Table history figure of the early renaissance. High Renaissance

The history of the Renaissance begins in This period is also called the Renaissance. The Renaissance changed into culture and became the forerunner of the culture of the New Age. And the Renaissance ended in the 16th-17th centuries, since in each state it has its own start and end date.

Some general information

Representatives of the Renaissance are Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio. They became the first poets who began to express sublime images and thoughts in frank, common language. This innovation was received with a bang and spread in other countries.

Renaissance and art

The peculiarity of the Renaissance is that the human body became the main source of inspiration and subject of study for artists of this time. Thus, the emphasis was placed on the similarity of sculpture and painting with reality. The main features of the art of the Renaissance period include radiance, refined use of the brush, the play of shadow and light, care in the work process and complex compositions. For Renaissance artists, the main images were from the Bible and myths.

In resemblance real person with his image on this or that canvas was so close that the fictional character seemed alive. This cannot be said about the art of the twentieth century.

The Renaissance (its main trends are briefly outlined above) perceived the human body as an endless beginning. Scientists and artists regularly improved their skills and knowledge by studying the bodies of individuals. The prevailing view then was that man was created in the likeness and image of God. This statement reflected physical perfection. The main and important objects of Renaissance art were the gods.

Nature and beauty of the human body

Renaissance art paid great attention to nature. A characteristic element of the landscapes was varied and lush vegetation. The blue-blue skies that permeated Sun rays that penetrated the clouds white, were a magnificent backdrop for the floating creatures. Renaissance art revered the beauty of the human body. This feature was manifested in the refined elements of the muscles and body. Difficult postures, facial expressions and gestures, coherent and clear color palette characteristic of the work of sculptors and sculptors of the Renaissance period. These include Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt and others.

Renaissance- an era in the history of culture and art that reflected the beginning of the transition from feudalism to capitalism. In classical forms, the Renaissance took shape in Western Europe, primarily in Italy, but similar processes took place in Eastern Europe and Asia. In every country this type culture had its own characteristics associated with its ethnic characteristics, specific traditions, influence of others national cultures. The revival is associated with the process of formation of secular culture and humanistic consciousness. Under similar conditions, similar processes developed in art, philosophy, science, morality, social psychology and ideology. Italian humanists of the 15th century focused on the revival of ancient culture, ideological and aesthetic principles which were recognized as an ideal, worthy of emulation. In other countries, such an orientation towards the ancient heritage may not have existed, but the essence of the process of human liberation and the affirmation of strength, intelligence, beauty, personal freedom, the unity of man and nature are characteristic of all cultures of the Renaissance type.

The main feature of the Renaissance is integrity and versatility in the understanding of man, life and culture. The sharp increase in the authority of art did not lead to its opposition to science and craft, but was perceived as equal value and equality various forms human activity. During this era, applied arts and architecture reached a high level, combining artistic creativity with technical design and craft. The peculiarity of Renaissance art is that it has a pronounced democratic and realistic character, with man and nature at its center. Beauty, harmony, grace are considered as properties of the real world.

Early Renaissance( Petrarch, Boccaccio, Donatello, Botticelli, Giotto)

High Renaissance ( Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Francois Rabelais)

In the 16th century in Italy, Renaissance art entered its peak phase. The art of Italy at this time is complex and contradictory. At this time, the highest rise of art, based on the traditions of humanistic culture, took place. And at the same time, new artistic phenomena arise, expressing the collapse of humanistic ideals, giving rise to mannerism, which is spreading in many European countries.
Late Renaissance— crisis of humanism (Shakespeare, Cervantes). The features of a crisis have emerged. In Western Europe, this was reflected in the emergence of academicism and mannerism in the fine arts, in the attack of religiosity and mysticism on secular and humanistic culture. A gap has emerged between art and science, beauty and benefit, between the spiritual and physical life of a person. The humanism of the late Renaissance was enriched by an awareness of the contradictory nature of life and a tragic worldview.

Early Renaissance

The Renaissance is considered a transitional period from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age. During this period, changes occur in economic and cultural life. The first rudiments of capitalist industry appeared, banking and international trade developed. At this time, a scientific picture of the world was formed, experimental natural science was born, and the heliocentric system was substantiated by the greatest scientists of the era, N. Copernicus, G. Bruno, and G. Galileo. In addition, new lands are being discovered and the first round the world travel Columbus, Magellan.

IN different countries Renaissance culture develops at different rates. In Italy, the Renaissance dates back to the XIV-XVI centuries, in other countries - to the XV-XVI centuries. The highest point in the development of Renaissance culture occurred in the 16th century - the High, or Classical, Renaissance, when the Renaissance spread to other European countries.

Unite different cultures European peoples ideas of humanism. The principle of humanism, i.e. higher cultural and moral development human abilities, most fully expresses the main focus European culture XIV-XVI centuries The ideas of humanism capture all layers of society - merchant circles, religious spheres, masses. A new secular intelligentsia is emerging. Humanism affirms faith in limitless possibilities person. Thanks to humanists, freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities, and a bold critical spirit come to spiritual culture. The personality, powerful and beautiful, becomes the center of the ideological sphere.

The first hymn to human dignity was “The Divine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri - a work that combined poetry, philosophy, theology, science, imbued with faith in the earthly destiny of man. Dante's younger contemporary, Francesco Petrarca, a philosopher and lyric poet, is considered the founder of the humanistic movement in Italy. In the works of Italian humanists there is main idea that man is the creator of his destiny and himself, as, for example, in Pico della Mirandola’s essay “On the Dignity of Man.” According to humanists, a person has freedom of action, he himself controls fate and society, making rational choices.

During the heyday of humanism, science, poetry, architecture, and fine arts reached an unprecedented scale. Many rulers became patrons of the arts. These people often combined the features of monstrous villains and subtle connoisseurs of beauty; good and evil intertwined in the most bizarre way during the Renaissance.

An important feature of the Renaissance culture was the appeal to the ancient heritage. The ancient ideal of man, the understanding of beauty as harmony and proportion, the realistic language of plastic arts, in contrast to medieval symbolism, were revived. Artists, sculptors and poets of the Renaissance were attracted to the subjects of ancient mythology and history, and ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The invention of printing played a major role in the dissemination of ancient heritage.

Renaissance culture was influenced by medieval culture with its long history and strong traditions, but humanists criticized the culture of the Middle Ages, considering it barbaric; During the Renaissance, a huge number of works appeared directed against the church and its ministers. At the same time, the Renaissance was not a completely secular culture. Some figures wanted to reconcile Christianity with antiquity or create a new, unified religion, rethink it. The art of the Renaissance was a unique synthesis of ancient physical beauty and Christian spirituality.

Renaissance culture originated in Italy. The Italian Renaissance is divided into four stages: Proto-Renaissance (Pre-Renaissance) - the second half of the 13th - 14th centuries; Early Renaissance - XV century; High Renaissance - end of the 15th - first third of the 16th century; Late Renaissance - end of the 16th century.

The Proto-Renaissance, or trecento, is closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Romanesque, Gothic, and Byzantine traditions; it was a preparation for the Renaissance. The beginning of a new era is associated with the name of Giotto di Bondone, whom Renaissance artists considered a reformer of painting. Giotto outlined the path along which its development took place: filling religious forms secular content, a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and relief ones, an increase in realism. The largest art schools in Italy were located in Pisa and Siena. The work of Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano largely determined further development Italian art. At the same time, it emerges national literature on Italian. The greatest poet of this era, Dante, preserved traces of medieval poetry in his work and combined them with Renaissance realistic images. In the works of the poet Francesco Petrarch and the founder of Italian literary prose Giovanni Boccaccio's humanistic, Renaissance features triumph over the Middle Ages. Main content literary works becomes a description of the earthly real world, a person with his experiences and passions.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Renaissance in Italy finally defeated the Gothic style. The emergence of a powerful outbreak Renaissance culture in Florence entailed the renewal of the entire Italian artistic culture. The work of the greatest masters of the Early Renaissance, or Quattrocento - Donatello, Masaccio, Botticelli - is imbued with the ideals of humanism, it raises a person above the level of everyday life, exalting him.

The 15th century was a turning point in the history of European culture. Almost simultaneously, artists in Italy and the Netherlands turned to the image earthly world and began to affirm the ethical value and beauty of man. The real world and the bodily nature of man required a reliable depiction of space and filling it with figures and objects. The development of art in this era closely interacts with the growth scientific knowledge. From that time on, the art of Italy acquired a realistic orientation and a life-affirming secular character, which constituted the most important feature of the Renaissance. Early Renaissance artists used the ancient heritage more widely and creatively. The desire to understand the world encourages artists to study it, which helps expand their horizons, liberate art from the narrowness of a guild craft and create auxiliary disciplines. Artists of this time discover laws linear perspective. At the same time, the Renaissance style took shape in architecture, which was influenced by ancient, Gothic and Byzantine culture. Construction technology is being improved, Renaissance architects design buildings and often carry out the construction themselves; they are often sculptors, decorators, and painters.

The first half of the 15th century is characterized as the beginning of the Renaissance in music. At this time, the Renaissance ideal of harmony and beauty, the norms of the so-called strict style, was formed. In music, as in other forms of art, there is an increasing tendency to depict the diversity of the world, and the idea of ​​diversity is combined with the desire for harmony and proportionality of all elements of the whole. A rethink is underway. social status music - a democratic public appears, amateur music-making spreads widely. The role of secular genres is increasing, and interest in the art of dance is emerging.

New art, which triumphed at the beginning of the 15th century. in Florence, does not immediately gain recognition in other areas of the country. In northern Italy, Gothic style dominated for a long time, gradually being replaced by the Renaissance. Florence at this time was the center of Italian humanism. In the middle of the 15th century, the Platonic Academy was founded here, which established a continuous connection between the Renaissance and antiquity.

High Renaissance

The masters of the High Renaissance sought to achieve a harmonious synthesis of the most beautiful aspects of reality in their works. The formation of High Renaissance art began at the end of the 15th century in Florence. The first artist of the High Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci - an artist-scientist, a painter who tried his hand at architecture and sculpture, a mathematician, a natural scientist, a mechanic, and an inventor. He was an explorer and innovator in all his endeavors and left his mark on the history of science and technology, in many ways ahead of his time. From the very beginning creative activity Leonardo identified the main features of his art - interest in psychological solutions, the desire for brevity and generalization, for the spatial arrangement and volume of forms. The artist paid great attention to the development of perspective construction and arrangement of figures in space. The notes he left about painting contain a lot of information on anatomy, perspective, and the interaction of colors. Leonardo's theoretical works were not published during his lifetime, but many of his ideas became famous and influenced the work of a number of artists. Another famous artist The High Renaissance, Raphael, synthesized the achievements of his predecessors and created the image of a perfect man in the traditions of humanism. Raphael's works have much in common with the work of his great contemporaries - Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Michelangelo in his work reflected the deep contradictions of his time, embodied the anxiety and foreboding of impending catastrophes. The Venetian school occupied Italian art XVI century special place. Here Giorgione stood at the origins of the High Renaissance. In his work, he strove for rhythm and harmonious unity, spirituality and psychological expressiveness of images; the main motive of his paintings was the unity of man and nature. Giorgione Titian continued the work, whose works are characterized by an earthly, cheerful feeling. In his work, great importance is attached to color and color relationships. Great place Titian's work is dominated by portraits, in which he sought to create an image that corresponded to humanistic ideals and to reveal the spiritual appearance of man. Titian applied new painting techniques that had a significant impact on the development of European art.

The literature of the High Renaissance is characterized by the flourishing of the heroic poem of L. Pulci in Italy, L. Camões in Spain, in the center of which is a man born for great deeds. In France, the High Renaissance period is represented by the work of Francois Rabelais. His work “Gargantua and Pantagruel” gives a comprehensive picture of society and its heroic ideals in folk fairy-tale and philosophical-comic form.

In the music of the High Renaissance, new genres appeared - madrigal, chanson, villancico; Instrumental music—canzones, ricercars, improvisational pieces—preludes, fantasies, toccatas—acquired independence. The formation of national music schools- Dutch (Josquin Depres, Guillaume Dufay), Italian (Palestrina, Gesualdo), French (C. Janequin), German, English, Spanish, etc.

During the period when Italy entered its highest stage of prosperity, the Northern Renaissance began. The art of the Northern Renaissance has more of a medieval worldview, religious feeling, symbolism; it is more conventional in form, more archaic, and less familiar with antiquity. Philosophical basis The Northern Renaissance was pantheism, which dissolved God in nature and endowed it with divine attributes. Pantheists believed that every piece of nature is worthy of depiction, since it contains a piece of God. This led to the emergence of landscape as an independent genre. At the same time, the portrait genre emerged. If in the Italian Renaissance the aesthetic side came to the fore, then in the Northern Renaissance the ethical side came to the fore. German artists believed that spiritual beauty was more important than physical beauty.

Late Renaissance. Crisis of Humanism

The later Renaissance is characterized by a crisis in the idea of ​​humanism and an awareness of the prosaic nature of the emerging bourgeois society. The disappointment of humanists comes from the enormous discrepancy between reality and Renaissance ideas about man. By the end of the 16th century. this disappointment has become widespread. The crisis of humanism matured gradually, arising in its depths. Humanistic aspiration was expressed in results that were unexpected for the humanists themselves. So, in the first half of the 16th century. Copernicus's work on the heliocentric system is published. The earth has ceased to be the center of the universe. The man became small and lost in the endless universe.

The crisis of humanism was also expressed in the creation of utopias. The first utopians T. More and T. Campanella were humanists. Utopian ideas arose as a reaction to the contradictions and inconsistencies of humanism, its inability to answer the questions that worried humanists. Utopia - after the name of the country invented by T. More - is a fantastic structure of an ideal society that has no roots in reality. The appearance of utopias indicates a loss of trust in history and human nature. Utopians deny man creative beginning, limiting its existence to primary needs.

In art Western Europe features of the crisis of humanism affected the emergence of academicism and mannerism. A gap has emerged between art and science, beauty and benefit, between the spiritual and physical life of a person. Already in the 20-30s. In the 16th century, along with the Renaissance, new phenomena emerged in the art of Italy. The discord between humanistic ideals and reality gave rise to disbelief in the possibility of harmonious development of the individual. A number of artists refused classical principles to search for new means of expression. The works of these artists violated the principles of balance and harmony characteristic of the art of the High Renaissance. This direction was called mannerism. It was finally formed by the middle of the 16th century. Mature mannerism is characterized by the desire to isolate itself from life, to place art above reality. The new ideal of grace is based on arbitrary norms of aesthetic taste. Deprived of high ideological content, characteristic of art Renaissance, the art of Mannerist artists became not only too cutesy, but also cold and inexpressive. In the second half of the 16th century, mannerism spread to all European art; only the Venetian school, which remained faithful to the traditions of the Renaissance and its humanistic principles, did not succumb to its influence, however, it also abandoned heroism and turned to the depiction of real living people and their environment. A large place in Venetian art was occupied by landscape, portrait, crowd scenes. The largest representatives of the Venetian school are Veronese and Tintoretto. Veronese's paintings are distinguished by the sophistication of colorful combinations, the dynamism and boldness of the composition, most of them are characterized by cheerfulness and elation. In the last decades of the 16th century, the crisis of Renaissance humanism also influenced the Venetian school. This is noticeable in Tintoretto’s work, which combines realism with mannerist sophistication of forms.

The Italian Renaissance influenced the art of Spain. Spanish artists adopted a lot from the Italians, but mannerism turned out to be closer in spirit to them than the Renaissance. From the middle of the 16th century. this direction was supplanted by court art. Most famous spanish artist the second half of the 16th century - El Greco, whose work is closer to the Venetian school. He became the last major representative of European mannerism.

In the art of the Netherlands of the 16th century. development occurred gradually, new features were combined with old ones. One of the directions in Dutch painting- “Romanism” - an appeal to the art of Italy, influenced by both the Renaissance and Mannerism. In the second half of the 16th century, the genre of portraiture developed in the Netherlands, and its new variety took shape - the group portrait. Everyday painting stands out as an independent genre. The greatest artist of the Netherlands is Pieter Bruegel, whose art is national in form and content. Bruegel vividly reflects contemporary life.

Italian Renaissance art also influenced German culture. German artists became familiar with the achievements of the Renaissance and mastered the scientific foundations of art. For German art XVI V. Characterized by the expansion of themes, mastery of the image of space and the human body. Among the artists of Germany of the 16th century, Albrecht Dürer stands out, a painter and engraver who left treatises on the theory of art. Dürer, in addition to painting and graphics, was also involved in the natural and exact sciences, embodying the Renaissance type of artist-scientist. Other major German artists of that time were Lucas Cranach and Hans Holbein.

The highest rise of literature Late Renaissance- Shakespeare's dramas and Cervantes' novels. The most famous work of Cervantes was the novel “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha,” in which the writer gave a wide realistic picture life in Spain. "Don Quixote" parodies chivalric romances, introducing the hero into an environment alien to him. The romantically minded hidalgo is unable to understand that the time of chivalry has passed. The drama of the unlucky knight is close to Cervantes, who, like a significant part of the Spanish nobility of that time, could not adapt to new living conditions and felt his worthlessness. Other works of Cervantes, for example, “Edifying Novels,” became a kind of description of the author’s contemporary morals.

In creativity greatest playwright In this era of Shakespeare, the crisis of humanism found a particularly vivid embodiment in the image of Hamlet, who is torn between humanistic ideals and the need to act in a far from ideal society, where any action is contrary to the spirit of humanism. Shakespeare's work was an expression of the wealth of ideas and passions that arose during a turning point. The literature of this period refers to the earthly nature of man, his feelings and passions, and the struggle for real interests. New identity, proactive and enterprising, comes to the fore in it. Shakespeare's historical dramas recreate the most tragic moments English history and imbued with thoughts of the greatness of England. Shakespeare's works reflected the contradictions of consciousness, doubts and hesitations of a turning point.

Music at the end of the 16th century underwent the same changes as other forms of art. The music of this period is often referred to as mannerism. At the same time, musical genres are further developing. In the second half of the century, the genres of opera and ballet appeared. A major role in the formation of opera was played by C. Monteverdi, who developed the traditions of Renaissance music and strove for the unity of dramatic and musical beginnings. Another major composer of the late 16th century, O. Lasso, combined Dutch, German, French and Italian in his compositions musical culture. The humanistic features of the Renaissance were reflected in the work of the head of the Roman school, J. Palestrina.

Art of Italy in the 16th century. is still experiencing its heyday, but in the second half of the century the artist ceases to feel like a divine creator. The collision of the humanistic ideal with reality causes deep disappointment. Humanists began to consider their ideas about man not from the point of view of eternity, but in specific life situations, and then their humanism, having undergone radical changes and transformations, became a worldview of a completely non-Renaissance type.

Conclusion

Art during the Renaissance was the main type of spiritual activity. There were almost no people indifferent to art. Works of art most fully express both the ideal of a harmonious world and the place of man in it. All types of art are subordinated to this task to varying degrees.

The main stages and genres of Renaissance literature are associated with the evolution of humanistic concepts during the Early, High and Late Renaissance. The literature of the Early Renaissance is characterized by a short story, especially a comic one, glorifying an enterprising and free from prejudices personality. The High Renaissance was marked by the flowering of the heroic poem. During the Late Renaissance, the genres of novel and drama developed, based on tragic and tragicomic conflicts between a heroic personality and an unworthy system of social life.

The progressive humanistic content of Renaissance culture is clearly expressed in theatrical art, which is significantly influenced by ancient drama. He is characterized by an interest in the inner world of a person endowed with a bright individuality. In the theater of the Renaissance, the traditions of folk art developed, combining tragic and comic elements, as in the theater of Italy, Spain, and England. In the 16th century, improvisational commedia dell'arte developed in Italy. The theatrical art of the Renaissance reached its greatest flowering in the works of Shakespeare.

Professional music in the Renaissance is imbued with a new humanistic worldview, ceases to be a purely church art and is influenced by folk music. Various genres of secular musical art appeared - frottala and villanella in Italy, villancico in Spain, ballad in England, madrigal, which spread from Italy to all European countries. New genres are emerging instrumental music, extend national schools performance on the organ, lute. The Renaissance was completed by the emergence of new musical genres - solo songs, opera, oratorios.

The ideals of the Renaissance were most fully expressed by architecture, sculpture, and painting, and painting during this period came to the fore, pushing aside architecture. This is explained by the fact that painting had more opportunities to display the real world, its beauty, richness and diversity.

A characteristic feature of Renaissance culture is the close connection between science and art. Artists, trying to most fully reflect all natural forms, turn to scientific knowledge. A new system of artistic vision of the world is being developed. Renaissance artists developed the principles of linear perspective. This discovery helped to expand the range of depicted phenomena, to include landscape and architecture in the pictorial space, turning the picture into a kind of window into the world. The combination of scientist and artist in one creative personality was possible only in the Renaissance. The Titans of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarotti, Raphael Santi, Albrecht Durer, the greatest artist-scientists, embodied the characteristic features of the Renaissance - universality, versatility, creative talent. During the Renaissance, new styles and trends emerged and developed, which largely determined the heyday of modern culture, and its further development.

FRANCESCO PETRARCA(1304-1374) - ancestor Italian Renaissance, great poet and thinker, political figure. Coming from a Popolan family in Florence, he spent many years in Avignon under the papal curia, and the rest of his life in Italy. Petrarch traveled a lot around Europe, was close to popes and sovereigns. His political goals: reform of the church, ending wars, unity of Italy. Petrarch was an expert in ancient philosophy; he is credited with collecting manuscripts of ancient authors and processing them textologically.

Petrarch developed humanistic ideas not only in his brilliant, innovative poetry, but also in Latin prose works - treatises, numerous letters, including his main epistolary, “The Book of Everyday Affairs.”

It is customary to say about Francesco Petrarca that he is more focused on himself than anyone else - at least in his time. That he was not only the first “individualist” of the New Age, but much more than that - an amazingly complete egocentric.

In the works of the thinker, the theocentric systems of the Middle Ages were replaced by the anthropocentrism of Renaissance humanism. Petrarch's “discovery of man” provided an opportunity for a deeper knowledge of man in science, literature, and art.

LEONARDO DA VINCI ( 1454-1519) - brilliant Italian artist, sculptor, scientist, engineer. Born in Anchiano, near the village of Vinci; his father was a notary who moved to Florence in 1469. Leonardo's first teacher was Andrea Verrocchio.

Leonardo's interest in man and nature speaks of his close connection with humanistic culture. He considered man's creative abilities to be limitless. Leonardo was one of the first to substantiate the idea of ​​the cognizability of the world through reason and sensations, which firmly entered the ideas of thinkers of the 16th century. He himself said about himself: “I would comprehend all the secrets by getting to the essence!”

Leonardo's research covered a wide range of problems in mathematics, physics, astronomy, botany, and other sciences. His numerous inventions were based on a deep study of nature and the laws of its development. He was also an innovator in the theory of painting. The highest manifestation Leonardo saw creativity in the activity of an artist who scientifically comprehends the world and reproduces it on canvas. The thinker’s contribution to Renaissance aesthetics can be judged by his “Book on Painting.” He was the embodiment of the “universal man” created by the Renaissance.

NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI(1469-1527) - Italian thinker, diplomat, historian. After the restoration in Florence, the Medici authorities were removed from government activities. In 1513-1520 he was in exile. This period includes the creation of the most significant works Machiavelli - “The Prince”, “Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy”, “History of Florence”, which earned him European fame. Machiavelli's political ideal was the Roman Republic, in which he saw the embodiment of the idea of ​​a strong state, the people of which “are far superior to the sovereigns in both virtue and glory.” (“Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy”). The ideas of N. Machiavelli had a very significant influence on the development of political doctrines.

THOMAS MOP(1478-1535) - English humanist, writer, statesman.

Born into the family of a London lawyer, he was educated at Oxford University, where he joined the circle of Oxford humanists. Under Henry VIII he held a number of high government positions. His meeting and friendship with Erasmus of Rotterdam was very important for the formation and development of More as a humanist. He was accused of treason and executed on July 6, 1535.

The most famous work of Thomas More is “Utopia,” which reflects the author’s passion for ancient Greek literature and philosophy, and the influence of Christian thought, in particular Augustine’s treatise “On the City of God,” and also traces an ideological connection with Erasmus of Rotterdam, whose humanistic ideal was in is close to More in many ways. His ideas had a strong impact on public thought.

ERASMUS OF ROTTERDAM(1469-1536) - one of the most outstanding representatives of European humanism and the most versatile of the then scientists.

Erasmus, the illegitimate son of a poor parish priest, his early years spent in the Augustinian monastery, which he managed to leave in 1493. He studied the works of Italian humanists and scientific literature with great enthusiasm, and became a major expert in Greek and Latin.

Erasmus's most famous work is the satire “Praise of Folly” (1509), modeled on Lucian, which was written in just one week in the house of Thomas More. Erasmus of Rotterdam tried to synthesize the cultural traditions of antiquity and early Christianity. He believed in the natural goodness of man and wanted people to be guided by the demands of reason; among the spiritual values ​​of Erasmus are freedom of spirit, temperance, education, simplicity.

THOMAS MUNZER(c. 1490-1525) - German theologian and ideologist of the early Reformation and Peasant War 1524-1526 in Germany.

The son of a craftsman, Münzer was educated at the universities of Leipzig and Frankfurt an der Oder, from where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in theology, and became a preacher. He was influenced by mystics, Anabaptists and Hussites. In the early years of the Reformation, Münzer was an adherent and supporter of Luther. He then developed his doctrine of the popular Reformation.

In Münzer's understanding, the main tasks of the Reformation were not to establish a new church dogma or a new form of religiosity, but to proclaim an imminent socio-political revolution, which should be carried out by the mass of peasants and the urban poor. Thomas Munzer strove for a republic of equal citizens, in which people would ensure that justice and law prevailed.

For Münzer, Holy Scripture was subject to free interpretation in the context of contemporary events, an interpretation that directly addressed the spiritual experience of the reader.

Thomas Münzer was captured after the defeat of the rebels in an unequal battle on May 15, 1525 and, after brutal torture, executed.

Conclusion
Concluding the consideration of the philosophical quests of the Renaissance, it is necessary to note the ambiguity of assessments of its heritage. Despite the general recognition of the uniqueness of Renaissance culture as a whole, this period for a long time was not considered original in the development of philosophy and, therefore, worthy of being singled out as an independent stage of philosophical thought. However, the duality and inconsistency of philosophical thinking of this time should not detract from its significance for the subsequent development of philosophy, nor call into question the merits of Renaissance thinkers in overcoming medieval scholasticism and creating the foundations of modern philosophy.

The most important discovery of the Renaissance was the discovery of man. In antiquity, the sense of gender was not conducive to the development of individuality. Stoicism, by promoting the idea of ​​personality and responsibility, and Christianity, by insisting on the real existence of the soul lying outside the sphere and jurisdiction of worldly power, created a new concept of personality. But the social system of the Middle Ages, built on status and custom, discouraged the individual, emphasizing the importance of class and group.

The Renaissance went beyond the moral principles of stoicism and the spiritual uniqueness of Christianity and saw man in the flesh - man in his relationship to himself, to society, to the world. Man became the center of the Universe instead of God. Many countries participated in the Renaissance, but from beginning to end Italy had the largest share. Italy never broke with antiquity; the dead weight of uniformity did not oppress it as in other countries. Public life was in full swing here, despite wars and invasions, and the city-states of Italy were islands of republicanism among a sea of ​​European monarchies. Leadership in international trade and finance has made Italian cities rich and created conditions for the flourishing of sciences and arts.

Renaissance figures formulated new views on social life. Biblical stories about the heavenly life of Adam and Eve, about the life of Jews in the Promised Land, and the teachings of Augustine (Aurelius) about the church as the kingdom of God on earth no longer suited anyone. The Renaissance figures tried to portray the society that people needed without any mention of the Bible or the teachings of the Holy Fathers. For them, the leaders of the Renaissance, society is a necessary environment for human life. It is not in heaven, not a gift from God, but on earth and the result of human efforts. In their opinion, society, firstly, should be built taking into account human nature; secondly - for all people; thirdly, this is a society of the distant future. The greatest influence on the history of philosophical thought and on historical destinies European peoples had the influence of the teachings of the Renaissance on their government. This is their teaching about the monarchy and the communist system. The first of them was the ideological basis for the later established Absolutism, and the second contributed to the creation of various kinds of communist theories, including Marxist communism.

This concludes our review of the vast history of philosophical thought of the Renaissance. On the foundation of this thought, over the course of one and a half to two centuries, a whole galaxy of unique and great philosophers grew up, including John Locke and Niccolo Machiavelli.

Table No. 1. Philosophy of the Renaissance.

In the consciousness of modern man, the Renaissance is associated, first of all, with unprecedented takeoff visual arts , with names" Titans of the Renaissance", not only created unsurpassed masterpieces, but also established in culture ideal of a creative person― a titanic, versatile and multifaceted personality, competing with God himself in his creativity (in ancient greek mythology Titans - a generation of powerful gods - ancestors and rivals of the Olympian gods).

Thus, it is through art and artistic creativity that the Renaissance man awakens within himself the hitherto dormant potential that was actively suppressed by medieval ideas about the sinful and base nature of man, which was fully revealed in the culture of modern times.

· The beginning of a new realistic concept in art in the era Proto-Renaissance put by the Italian painter Giotto di Bondone , whose heroes, being biblical characters, already differ from the disembodied images of medieval art. Giotto's main achievement was a completely new sense of personality, the affirmation of high moral principles. This was especially evident in his fresco “The Kiss of Judas”.

· The founding fathers of art Early Renaissance, it is generally accepted: in painting - Masaccio , in sculpture - Donatello, in architecture - Brunelleschi , who belonged to the Florentine school of art.

At the forefront of creativity Masaccio ― depiction of human psychology, the embodiment of life’s humanistic ideals in traditional religious scenes. In the fresco “Expulsion from Paradise,” the master was able to convey not only the movement of the naked figures of Adam and Eve, pursued by an angel, but also the confusion and fear that gripped them when they left Paradise. A similar interpretation of the religious theme European painting I didn't know yet.

Creation Donatello dates back to the time of the final overcoming of the traditions of medieval Gothic and the establishment of a new style. Altar compositions, reliefs on bronze doors, tombs, round sculpture - there is, perhaps, no area of ​​sculpture to which Donatello would not have made a significant contribution. He was the first sculptor since Antiquity who dared to depict the nude human body, sculpting a statue of the young shepherd David.

The founder of the Early Renaissance architectural style is Filippo Brunelleschi . Built according to his design, using extraordinary engineering solutions, the dome of the Florence Cathedral had great social, ideological and artistic significance. Dominating the city's buildings, it was perceived as a monument "rising to the skies", erected to the glory of the city and celebration human mind. Many other buildings created by Brunelleschi transformed the appearance of Florence. With his light hand, forms forgotten since antiquity returned to architecture - arches, domes, graceful colonnades.

Three "titans" of the Early Renaissance were also rule makers direct perspective, which replaced the medieval reverse perspective and gave works of art realism and depth of space.

Thus, during the Early Renaissance, the main features were established Renaissance style in art.

The seeds thrown by the founders of the Renaissance brought a rich harvest - in the second half of the 15th century. local schools are gaining strength in Northern Italy, Umbria, Venice.

Creativity occupied an intermediate position between the Early and High Renaissance Sandro Botticelli, who inspiredly recreated the images of ancient myths. In his most significant paintings "Spring" and "Birth of Venus" Botticelli was inspired not only

Greek mythology, but also works modern poetry, the main theme of which was the appearance of a beautiful woman - the embodiment of unearthly beauty.

Botticelli's art had a great influence on many painters, bearing, at the same time, the imprint of a special individual uniqueness.

· Images from the art of the previous period High Renaissance They differ primarily in their scale. The High Renaissance period lasted only about three decades - from the end of the 15th century. until the 30s of the 16th century, but in its cultural and historical significance, in the grandeur of the artistic values ​​created, it has no equal. In addition, in history there were no more examples of such a number appearing at the same time. brilliant artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael Santi, Giorgione, Titian, Giovanni Bellini ...

A characteristic feature of art in that period is the tendency towards synthesis and generalization - in the works of artists the main place is occupied by collective image an ideally beautiful harmonious person, perfect physically and spiritually.

All Renaissance features were most clearly and concentratedly manifested in the work of the greatest “titan” of the High Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci , whose very personality is a symbol of the power of intelligence and versatility.

Art and science, in his opinion, exist inseparably - these are two sides of the universal process of cognition. As a scientist, Leonardo was distinguished by deep knowledge and extraordinary comprehensiveness. He studied anatomy, the life of animals and plants, mechanics, astronomy, engineering, optics, developed a project for the irrigation system of Lombardy, explored the phenomena of light and sound, designed fortresses and cities, aircraft and underwater vehicles, centuries ahead of the time in which he lived.

Leonardo used all his rich knowledge in artistic creativity, primarily in painting, which he considered " a universal way of understanding the world"He greatly improved the technique of oil painting, achieving particular success in depicting the transition from light to shadow.

Paintings Leonardo da Vinci has survived a little. Some remained unfinished, others were destroyed or damaged, like the famous fresco " The Last Supper" in a monastery in Milan. He conveyed the biblical story, which has attracted artists since ancient times, in an original way with extraordinary realism. Never before has an artist been able to put so many observations of life into this scene human soul like Leonardo did. However, experiments with paints led to the fact that even during the master’s lifetime, the destruction of the brilliant creation began.

Leonardo created the most beautiful spiritual female images. A mysterious smile Mona Lisa(Mona Lisa) and five hundred years later it still excites millions of viewers.

Contemporary of Leonardo Rafael Santi lived a short but extremely fruitful life, leaving behind big number magnificent works, many students and followers. like other “titans” of the Renaissance, Raphael had versatile talents. Following other prominent Renaissance masters, he took part in the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome as an architect.

Raphael's favorite subject was image of Madonna. His brush captured the most spiritual images of the Mother of God in the entire history of Christianity, for which Raphael was called " master of Madonnas"The most famous work of Raphael is " Sistine Madonna", which in its harmony, in its greatness of sacrifice and tragedy was a kind of result and synthesis of the artist’s many years of quest.

considered a masterpiece of monumental art by Raphael frescoes four stanzas (rooms) of the Vatican Palace. One of them, the “School of Athens,” is a gallery of scientists and philosophers of Antiquity. The artist’s outstanding contemporaries served as models for some of them.

The gigantic power of creative genius Michelangelo Buonarroti makes him stand out even among greatest artists that era. In the versatile work of Michelangelo, who created grandiose masterpieces in the field of architecture, sculpture, painting, and poetry, the Renaissance humanistic ideal finds its highest embodiment.

The dome he designed and built, crowning St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, is a truly unique example of engineering.

The famous statue of David by Michelangelo became a symbol of patriotism and heroism of the citizens of his native Florence during the siege by the French army, and the sculptural composition Pietà [lat. mourning] - the most beautiful image of the Mother of God grieving over the body of her dead son.

The ensemble of paintings, grandiose in scale and unsurpassed in skill, is especially striking Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, which the artist completed independently, without anyone’s help (and this despite the fact that he himself considered himself not an artist, but a sculptor!).

The frescoes decorating the vault are filled with scenes from the Bible and contain more than three hundred figures. And the wall fresco “The Last Judgment” is rightfully considered the most convincing image of God’s Judgment over sinful humanity.

It is interesting that at the feet of Christ Michelangelo placed the figure of St. Bartholomew, holding in his left hand the skin flayed alive from him by the persecutors of the first Christians. Michelangelo gave his own features to the face distorted by suffering, which is depicted on the flayed skin, capturing the unbearable mental and physical torment that he experienced while creating his greatest creation.

· Tragic mood of creativity outstanding masters Late Renaissance Titian And Tintoretto becomes understandable in the light of the complex political fate of Italy, which in the 16th century was the object of the struggle between France and Spain.

By this time, Renaissance art was already degenerating into a crisis trend - mannerism[from it. pretentiousness, pretentiousness], with his characteristic religious exaltation, subjectivism, and mannered sophistication of form.

For Europeans, the period of the dark Middle Ages ended, giving way to the Renaissance. It made it possible to revive the almost extinct heritage of Antiquity and create great works of art. Scientists of the Renaissance also played an important role in the development of mankind.

Paradigm

The crisis and destruction of Byzantium led to the appearance of thousands of Christian emigrants in Europe, who brought books with them. These manuscripts contained knowledge of the ancient period, half-forgotten in the west of the continent. They became the basis of humanism, which placed man, his ideas and the desire for freedom at the forefront. Over time, in cities where the role of bankers, artisans, traders and craftsmen increased, secular centers of science and education began to emerge, which not only were not under the authority of the Catholic Church, but often fought against its dictates.

Painting by Giotto (Renaissance)

Artists in the Middle Ages created works of predominantly religious content. In particular, for a long time the main genre of painting was icon painting. The first who decided to depict ordinary people on his canvases, and also to abandon the canonical style of painting inherent in the Byzantine school, was Giotto di Bondone, who is considered a pioneer of the Proto-Renaissance. On the frescoes of the Church of San Francesco, located in the city of Assisi, he used the play of chiaroscuro and departed from the generally accepted compositional structure. However, Giotto's main masterpiece was the painting of the Arena Chapel in Padua. It is interesting that immediately after this order the artist was called to decorate the city hall. While working on one of the paintings, in order to achieve the greatest authenticity in the depiction of the “celestial sign,” Giotto consulted with the astronomer Pietro d’Abano. Thus, thanks to this artist, painting stopped depicting people, objects and natural phenomena according to certain canons and became more realistic.

Leonardo da Vinci

Many figures of the Renaissance had versatile talent. However, none of them can compare with Leonardo da Vinci in his versatility. He distinguished himself as an outstanding painter, architect, sculptor, anatomist, natural scientist and engineer.

In 1466, Leonardo da Vinci went to study in Florence, where, in addition to painting, he studied chemistry and drawing, and also acquired skills in working with metal, leather and plaster.

Already the artist’s first paintings distinguished him among his fellow workers. During his long, at that time, 68-year life, Leonardo da Vinci created such masterpieces as “Mona Lisa”, “John the Baptist”, “Lady with an Ermine”, “The Last Supper”, etc.

Like other prominent figures of the Renaissance, the artist was interested in science and engineering. In particular, it is known that the wheel pistol lock he invented was used until the 19th century. In addition, Leonardo da Vinci created drawings of a parachute, a flying machine, a searchlight, a telescope with two lenses, etc.

Michelangelo

When the question of what the Renaissance figures gave to the world is discussed, the list of their achievements necessarily contains the works of this outstanding architect, artist and sculptor.

Among the most famous creations of Michelangelo Buonarroti are the frescoes of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the statue of David, the sculpture of Bacchus, the marble statue of the Madonna of Bruges, the painting “The Torment of St. Anthony” and many other masterpieces of world art.

Rafael Santi

The artist was born in 1483 and lived only 37 years. However, the great legacy of Raphael Santi puts him at the top of any symbolic rating of “Outstanding Figures of the Renaissance.”

The artist’s masterpieces include “The Coronation of Mary” for the Oddi altar, “Portrait of Pietro Bembo”, “Lady with a Unicorn”, numerous frescoes commissioned for the Stanza della Segnatura, etc.

The pinnacle of Raphael's work is considered to be the "Sistine Madonna", created for the altar of the church of the monastery of St. Sixta in Piacenza. This picture makes an unforgettable impression on anyone who sees it, since the Mary depicted on it in an incomprehensible way combines the earthly and heavenly essences of the Mother of God.

Albrecht Durer

Famous figures of the Renaissance were not only Italian. These include German painter and the master of engravings Albrecht Dürer, who was born in Nuremberg in 1471. His most significant works are the “Landauer Altar”, a self-portrait (1500), the painting “Feast of Rose Wreaths”, and three “Workshop Engravings”. The latter are considered masterpieces of graphic art of all times and peoples.

Titian

The great figures of the Renaissance in the field of painting left us images of their most famous contemporaries. One of the outstanding portrait painters of this period of European art was Titian, who came from famous family Vecellio. He immortalized on canvas Federico Gonzaga, Charles V, Clarissa Strozzi, Pietro Aretino, the architect Giulio Romano and many others. In addition, his brushes include canvases on subjects from ancient mythology. How highly the artist was valued by his contemporaries is evidenced by the fact that one day Emperor Charles V hastened to pick up a brush that had fallen from Titian’s hands. The monarch explained his action by saying that serving such a master is an honor for anyone.

Sandro Botticelli

The artist was born in 1445. Initially, he was going to become a jeweler, but then he ended up in the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio, who once studied with Leonardo da Vinci. Along with works of religious themes, the artist created several paintings of secular content. Botticelli's masterpieces include the paintings "The Birth of Venus", "Spring", "Pallas and the Centaur" and many others.

Dante Alighieri

The great figures of the Renaissance left their indelible mark on world literature. One of the most prominent poets of this period is Dante Alighieri, born in 1265 in Florence. At the age of 37 he was expelled from hometown because of his political views and wandered until the last years of his life.

Even as a child, Dante fell in love with his peer Beatrice Portinari. Having matured, the girl married another man and died at the age of 24. Beatrice became the poet’s muse, and it was to her that he dedicated his works, including the story “New Life.” In 1306, Dante began creating his “Divine Comedy,” which he worked on for almost 15 years. In it, he exposes the vices of Italian society, the crimes of the popes and cardinals, and places his Beatrice in “paradise.”

William Shakespeare

Although the ideas of the Renaissance reached the British Isles with some delay, they were also created there outstanding works art.

In particular, in England he created one of the most famous playwrights in the history of mankind - William Shakespeare. His plays have been performed on theater stages in all corners of the planet for more than 500 years. His pen includes the tragedies “Othello”, “Romeo and Juliet”, “Hamlet”, “Macbeth”, as well as the comedies “Twelfth Night”, “Much Ado About Nothing” and many others. In addition, Shakespeare is famous for his sonnets dedicated to the mysterious Dark Lady.

Leon Battista Alberti

The Renaissance also contributed to changing the appearance of European cities. During this period great architectural masterpieces, including the Roman Cathedral of St. Peter's, the Laurentian staircase, the Florence Cathedral, etc. Along with Michelangelo, the famous scientist Leon Battista Alberti is one of the famous architects of the Renaissance. He made enormous contributions to architecture, art theory and literature. His areas of interest also included problems of pedagogy and ethics, mathematics and cartography. He created one of the first scientific works on architecture, entitled “Ten Books on Architecture.” This work had a huge influence on subsequent generations of his colleagues.

Now you know the most famous cultural figures of the Renaissance, thanks to whom human civilization entered a new stage of its development.