper, cardboard or canvas. Paints are applied with strokes, as in the drawing, or rubbed in with fingers with shading, which allows you to achieve the finest colorful nuances and delicate color transitions, a matte velvety surface. When working with pastel, you can easily remove or cover layers of paint, since it is freely scraped off from the ground. Works made with pastels are usually fixed with a special solution.

Pastosity - 1) in the technique of oil painting: a significant thickness of the paint layer, used as an artistic medium. Acting as a technical feature, impasto always remains noticeable to the eye and manifests itself in a certain unevenness of the paint layer, in a “relief stroke”, etc. In a narrow, purely technological sense, impasto is sometimes called thick-layer painting with a flat surface, in which impasto may be invisible (body painting); 2) a special property of the plasticity of the paint material, which allows non-liquefied oil paint to completely retain the shape that the brush gives it.

Scenery - view, image of any area; in painting, and graphics, genre and separate work, in which the main subject of the image is nature. Often depicted are views of cities and architectural complexes (architectural landscape), sea views (marina).

Variegation (fragmentation) of the image - defects in a drawing or sketch that occur when a novice artist draws or paints nature in parts, “point-blank.” As a result, the shape of objects is overloaded with details, their contours are sharp, many objects and their surfaces look the same in tone and color strength. This happens because the inexperienced artist, although he compared objects by tone and color, looked at them alternately, separately. When an artist develops the skill of simultaneous (whole) vision and comparison of objects according to three color properties (color, lightness, saturation), the tonal diversity of the image disappears.

Spatial plans - conditionally separated areas of space located at different distances from the observer. There are several plans in the picture: first, second, third, or front, middle, back. Space on the plane of canvas or paper is conveyed mainly by correct perspective construction. If objects or volumes on spatial plans are drawn without strict adherence to their perspective changes, the color scheme will do little to depict the space. The transfer of the spatial qualities of the image is also facilitated by the nature of the stroke (in the drawing - the nature of the stroke). The technique of shading foreground objects is more defined, rigid and dense. The paint stroke is more pasty, embossed, fractional. Distant plans are conveyed with a softer touch, a thin glaze layer of paint.

Plastic - harmony, expressiveness and flexibility of forms, lines, noticed by the artist in the depicted nature.

Plein air painting - painting in the open air. Active meaning in writing a sketch on outdoors have changes in the colors of nature under the influence of light and air. Particular attention should be paid to the general tone and color state of nature (depending on the strength and color of lighting) and the phenomenon of aerial perspective. The defining moment in plein air painting is the consistency of the tonal and color scale when constructing the tonal and color relationships of the sketch (see tonal and color scale of the image):

Underpainting - the preparatory stage of working on a painting, performed using the technique of oil painting. Underpainting is usually done with a thin layer of paint and can be monochromatic or multi-colored.

Stretcher. The canvas on which the artist paints is stretched onto a stretcher. Its purpose is to keep the canvas taut. This is ensured by non-rigid fastening of the wooden planks of the subframe. If the corners of the stretcher are tightly fastened, it is difficult to correct the sagging of the canvas due to dampness. Bevels are made on the slats of the subframe, directed towards the inside of the subframe. Otherwise, at the points of contact of the canvas with the internal ribs of the stretcher, the canvas is deformed, and the internal ribs of the stretcher appear on it. Large stretcher frames are made with a cross, which protects them from diagonal distortions and deflections of the slats.

Penumbra - one of the gradations of light and shade on the surface of a three-dimensional object, intermediate between light and shadow (both in nature and in the image).

Portrait - an image that captures the appearance of a particular person, his individual features. The art of portraiture requires that, along with external resemblance, a person’s appearance reflects his spiritual interests, social status, and typical features of the era to which he belongs. The artist’s personal attitude towards the people depicted, his worldview, and the imprint of his creative manner must also be present in the portrait.

Primitivism - one of the formalist movements in fine art. It is characterized by a complete rejection of the achievements of realism for the sake of imitating the art forms of the so-called primitive eras (primitive tribes), deliberately borrowing the features of children's drawings, etc.

Registrations - in the technique of oil painting, the main stage of execution of a large canvas, which follows the underpainting, preceding the glaze. The number of registrations depends on the progress of the artist’s work; each of them ends with the paint completely drying. In the broad and imprecise sense of the word, underpainting is sometimes called underpainting, as well as any processing of an already completed canvas or its details.

Proportions - the relationship of the sizes of objects or their parts to each other and to the whole. In drawing or painting, these relationships are conveyed in proportional correspondence, that is, similar, reduced or increased by the same number of times. Compliance with proportions is crucial, since they are the most characteristic feature of the subject and form the basis of a truthful and expressive image.

Proportionality of relations - the law of realistic painting, which determines the relationship of each light-colored spot of the sketch with others, proportional to the visual image of nature, an important condition for a truthful and holistic image of reality. Our visual perception and recognition of the shape, color, material of objects, and the state of illumination is based on their tonal and color relationships. Features of tone and color are visually perceived not in isolation, but depending on the environment, together with other tones and colors. Therefore, the artist reproduces the tonal and color differences of nature in a sketch, as well as the perspective dimensions of objects, using the method of proportional correspondence between the image and the visual image of nature. This achieves the state of illumination of the sketch, true modeling of the volumetric form, materiality, spatial depth and other pictorial qualities of the image.

The process of painting from life involves a special order of work at the beginning, in the middle and at the final stage. This process goes from the general to the detailed elaboration of the form and ends with generalization - highlighting the main thing and subordinating the secondary to it. In painting, the following specific tasks are solved at these stages: 1) finding the relationships of the main color spots, taking into account the tonal and color state of illumination (its strength and spectral composition), 2) color-tone “stretches” within the found basic relationships, color modeling of the volumetric shape of individual objects , 3) at the stage of generalization - softening the sharp contours of objects, muting or enhancing the tone and color of individual objects, highlighting the main thing, subordinating the secondary to it. Ultimately, the entire pictorial image is brought to integrity and unity, to the impression that vision receives when seeing nature as a whole.

Thinners . For watercolor and gouache paints, the only thinner is water. To dilute oil paints, compositions of turpentine origin (pinene No. 4) or petroleum products mixed with alcohol or linseed oil (thinners No. 1, 2) are used. Adding, for example, pinene to oil paint helps it dry faster. In addition, to ensure better adhesion of the paint layers, the hardened surface of the paint layer is wiped with pinen before re-painting.

Angle - perspective reduction of the shape of an object, leading to a change in its usual shape; pronounced contractions that occur when observing an object from above or below.

Frame. A painting created by an artist has a frame. It completes the composition, gives it unity, and directs the viewer’s attention to the work itself. Most often, the frame has a rectangular shape, occasionally round or oval. Often the frame slats have thin profiles, like steps, descending to the picture itself. They help the viewer's eye more easily immerse themselves in the world of what is being depicted. Artists treat the frame as an essential part of the pictorial composition and paint it in light and dark colors of different shades. There are frames with rich plastic motifs, conventional floral or geometric ornaments.

Realism - a method of artistic creativity based on a deep knowledge of life and a figurative reflection of its essence and beauty. Realism in painting is based on the depiction of life in the forms of life itself. The artist constantly studies life with a pencil and brush in hand and perfectly masters the skill of truthfully depicting objects and objects of reality. Without organic knowledge and generalization of life, on the one hand, and the ability to embody all this in a specific visual image, on the other hand, the artistic image in the picture turns into a diagram devoid of life-like persuasiveness.

Socialist realism - a method of socialist art aimed at a truthful, historically specific reflection of reality in its revolutionary development for the purpose of ideological and aesthetic education of people in the spirit of socialism and communism.

Reflex - a light or colored reflection that appears on a form as a result of the reflection of light rays from surrounding objects. The colors of all objects are mutually interconnected by reflexes. The greater the difference in lightness and color between two adjacent objects, the more noticeable the reflexes. On rough, matte surfaces they are weaker; on smooth surfaces they are more noticeable and more distinct in outline. On polished surfaces they are especially distinct (in this case they are enhanced by specular reflection).

Drawing -1) full reproduction of the objective world: volumetric-spatial modeling, correct proportions, truthful expression, clearly expressed character, etc. This is the basis for a realistic depiction of reality in general - by any technical means and techniques. Learning to draw is the most important part of the professional education of a painter, graphic artist and sculptor; 2) a type of artistic graphics based on technical means and drawing capabilities. Unlike painting, drawing is done primarily with a solid coloring substance (pencil, charcoal, sanguine, etc.), as a rule, through a stroke and a line, with the auxiliary role of color; 3) a separate work of the corresponding type of graphics.

Rhythm and cadence - repeatability of certain compositional elements of a work, their special proportionality, leading to a harmonious, natural coherence of the whole. Rhythm can manifest itself through contrasts and correspondences of groupings of figures, objects, lines, movements, light and shadow and color spots, spatial plans, etc.

Light - an element of cut-off gradations, used to indicate the illuminated part of the surface of objects.

Lightness (tone) - comparative degree of difference from dark: the further from dark, the greater the lightness of the color.

Aperture - the degree of lightness of an object, its tone. Aperture depends on the presence of other (adjacent) tones, as well as on the color of objects.

Chiaroscuro - regular gradations of light and dark on the three-dimensional form of an object, thanks to which, both in kind and in drawing, such object properties as volume and material are perceived by the eye. The main gradations of chiaroscuro: highlight, light, penumbra, proper shadow, reflex, falling shadow.

Color properties - color tone, or shade: red, blue, yellow, yellow-green, lightness and saturation (the degree of difference from gray, that is, the degree of proximity to pure spectral color). In the process of painting, the colors of the full-scale setting are compared based on these three properties, their color differences are found and transferred to the sketch in proportional relationships.

Binder - is a binding substance (glue, oil, slaked lime, yolk chicken egg), with the help of which pigment particles are connected to each other and fixed to the surface of the soil, forming a paint layer. Types of painting - fresco, oil painting, tempera - differ precisely in the composition of the binder, although the pigment is usually the same.

Silhouette - a dark one-color flat image on a light background. person, animal or object. The term comes from the name of the French finance minister of the 18th century. E. de Silhouette, who was caricatured in the form of a shadow profile.

Symbol. - an image that allegorically expresses some broad concept or abstract idea. In the event that the connection of a symbol with the concept it expresses follows from the internal similarity in content, the relationship between the depicted object and its allegorical meaning, the use of the symbol becomes appropriate and possible in realistic fine art. A symbol is used when they want to express a broad, multi-containing concept in a laconic and concise form.

Content and form in art - inextricably linked and interdependent categories, one of which indicates what exactly is reflected and expressed in the work (content), and the second indicates how, by what means this is achieved (form). The leading, determining role belongs to the content. It becomes a certain phenomenon of life, conscious and aesthetically comprehended by the artist in the process of creative work. The category of artistic form in the visual arts includes: plot, composition, type, drawing, color structure, volume, spatiality, light and shadow construction, etc. It should be noted that artistic merit works are directly dependent on how professionally prepared the artist is in using forms of expression. Without practical mastery of the culture of using color, it is impossible to express the figurative content by means of painting in a certain material.

Comparison - a method for determining proportions, tonal and color relationships, etc. Properties and qualities are recognized by our consciousness through comparison. You can understand the nature of the shape of an object, determine its tone and color only by comparing it with other objects. In order to depict nature truthfully, the artist must create in the sketch differences in objects in size, tone and color that are proportional to nature. It is only by the method of comparison (with a complete perception of nature) that one can determine in nature the color relationships between objects and convey them on canvas or paper.

Stylization - 1) deliberate imitation of an artistic style, characteristic of any author, genre, movement, for the art and culture of a certain social environment, nationalities, eras. Usually involves a free interpretation of the content and style of the art that served as the prototype; 2) in fine arts and mainly in decorative arts and design, generalization of depicted figures and objects using conventional techniques; stylization is especially characteristic of ornament, where it turns the image object into a pattern motif.

Style - 1) the commonality of ideological and artistic features of works of art of a certain era. The emergence and change of styles is determined by the course of historical development of society (for example, classicism, baroque, etc.); 2) national characteristics of art (Chinese, Moorish style, etc.). They also talk about the style of a group of artists or one artist, if their work is distinguished by bright individual features.

Dry brush - in painting and graphics, an auxiliary technical technique consisting of working with hard brushes that are weakly saturated with paint. As an independent technique, dry brushing is used mainly in decorative arts.

Sfumato - in painting and graphics, a term associated with the painting of the Italian Renaissance starting with Leonardo da Vinci and meaning the softness of execution, the elusiveness of object outlines as a result of a certain artistic approach.

Plot - 1) a specific event or phenomenon depicted in the picture. The same theme can be explored in many stories; 2) sometimes a plot is understood as any object of living nature or the objective world taken for depiction. Often the plot replaces the concept of motive underlying the work (especially a landscape).

Creative process (creativity) - the process of creating a work of art, starting from the origin of an imaginative concept to its implementation, the process of translating observations of reality into an artistic image. In painting, creativity lies in creating a work in directly reliable visible forms.

Subject - a circle of phenomena chosen by the artist to depict and reveal the idea of ​​the work.

Tempera paints - water-based adhesive paints prepared from dry powders mixed with egg yolk diluted with adhesive water. Currently, semi-liquid paints are also produced, enclosed in tubes and prepared with yolk, whole egg or an emulsion of vegetable oil with egg and glue. With tempera paints you can paint thickly, like oil paints, and thinly, like watercolors, diluting them with water. They dry slower than gouache. The disadvantage is the difference in shades of wet and dried paint. Paintings painted with tempera paints have a matte surface, so they are sometimes coated with a special varnish that eliminates this dullness.

Shadow - element of chiaroscuro, the most dimly lit areas in nature and in the image. A distinction is made between natural and falling shadows. Proper shadows are those that belong to the object itself. Falling are shadows cast by the body on surrounding objects.

Warm and cool colors . Warm colors are conventionally associated with the color of fire, sun, incandescent objects: red, red-orange, yellow-green. Cool colors are associated with the color of water, ice and other cold objects: green-blue, blue, blue-blue, blue-violet. These qualities of color are relative and depend on the location of another color nearby. Ultramarine, for example, is cold on its own, but next to Prussian blue it will be warm, and red kraplak will seem colder than red cinnabar.

The color appearance of visible nature always contains both warm and cold shades. This warm-coldness of shades is based primarily on natural color contrasts in light and shadow. In nature, it often happens that the colors of objects are cold, and their shadows are warm, and vice versa. The phenomenon of coldness is also facilitated by the so-called contrasting visual perception of colors: from the presence of a warm color in the perceived nature, the impression of a cold color appears on the retina of the eyes, although this is not the case in nature. Warmth and coldness in painting is a natural phenomenon and an integral quality of a pictorial depiction of a sketch of nature or a painting.

Technique - in the field of art: a set of special skills and techniques through which a work of art is performed. The concept of “technique” in the narrow sense of the word usually corresponds to the direct, immediate result of the artist’s work with a special material and tool, the ability to use the artistic capabilities of this material; in a broader sense, this concept also covers the corresponding elements of a pictorial nature - the transfer of the materiality of objects, the sculpting of a three-dimensional form, the modeling of spatial relationships, etc. Without exception, all technical means must lead to a known, at least modest, artistic result.

The technical means of art do not remain neutral in relation to the content. The main features of realistic technique are determined primarily by its subordination to the ideological and figurative structure of the work.

Tpainting technique - see oil painting, watercolor, gouache, tempera, glue painting, pastel, encaustic, fresco, mosaic.

Tone (unaccompanied by the word “color”) - in the terminology of artists, it is equivalent to the concept of lightness of color (paint). Any chromatic or achromatic color may have different lightness. One can say about the tone within a single color, such as red, “a light tone of red paint” or “a dark tone of paint.” Sometimes the term “tone” is used in relation to color, for example “golden tone of a panel”, “brown tone of a painting”. Artists often use the term “lightness” or “aperture” of color instead of the term “tone” of a color.

Key - a term denoting the external features of color or light and shade in works of painting and graphics. It is more commonly used in relation to color and coincides with the term “color range”.

Tonal and color scale of the image . The transfer of tonal and color relationships proportional to nature can be carried out in different ranges of lightness and saturation of colors in the palette. This depends on the general state of the intensity of illumination of nature and on its distance from the painter. To convey this state, before starting each work from nature, the artist first finds out what kind of light and color strength the light and bright spots of nature will be in the sketch. The artist can take the lightest and most saturated objects in natural color in a sketch either with the full strength of the light and bright colors of the palette, or only with half of their capabilities. This is how the tonal and color scale of the image is maintained, in which the tonal and color relationships of the objects in the full-scale setting are reflected.

Tone image - an image with different tonal transitions from light to shadow, that is, with areas that have different strength tones. A typical example of a tone image is a photograph, oil or watercolor drawing in one color (grisaille), as well as a pencil drawing made using shading.

Tonal relationships . Recognition of the three-dimensional form of objects and their material occurs in our consciousness on the basis of visual perception of their light relationships. Therefore, the artist must reproduce the light relationships of the drawing using the method of similarity. Through gradations of light and shade on a volumetric form and the transfer of tonal relationships proportional to nature between the coloring (material) of objects, the artist achieves a true volumetric modeling of form, expression of materiality, spatial depth and state of illumination (tonal drawing, painting using the grisaille technique).

Texture - characteristic features of the surface of objects made of various materials, both in kind and in the image (relief of the paint layer of strokes). The texture can be smooth, rough, embossed. The texture of the letter largely depends on the properties of the colorful material, on the characteristics of the natural object that the artist depicts, as well as on the task and the material of execution. In watercolor, texture largely depends on the surface of the paper. The individual handwriting of the artist is revealed in the texture of the letter.

Fas (full face) - front side, front view. This term indicates that the model (a person's head or object) is positioned frontally, parallel to the plane of the picture.

Background - any medium or plane located behind the image object.

Form - 1) appearance, outline; assumes the presence of volume, structure, proportions; 2) in fine arts, artistic form is artistic means used to create an image and reveal content (see content and form).

Formalism - a general designation for numerous*>1X anti-realistic schools and trends in the fine arts: cubism, futurism, constructivism, surrealism, suprematism, purism, dadaism, abstract art, pop art, etc. All these types of formalism are based on the unnatural separation of art form from content, on the recognition of the independence and independence of form, erroneously claiming to create works of art through various combinations of “pure” lines or colors. A formalistic image grossly distorts reality, loses the ability to visually understand the world, and sometimes turns into meaningless, charlatan experiments.

Format - the shape of the plane on which the image is made. It is conditioned general outlines nature, the ratio of height to width. The choice of format depends on the content and matches the composition of the image. For a figurative structure, format is essential.

Fresco - the most important technical type of monumental painting, using lime as the main binder.

Color in painting. Color in general is the property of objects to evoke a certain visual sensation in accordance with the spectral composition of reflected rays. In everyday life, each item or object is assigned one specific color. This color is called subject or local (grass is green, sky is blue, sea water is blue, etc.). Beginning painters, as a rule, have a predominant vision of color, which leads to amateurish coloring. In a pictorial sense, it is possible to correctly depict an object only if one conveys not the object’s color, but the color changed by lighting and the environment. The color of an object changes as the intensity of light increases and decreases. It also varies depending on the spectral composition of the lighting. The environment in which the object is located also reflects color rays, which, when they hit the surface of other objects, form color reflections on them. The color also changes due to contrast interaction. Thus, the color of an object is always a mosaic composed of color and light-and-shadow spots (reflexes and highlights), and in this case it is called not objective, but conditional. This color is one of the main visual means of realistic painting.

It is generally accepted that color itself can have some effects on a person. Sometimes people think that dark and light colors create a cheerful mood; gray and black cause a feeling of despondency, etc. Research and experiments are being conducted in psychology on this subject, but certain patterns in this matter have not yet been identified. The painter does not use the above color values. He does not have a general rule for the emotional impact of color on “different occasions.” It is absolutely not necessary to paint a picture in a dark or harsh coloring if its theme is tragic or sad, and for joyful subjects a bright color is not necessary. For example, the plots of Surikov’s paintings “Menshikov in Berezovo” and “Boyarina Morozova” are dedicated to the tragic fate of people strong will and beliefs. The coloring of the first picture is dominated by dark tones. The second painting is based on rich color combinations of plein air painting of a winter landscape, bright clothes crowds, festive “carpet” coloring. The nature of the natural subject and the state of illumination determined the coloring of these works. Thus, the color of the picture is created by a system of color relationships aimed at depicting real life conditions and settings. Color is a means of depicting the three-dimensional form of an object, its materiality, spatial qualities, the coloristic state of illumination of nature, and only by thus revealing the semantic content of the picture does it have the necessary emotional impact.

Color unity and affinity of paints. The color of lighting, its spectral composition, accordingly influences the various colors of objects and objects of nature, subordinating them to a certain range. The result is a coloristic unity of colors. A truthful reflection of these qualities makes a sketch from life especially truthful and harmonious in terms of painting.

Color relationships - differences in natural colors by hue (shade), lightness and saturation. In nature, color is always perceived in relation to the colors around it, with which it is in strict interaction and dependence. Therefore, the color relationships of the sketch should be conveyed in proportion to the color relationships of nature. This is the law of the coloristic transfer of colors of visible nature onto the range of colors of the palette; it is determined by the psychophysiology of our visual perception and thinking.

Image Integrity - the result of working from nature using the method of relationships (comparisons) with a holistic vision of nature, as a result of which the artist gets rid of such shortcomings of a drawing or sketch as fragmentation and variegation.

Integrity of perception - the artist’s ability to see objects from nature at the same time, all at once. Only as a result of integral visual perception can one correctly determine the proportions of objects, tonal and color relationships and achieve the integrity of the image of a full-scale production. The integrity of perception lies in the professional ability to see and the “positioning of the eye” of the artist.

There are a number of tips on how to practically perceive nature as a whole: 1) at the moment of observation, when determining color relationships, squint or “open” your eyes to the whole nature, 2) P. P. Chistyakov advised “mentally have in front of you, as it were, flat glass, it gives relationships”, 3) R. Falk, for the integrity of the vision, recommended cutting a rectangular hole (2X1 cm) in a piece of cardboard and looking at nature in the plane of this window (the eye receives a holistic pictorial structure of the basic color relationships of nature, similar to a mosaic of precious stones) ; 4) you can also perceive nature holistically and understand its color relationships using a “black mirror” (if you paint one side of transparent glass with black paint, you will get a mirror in which, in bright sunlight, you can view landscape objects in reduced brightness. In such a mirror, objects reflected in one plane in a reduced form, they can be seen all at the same time.This will allow you to more accurately capture the tonal and color relationships of nature).

Exterior (as opposed to interior) - a depiction of the exterior of a building.

Encaustic - wax painting is a currently rarely used type of painting technique, based on the use of wax as a binder. The best method of wax painting in terms of results and durability is antique encaustic. Its advantages lie in the exceptional qualities of specially prepared wax, which is almost unaffected by time or dampness, never cracks and retains its color unchanged.

Sketch - a preparatory sketch of a sketch or painting. In the process of working from life, sketches are used as auxiliary material; They develop options for compositions of a sheet of paper or canvas. Sketches are made both in the form of quick pencil sketches and in the material.

Etude - an auxiliary image of limited size, made from life for the sake of its careful study. Through the sketch, the artist improves his professional skills. The main goal of sketch work always remains the truthful and living embodiment of the pictorial concept, the creation of a picture. In realistic art, the sketch always plays a supporting role.

Etude is the result of an overestimation of the role of the sketch, it inevitably leads to an impoverishment of ideological and figurative content. It is generally accepted that sketching is generated by impressionism, which limits the painter’s activities to cursory work from life, replacing the sketch with a painting.

Purkine effect - change in the relative brightness of colors as lighting increases or decreases. For example, during the day the relative brightness of red and yellow appears strong, and at dusk - green and blue. The point here is that during the day, in normal lighting, our eye sees through some cells of the retina, the so-called cones, and in very weak light, through others - rods. Cones are more sensitive to yellow and red, while rods are more sensitive to blue-green. Leonardo da Vinci also noted: “Green and blue enhance their colors in partial shade, while red and yellow gain color in the most illuminated places.”

In the process of the development of fine art, genres of painting were also formed. If in the pictures cavemen If one could only see what surrounded them, then over time the painting became more and more multifaceted and acquired a broader meaning. Artists conveyed their vision of the world in paintings. Historians identify the following genres of painting that have formed throughout the history of this art.

. The name comes from the Latin word animal, which means animal. This genre includes paintings in which animals are the center.

Allegorical genre. Allegoria means "allegory". Such paintings contain a secret meaning. By depicting symbols, people, living or mythical creatures, the artist tries to convey a particular idea.

Battle genre. Image of battles, battles, military campaigns. These paintings are characterized by versatility and the presence of many characters.

Epic and mythological genres. The subjects of works of folklore, themes of ancient legends, epics and ancient Greek myths were depicted.

Depiction of simple scenes from everyday life. This genre is characterized by simplicity and realism.

Vanitas. The genre originated in the Baroque era. This is a kind of still life, in the center of which there is always a skull. Artists tried to draw a parallel with the frailty of all things.

Veduta. The birthplace of this genre is Venice. It represents a city panorama, respecting architectural forms and proportions.

Image of the interior decoration of the premises.

Hippo genre. The name speaks for itself. These are paintings dedicated to horses.

Historical genre. Canvases depicting historical events. A multifaceted and important genre of painting.

Capriccio. Fantasy architectural landscape.

The name is of French origin, and means that in the center of the image is an inanimate object. Artists depicted mainly flowers, household items, and household utensils.

Nude. Nude image human body. Initially, this genre was closely related to the mythological and historical genre.

Blende. Genre in which artists used special moves, in order to create an illusion.

Pastoral. A genre that elevates simple rural life to a different hypostasis, embellishing it and deifying it.

A genre in which the canvas depicts pictures of nature. This is a voluminous direction that includes a city landscape, seascape, and other similar themes.

. In the center of the picture is an image of a man. The artist uses techniques to convey not only the external appearance, but also the inner world of his hero. The portrait can be group, individual, or formal. You can also highlight a self-portrait, in which the artist depicts himself.

Religious genre. This includes other paintings on religious themes.

Caricature. A genre whose purpose is to emphasize certain personality shortcomings through comic effect. For this, exaggeration, distortion of facial features and proportions, symbolism and elements of the fantastic are used.

Genres of painting can merge and interact closely with each other. Some genres lose relevance over time, but many, on the contrary, continue to develop along with life.

GENRES OF PAINTING (French genre - genus, type) - a historically established division of works of painting in accordance with the themes and objects of the image.

Although the concept of “genre” appeared in painting relatively recently, certain genre differences have existed since ancient times: images of animals in Paleolithic caves, portraitsAncient Egyptand Mesopotamia from 3 thousand BC, landscapes and still lifes in Hellenistic and Roman mosaics and frescoes. The formation of the genre as a system in easel painting began in Europe in the 15th–16th centuries. and ended mainly in the 17th century, when, in addition to the division of fine art into genres, the concept of the so-called appeared. “high” and “low” genres depending on the subject of the image, theme, plot. The “high” genre included historical and mythological genres, and the “low” genre included portrait, landscape, and still life. This gradation of genres lasted until the 19th century. although with exceptions.

So, in the 17th century. in Holland, it was the “low” genres that became leading in painting (landscape, everyday life, still life), but the ceremonial portrait, which formally belonged to the “low” genre of portraiture, did not belong to that. Having become a form of displaying life, the genres of painting, with all their stability, common features are not immutable, they develop along with life, changing as art develops. Some genres die out or acquire a new meaning (for example, the mythological genre), new ones arise, usually within previously existing ones (for example, within the landscape genre architectural landscape And marina). Works appear that combine various genres (for example, a combination of an everyday genre with a landscape, a group portrait with a historical genre).

SELF-PORTRAIT(from the French autoportrait) - a portrait of oneself. Usually this refers to a pictorial image; however, self-portraits can also be sculptural, literary, cinematic, photographic, etc.

Rembrandt "Self-Portrait".

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - the expression of abstract ideas with the help of specific artistic images. Example: “justice” is a woman with scales.

Moretto da Brescia "Allegory of Faith"

ANIMAL(from Latin animal - animal) - a genre associated with the depiction of animals in painting, sculpture and graphics.

D. Stubbs. Mares and foals in a landscape by the river. 1763-1768

BATTLE(from the French bataille - battle) - dedicated to the depiction of military actions and military life.

Averyanov Alexander Yurievich. href="http://www.realartist.ru/names/averyanov/30/">Waterloo.

DOMESTIC- associated with the depiction of a person’s daily life.

Nikolai Dmitrievich DMITRIEV-ORENBURG (1837-1898). Fire in the village

GALLANT- “courteous, polite, courteous, courteous, interesting” is outdated. associated with the depiction of exquisite lyrical scenes from the life of court ladies and gentlemen in artistic works mainly of the 18th century.

Gerard ter Borch the Younger. Gallant soldier.

HISTORICAL- one of the main genres of fine art, dedicated to historical events of the past and present, socially significant phenomena in the history of peoples.

Pavel Ryzhenko. Victory of Peresvet.

CARICATURE- a genre of fine art that uses the means of satire and humor, grotesque, caricature, an image in which a comic effect is created by exaggeration and sharpening of characteristic features. A caricature ridicules a character's flaw or depravity in order to attract him and the people around him, in order to force him to change for the better.

MYTHOLOGICAL- dedicated to events and heroes about which myths tell. Gods, demiurges, heroes, demons, mythical creatures, historical and mythological characters. In the 19th century, the mythological genre served as the norm for high, ideal art.

Alexander Ivanov. Bellerophon sets out on a campaign against the Chimera.

STILL LIFE- a genre of fine art, images of inanimate objects placed in a real everyday environment and organized into a specific group; a painting depicting household items, flowers, fruits, game, caught fish, etc.

Aenvanck Theodoor

Nude(naked) - artistic genre in sculpture, painting, photography and cinema, depicting the beauty of the naked human body, mainly female.

Venus of Urbino, Titian

PASTORAL(French pastorale - pastoral, rural) - a genre in literature, painting, music and theater, depicting the idyllic life of shepherds and shepherdesses in nature.

SCENERY(French paysage, from pays - country, area), is a genre dedicated to the depiction of any area: rivers, mountains, fields, forests, rural or urban landscapes.

Href="http://solsand.com/wiki/doku.php?id=ostade&DokuWiki=7593bff333e2d137d17806744c6dbf83" >Adriana van Ostade

PORTRAIT(French portrait, “to reproduce something feature by feature”) is a genre of fine art dedicated to the depiction of a person or group of people; varieties - self-portrait, group portrait, ceremonial, chamber, costume portrait, portrait miniature.

Borovikovsky V. “Portrait of M. I. Lopukhina”

THEMATIC PICTURE- definition of a peculiar crossing of traditional genres of painting, which contributed to the creation of large-scale works on socially significant themes with a clearly defined plot, plot action, and multi-figure composition. Briefly: - mixing traditional genres of painting: everyday life, history, battle, compositional portrait, landscape, etc.

Robert, Hubert - Inspection of the old church

CARTOON or FRIENDLY CARTOON(French charge) - a humorous or satirical image in which the characteristic features of the model are changed and emphasized within the normal limits, with the aim of making fun, and not humiliating and insulting as is usually done in caricatures.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

INTRODUCTION

1. TYPES OF PAINTING

2. PAINTING AND ITS GENRES

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The word “painting” is derived from the words “vividly” and “write”. “To paint,” explains Dahl, “to depict faithfully and vividly with a brush or words, a pen.” For the painter, depicting correctly means accurately conveying the external appearance of what he saw and its most important features. It was possible to convey them correctly using graphic means - line and tone. But it is impossible to convey vividly with these limited means the multicolor of the surrounding world, the pulsation of life in every centimeter of the colored surface of an object, the charm of this life and constant movement and change. Painting, one of the types of fine art, helps to truthfully reflect the color of the real world.

Color is the main visual and means of expression in painting - has tone, saturation and lightness; it seems to fuse into a whole everything characteristic of an object: both what can be depicted by a line and what is inaccessible to it.

Painting, like graphics, uses light and dark lines, strokes and spots, but unlike it, these lines, strokes and spots are colored. They convey the color of a light source through glare and brightly lit surfaces, sculpt a three-dimensional form with subject (local) color and color reflected by the environment, establish spatial relationships and depth, and depict the texture and materiality of objects.

The task of painting is not only to show something, but also to reveal the inner essence of what is depicted, to reproduce “typical characters in typical circumstances.” Therefore, a truthful artistic generalization of the phenomena of life is the basis of the foundations of realistic painting.

1. TYPES OF PAINTING

Monumental painting is a special type of large-scale paintings that decorate the walls and ceilings of architectural structures. It reveals the content of major social phenomena that have had a positive impact on the development of society, glorifies them and perpetuates them, helping to educate people in the spirit of patriotism, progress and humanity. The sublimity of the content of monumental painting, the significant size of its works, and the connection with architecture require large color masses, strict simplicity and laconicism of composition, clarity of contours and generality of plastic form.

Decorative painting used to decorate buildings and interiors in the form of colorful panels, which with realistic images create the illusion of breaking through the wall, visually increasing the size of the room, or, on the contrary, using deliberately flattened forms, they assert the flatness of the wall and the enclosure of the space. Patterns, wreaths, garlands and other types of decor that adorn works of monumental painting and sculpture tie together all the elements of the interior, emphasizing their beauty and consistency with the architecture.

Theatrical and decorative painting(scenery, costumes, makeup, props, made according to the artist’s sketches) helps to further reveal the content of the performance. The special theatrical conditions for perceiving the scenery require taking into account multiple points of view of the audience, their great distance, the influence of artificial lighting and colored backlights. The scenery gives an idea of ​​the place and time of the action, and activates the viewer’s perception of what is happening on stage. The theater artist strives to acutely express the individual character of the characters, their social status, the style of the era, and much more in sketches of costumes and makeup.

Miniature painting received great development in the Middle Ages, before the invention of printing. Handwritten books were decorated with the finest headpieces, endings, and detailed miniature illustrations. Russian artists of the first half of the 19th century skillfully used the miniature painting technique to create small (mainly watercolor) portraits. Pure deep watercolor colors, their exquisite combinations, and the exquisite fineness of the writing distinguish these portraits, full of grace and nobility.

Easel painting, performed on a machine - an easel, uses wood, cardboard, paper as a material basis, but most often canvas stretched on a stretcher. An easel painting, being an independent work, can depict absolutely everything: factual and fictional by the artist, inanimate objects and people, modernity and history - in a word, life in all its manifestations. Unlike graphics, easel painting has a richness of color, which helps emotionally, psychologically, multifacetedly and subtly convey the beauty of the world around us.

According to technique and means of execution, painting is divided into oil, tempera, fresco, wax, mosaic, stained glass, watercolor, gouache, pastel. These names were derived from the binder or from the method of using material and technical means.

Oil painting done with paint rubbed off on vegetable oils. Thick paint thins out when oil or special thinners and varnishes are added to it. Oil paint You can work on canvas, wood, cardboard, paper, metal.

Tempera painting is done with paint prepared with egg yolk or casein. Tempera paint is dissolved with water and applied paste or liquid onto the wall, canvas, paper, wood. In Rus', tempera was used to create wall paintings, icons and patterns on everyday objects. Nowadays, tempera is used in painting and graphics, in decorative and applied arts and in artistic design.

Fresco painting decorates interiors in the form of monumental and decorative compositions applied to wet plaster with water-based paints. The fresco has a pleasant matte surface and is durable in indoor conditions.

Wax painting(encaustic) was also used by artists of Ancient Egypt, as evidenced by the famous “Fayum portraits” (1st century AD). Binder Bleached wax is used in encaustic painting. Wax paints are applied in a molten state to a heated base, after which they are burned.

Mosaic painting, or mosaic, is assembled from individual pieces of smalt or colored stones and fixed on a special cement primer. Transparent smalt, inserted into the ground at different angles, reflects or refracts light, causing the color to flare and shimmer. Mosaic panels can be found in the subway, in theater and museum interiors, etc. Stained glass painting is a work of decorative art intended to decorate window openings in any architectural structure. Stained glass is made from pieces of colored glass held together by a strong metal frame. The luminous flux, breaking through the colored surface of the stained glass window, draws decoratively spectacular, multi-colored patterns on the floor and walls of the interior.

2. PAINTING AND ITS GENRES

Genres of painting (French genre - genus, type) are a historically established division of works of painting in accordance with the themes and objects of the image. In modern painting there are the following genres: portrait, historical, mythological, battle, everyday, landscape, still life, animalistic genre.

Although the concept of “genre” appeared in painting relatively recently, certain genre differences have existed since ancient times: images of animals in caves of the Paleolithic era, portraits of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from 3 thousand BC, landscapes and still lifes in Hellenistic and Roman mosaics and frescoes. The formation of the genre as a system in easel painting began in Europe in the 15th-15th centuries. and ended mainly in the 17th century, when, in addition to the division of fine art into genres, the concept of “high” and “low” genres appeared, depending on the subject of the image, theme, plot.

The “high” genre included historical and mythological genres, and the “low” genre included portrait, landscape, and still life. This gradation of genres existed until the 19th century. Thus, in the 17th century in Holland, it was precisely the “low” genres that became leading in painting (landscape, everyday life, still life), but the ceremonial portrait, which formally belonged to the “low” genre of portraiture, did not belong to such.

Having become a form of displaying life, genres of painting, despite the stability of their general features, are not immutable; they develop along with life, changing as art develops. Some genres die out or take on a new meaning (for example, the mythological genre), new ones arise, usually within previously existing ones (for example, an architectural landscape and a marina appeared within the landscape genre). Works appear that combine various genres (for example, a combination of an everyday genre with a landscape, a group portrait with a historical genre).

A genre of fine art that reflects the external and internal appearance of a person or group of people is called portrait. This genre is widespread not only in painting, but also in sculpture, graphics, etc. The main requirements for a portrait are the transfer of external resemblance and disclosure inner world, the essence of human character. Based on the nature of the image, two main groups are distinguished: ceremonial and chamber portraits. A ceremonial portrait shows a person in full growth (on a horse, standing or sitting), against an architectural or landscape background. A chamber portrait uses a half-length or chest-length image against a neutral background. Self-portrait stands out in a special group - the artist’s depiction of himself.

Portrait is one of the oldest genres of fine art; initially it had a cult purpose and was identified with the soul of the deceased. In the ancient world, portraiture developed more in sculpture, as well as in painting portraits - Fayyum portraits of the 1st - 3rd centuries. In the Middle Ages, the concept of a portrait was replaced by generalized images, although in frescoes, mosaics, icons, and miniatures there were some individual features in the depiction of historical figures. Late Gothic and Renaissance is a rapid period of development of the portrait, when the formation of the portrait genre takes place, reaching the heights of humanistic faith in man and understanding of his spiritual life.

A genre of fine art dedicated to historical events and characters is called historical genre. The historical genre, which is characterized by monumentality, has been developing for a long time in wall painting. From the Renaissance to the 19th century. artists used subjects from ancient mythology and Christian legends. Often real historical events depicted in the picture were saturated with mythological or biblical allegorical characters.

The historical genre is intertwined with others - the everyday genre (historical and everyday scenes), the portrait (depictions of historical figures of the past, portrait-historical compositions), landscape ("historical landscape"), and merges with the battle genre.

The historical genre is embodied in easel and monumental forms, in miniatures, and illustrations. Originating in ancient times, the historical genre combined real historical events with myths. In countries Ancient East There were even types of symbolic compositions (the apotheosis of the monarch’s military victories, the transfer of power to him by a deity) and narrative cycles of paintings and reliefs. IN Ancient Greece there were sculptures historical heroes, in Ancient Rome reliefs were created with scenes of military campaigns and triumphs.

In the Middle Ages in Europe, historical events were reflected in miniature chronicles and icons. The historical genre in easel painting began to take shape in Europe during the Renaissance, in the 17th - 18th centuries. it was considered as a “high” genre, highlighting (religious, mythological, allegorical, historical subjects).

Paintings of the historical genre were filled with dramatic content, high aesthetic ideals, and the depth of human relationships.

A genre of fine art dedicated to the heroes and events that the myths of ancient peoples tell about is called mythological genre(from Greek mythos - legend). The mythological genre comes into contact with the historical and takes shape during the Renaissance, when ancient legends provided rich opportunities for the embodiment of stories and characters with complex ethical, often allegorical overtones. In the 17th century -- beginning In the 19th century, in works of the mythological genre, the range of moral and aesthetic problems expanded, which were embodied in high artistic ideals and either came closer to life or created a festive spectacle. From the 19th - 20th centuries. Themes of Germanic, Celtic, Indian, and Slavic myths became popular.

Battle genre(from the French bataille - battle) is a genre of painting that is part of the historical, mythological genre and specializes in depicting battles, military exploits, military operations, glorifying military valor, the fury of battle, and the triumph of victory. The battle genre may include elements of other genres - domestic, portrait, landscape, animalistic, still life.

A genre of fine art that shows scenes of a person’s everyday, personal life, everyday life from peasant and urban life is called everyday genre. Appeals to the life and morals of people are already found in the paintings and reliefs of the Ancient East, in ancient vase painting and sculpture, in medieval icons and books of hours. But the everyday genre stood out and acquired characteristic forms only as a phenomenon of secular easel art. Its main features began to take shape in the 14th - 15th centuries. V altar paintings, reliefs, tapestries, miniatures in the Netherlands, Germany, France. In the 16th century in the Netherlands, the everyday genre began to develop rapidly and became isolated. One of its founders was Hieronymus Bosch.

The development of the everyday genre in Europe is greatly influenced by big influence The work of Pieter Bruegel had an impact: he moves to a pure everyday genre, shows that everyday life can be an object of study and a source of beauty. The 17th century can be called the century of the everyday genre in all painting schools in Europe.

In the 18th century in France, genre painting is associated with the depiction of gallant scenes, “pastorals”, and becomes refined and graceful, ironic. Works of the everyday genre were varied: they showed the warmth of home life and the exoticism of distant countries, sentimental experiences and romantic passions. The everyday genre, focused on showing peasant life and the life of a city dweller, developed vividly in Russian painting of the 19th century: for example, in the works of A.G. Venetsianov, P.A. Fedotov, V.G. Perov, I.E. Repin.

The genre of fine art, where the main thing is the depiction of nature, the environment, views of the countryside, cities, historical monuments, is called landscape(French paysage). There are rural, urban, architectural, industrial, sea (marina) and river landscapes.

In antiquity and the Middle Ages, landscapes appear in paintings of temples, palaces, icons and miniatures. In European art, the Venetian painters of the Renaissance were the first to turn to the depiction of nature. From the 16th century landscape becomes an independent genre, its varieties and directions are formed: lyrical, heroic, documentary landscape. In the 19th century the creative discoveries of landscape masters, the saturation of it with social issues, the development of plein air (depiction of the natural environment) culminated in the achievements of impressionism, which gave new opportunities in the pictorial transmission of spatial depth, the variability of the light-air environment, and the complexity of the color scheme.

A genre of fine art that shows objects of everyday use, labor, creativity, flowers, fruits, killed game, caught fish, placed in a real everyday environment, is called still life(French nature morte - dead nature). A still life can be endowed with a complex symbolic meaning and play a role decorative panel, be the so-called “trick”, which gives an illusory reproduction of real objects or figures that evoke the effect of the presence of a genuine nature.

The depiction of objects is known in the art of antiquity and the Middle Ages. But the first still life in easel painting is considered to be the painting by the artist from Venice Jacopo de Barbari “Partridge with an arrow and gloves.” Already in the 16th century, still life was divided into many types: a kitchen interior with or without people, a set table in a rural setting, “vanitas” with symbolic objects (a vase of flowers, an extinguished candle, musical instruments). The Dutch still life was especially rich, modest in color and in the things depicted, but exquisite in the expressive texture of objects, in the play of color and light.

A genre of fine art showing animals is called animalistic genre(from lat. animal - animal). The animal artist pays attention to the artistic and figurative characteristics of the animal, its habits, the decorative expressiveness of the figure and silhouette. Often animals are endowed with traits, actions and experiences inherent in humans. Images of animals are often found in ancient sculpture and vase painting.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, let's summarize the above:

Painting is divided into monumental, decorative, theatrical and decorative, miniature and easel.

According to technique and means of execution, painting is divided into oil, tempera, fresco, wax, mosaic, stained glass, watercolor, gouache, pastel.

In modern painting there are the following genres: portrait, historical, mythological, battle, everyday, landscape, still life, animalistic genre.

Historical painting is images of certain historical moments, as well as figures public life of the past.

Battle painting aims to capture battles, battles and wars. Mythological painting depicts events described in myths, epics and legends.

Everyday (genre) painting is a depiction of scenes of real life, its realities and attributes.

Landscape (landscape) painting is an image of natural nature or any area.

Portraiture is an artistic depiction of a person. A specific type of portrait is a self-portrait.

A still life is an image of various inanimate objects, for example, fruits, flowers, household items, utensils, placed in a real everyday environment and compositionally organized into a single group.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Batrakova SP Artist of the 20th century. and the language of painting. M., 1996.

2. Whipper B.R. An introduction to the historical study of art. M., Fine Arts, 1985

3. Western art of the 20th century. Classical heritage and modernity. M, 1992.

4. History of foreign art. M., Fine Arts, 1984

5. History of world art. 3rd edition, Publishing House "Academy", M., 1998.

6. From constructivism to surrealism. M., 1996.

7. Polyakov V.V. History of world art. Fine arts and architecture of the 20th century. M., 1993.

8. Sadokhin A.P. Culturology: theory and history of culture: Tutorial. -- M.: Eksmo, 2007.

9. Contemporary Western art. XX century: problems and trends. M., 1982.

10. Suzdalev P. About the genres of painting. // Creativity, 2004, No. 2, 3. P. 45-49.

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The number of styles and trends is huge, if not infinite. Styles in art do not have clear boundaries; they smoothly transform into one another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. Within the framework of one historical artistic style, a new one is always born, and that, in turn, passes into the next. Many styles coexist at the same time and therefore there are no “pure styles” at all.

Abstractionism (from Latin abstractio - removal, distraction) - an artistic direction in art that abandoned the depiction of forms close to reality.

Avant-garde, avant-garde (from the French avant-garde - vanguard) - the general name of artistic movements in the art of the 20th century, which are characterized by the search for new forms and means of artistic display, underestimation or complete denial of traditions and the absolutization of innovation.

Academicism (from the French academisme) - a direction in European painting of the 16th-19th centuries. It was based on dogmatic adherence to the external forms of classical art. Followers characterized this style as a reflection on the art form of the ancient ancient world and the Renaissance. Academicism complemented the traditions of ancient art, in which the image of nature was idealized, while compensating for the norm of beauty. Annibale, Agostino and Lodovico Carracci wrote in this style.

Actionism (from the English action art - the art of action) - happening, performance, event, process art, demonstration art and a number of other forms that emerged in the avant-garde art of the 1960s. In accordance with the ideology of actionism, the artist must organize events and processes. Actionism seeks to blur the line between art and reality.

Empire style (from the French empire - empire) - a style in architecture and decorative arts that arose in France at the beginning of the 19th century, during the period of the First Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte. Empire style is the finale of the development of classicism. To embody majesty, sophistication, luxury, power and military strength, the Empire style is characterized by an appeal to ancient art: ancient Egyptian decorative forms (military trophies, winged sphinxes...), Etruscan vases, Pompeian painting, Greek and Roman decor, Renaissance frescoes and ornaments. The main representative of this style was J.L. David (paintings "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784), "Brutus" (1789))

underground (from the English underground - underground, dungeon) - a number of artistic movements in contemporary art that contrast themselves with mass culture and the mainstream. The underground rejects and violates socially accepted political, moral and ethical orientations and types of behavior, introducing antisocial behavior into everyday life. During the Soviet period, due to the strictness of the regime, almost everything unofficial, i.e. not recognized by the authorities, art turned out to be underground.

Art Nouveau (from the French art nouveau, literally - new art) is the name of the Art Nouveau style common in many countries (Belgium, France, England, USA, etc.). The most famous artist of this style of painting: Alphonse Mucha.

Art Deco (from French art deco, abbreviated from decoratif) - a direction in art in the mid-20th century, which marked the synthesis of avant-garde and neoclassicism, replaced constructivism. Distinctive features of this trend: fatigue, geometric lines, luxury, chic, expensive materials (ivory, crocodile skin). The most famous artist of this movement is Tamara de Lempicka (1898-1980).

Baroque (from Italian barocco - strange, bizarre or from Port. perola barroca - irregularly shaped pearl, there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - an artistic style in the art of the late Renaissance. Distinctive features of this style: exaggerated sizes, broken lines, abundance of decorative details, heaviness and colossality.

Renaissance, or Renaissance (from French renaissance, Italian rinascimento) is an era in the history of European culture, which replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. The approximate chronological framework of the era is XIV-XVI centuries. Distinctive feature Renaissance - the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in man and his activities). Interest in ancient culture appears, its “revival,” as it were, occurs - and this is how the term appeared. While painting pictures of traditional religious themes, artists began to use new artistic techniques: building a three-dimensional composition, using a landscape in the background, which allowed them to make the images more realistic and animated. This sharply distinguished their work from the previous iconographic tradition, replete with conventions in the image. Most famous artists this period: Sandro Botticelli (1447-1515), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), Titian (1477-1576), Antonio Correggio (1489-1534) , Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516), Albrecht Durer (1471-1528).

Woodland (from English - forest land) is a style of art that originates in the symbolism of rock paintings, myths and legends of North American Indians.

Gothic (from Italian gotico - unusual, barbaric) is a period in the development of medieval art, covering almost all areas of culture and developing in the Western, Central and partly of Eastern Europe from XII to XV centuries. Gothic completed the development of European medieval art, arising on the basis of the achievements of Romanesque culture, and during the Renaissance, medieval art was considered “barbaric.” Gothic art was cultic in purpose and religious in theme. It addressed the highest divine powers, eternity, and the Christian worldview. Gothic in its development is divided into Early Gothic, Heyday, Late Gothic.

Impressionism (from the French impression - impression) is a direction in European painting that originated in France in the mid-19th century, the main goal of which was to convey fleeting, changeable impressions.

Kitsch, kitsch (from German kitsch - bad taste) is a term denoting one of the most odious phenomena of mass culture, a synonym for pseudo-art, in which the main attention is paid to the extravagance of the external appearance, the loudness of its elements. In essence, kitsch is a type of postmodernism. Kitsch is mass art for the elite. A work that belongs to kitsch must be made at a high artistic level, it must have a fascinating plot, but this is not a real work of art in the high sense, but a skillful fake of it. Kitsch may contain deep psychological conflicts, but there are no genuine artistic discoveries and revelations.

Classicism (from the Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style in art, the basis of which was an appeal, as an ideal aesthetic standard, to the images and forms of ancient art and the Renaissance, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules and canons.

Cosmism (from the Greek kosmos - organized world, kosma - decoration) is an artistic and philosophical worldview based on knowledge of the Cosmos and the idea of ​​a person as a citizen of the World, as well as a microcosm similar to the Macrocosm. Cosmism is associated with astronomical knowledge about the Universe.

Cubism (from the French cube - cube) is a modernist movement in art that depicted objects of reality decomposed into simple geometric shapes.

Lettrism (from the English letter - letter, message) is a trend in modernism based on the use of images similar to font, unreadable text, as well as compositions based on letters and text.

Metarealism, metaphysical realism (from the Greek meta - between and gealis - material, real) is a direction in art, the main idea of ​​which is to express superconsciousness, the superphysical nature of things.

Minimalism (derived from the English minimal art - minimal art) is an artistic movement based on the minimal transformation of materials used in the creative process, simplicity and uniformity of forms, monochrome, and creative self-restraint of the artist. Minimalism is characterized by a rejection of subjectivity, representation, and illusionism. Rejecting classic techniques and traditional art materials, minimalists use industrial and natural materials of simple geometric shapes and neutral colors (black, gray), small volumes, and use serial, conveyor methods of industrial production.

Art Nouveau (derived from the French moderne - newest, modern) is an artistic style in art in which the features of the art of different eras are reinterpreted and stylized using artistic techniques based on the principles of asymmetry, ornamentation and decorativeness.

Neoplasticism is one of the early varieties of abstract art. Created in 1917 by the Dutch painter P. Mondrian and other artists who were members of the “Style” association. Neoplasticism is characterized, according to its creators, by the desire for “universal harmony,” expressed in strictly balanced combinations of large rectangular figures, clearly separated by perpendicular lines of black and painted in local colors of the main spectrum (with the addition of white and gray tones).

Primitivism, naive art, naive - a style of painting in which the picture is deliberately simplified, its forms are made primitive, like folk art, the work of a child or primitive man.

Op art (from the English optical art - optical art) is a neo-avant-garde direction in fine art, in which the effects of spatial movement, merging and “floating” of forms are achieved by introducing sharp color and tonal contrasts, rhythmic repetitions, the intersection of spiral and lattice configurations, writhing lines.

Orientalism (from Latin oriens - east) is a movement in European art that uses themes, symbolism and motifs of the East and Indochina

Orphism (from the French orphisme, from Orp?ee - Orpheus) is a movement in French painting in the 1910s. Name given in 1912 French poet Apollinaire painting by artist Robert Delaunay. Orphism is associated with Cubism, Futurism and Expressionism. The main features of painting in this style are aestheticism, plasticity, rhythm, grace of silhouettes and lines.
Masters of Orphism: Robert Delaunay, Sonia Turk-Delaunay, Frantisek Kupka, Francis Picabia, Vladimir Baranov-Rossinet, Fernand Léger, Morgan Russell.

Pop art (from the English pop - abrupt sound, light cotton) is a neo-avant-garde movement in fine art, in which the reality is typical objects of modern urbanized life, examples of mass culture and the entire artificial material environment surrounding humans.

Postmodernism (from the French postmodernisme - after modernism) is a new artistic style that differs from modernism in a return to the beauty of secondary reality, narrative, appeal to plot, melody, harmony of secondary forms. Postmodernism is characterized by the combination within one work of styles, figurative motifs and artistic techniques borrowed from different eras, regions and subcultures.

Realism (from the Latin gealis - material, real) is a direction in art characterized by the depiction of social, psychological and other phenomena that are as close to reality as possible.

Rococo (derived from the French rococo, rocaille) is a style in art and architecture that originated in France at the beginning of the 18th century. He was distinguished by his grace, lightness, and intimate and flirtatious character. Having replaced the ponderous Baroque, Rococo was both the logical result of its development and its artistic antipode. Rococo is united with the Baroque style by the desire for completeness of forms, however, if Baroque gravitates towards monumental solemnity, then Rococo prefers grace and lightness.

Symbolism (from the French symbolisme - sign, identifying mark) is an artistic movement in art based on the embodiment of the main ideas of a work through the polysemantic and multifaceted associative aesthetics of symbols.

Socialist realism, socialist realism is an artistic movement in art, which is an aesthetic expression of a socialist-conscious concept of the world and man, determined by the era of socialist society.

Hyperrealism, superrealism, photorealism (from the English hyperrealism - super realism) - a direction in art based on an accurate photographic reproduction of reality.

Surrealism (from the French surrealisme - over + realism) is one of the directions of modernism, the main idea of ​​which is to express the subconscious (to combine dream and reality).

Transavantgarde (from Latin trans - through, through and French avantgarde - avant-garde) is one of the modern trends of postmodernism, which arose as a reaction to conceptualism and pop art. Trans-avant-garde embraces the mixing and transformation of styles born in the avant-garde, such as cubism, fauvism, futurism, expressionism, etc.

Expressionism (derived from the French expression - expressiveness) is a modernist movement in art that considers the image of the external world only as a means of expressing the subjective states of the author.