Empirical methods of scientific knowledge. Methods and essence of the empirical level of knowledge

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge:

Empirical level;

Theoretical level.

For the knowledge gained on empirical level , characterized by the fact that they are the result of direct contact with reality in observation or experiment.

Theoretical level represents, as it were, a cross-section of the object under study from a certain angle of view, given by the worldview of the researcher. It is built with a clear focus on explaining objective reality and its main task is to describe, systematize and explain the entire set of data at the empirical level.

The empirical and theoretical levels have a certain autonomy, but they cannot be torn off (separated) from one another.

The theoretical level differs from the empirical level in that it provides a scientific explanation of facts obtained at the empirical level. At this level, specific scientific theories are formed, and it is characterized by the fact that it operates with an intellectually controlled object of cognition, while at the empirical level - with a real object. Its meaning is that it can develop as if on its own, without direct contact with reality.

The empirical and theoretical levels are organically linked. The theoretical level does not exist on its own, but is based on data from the empirical level.

Despite the theoretical load, the empirical level is more stable than the theory, due to the fact that the theories with which the interpretation of empirical data is associated are theories of a different level. Therefore, empirics (practice) is a criterion for the truth of a theory.

The empirical level of cognition is characterized by the use of the following methods for studying objects.

Observation - a system for fixing and registering the properties and connections of the object being studied. The functions of this method are: recording information and preliminary classification of factors.

Experiment- this is a system of cognitive operations that is carried out in relation to objects placed in such conditions (specially created) that should facilitate the detection, comparison, measurement of objective properties, connections, relationships.

Measurement as a method is a system for fixing and recording the quantitative characteristics of the measured object. For economic and social systems, measurement procedures are associated with indicators: statistical, reporting, planning;

Essence descriptions, as a specific method of obtaining empirical knowledge, consists in systematizing data obtained as a result of observation, experiment, and measurement. Data are expressed in the language of a specific science in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs and other symbols. Thanks to the systematization of facts that generalize individual aspects of phenomena, the object being studied is reflected as a whole.

The theoretical level is the highest level of scientific knowledge.

Scheme theoretical level of knowledge can be represented as follows:

Thought experiment and idealization based on the mechanism of transferring the results of practical actions recorded in the object;

Development of knowledge in logical forms: concepts, judgments, conclusions, laws, scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories;

Logical verification of the validity of theoretical constructions;

Application of theoretical knowledge in practice, in social activities.

It is possible to determine the main characteristics of theoretical knowledge:

The object of knowledge is determined purposefully under the influence of the internal logic of the development of science or the urgent requirements of practice;

The subject of knowledge is idealized on the basis of thought experiment and construction;

Cognition is carried out in logical forms, which is understood as a way of connecting the elements included in the content of thought about the objective world.

The following are distinguished: types of forms of scientific knowledge:

General logical: concepts, judgments, inferences;

Local-logical: scientific ideas, hypotheses, theories, laws.

Concept is a thought that reflects the property and necessary characteristics of an object or phenomenon. Concepts can be: general, singular, specific, abstract, relative, absolute, etc. etc. General concepts are associated with a certain set of objects or phenomena, individual concepts relate to only one, concrete concepts - to specific objects or phenomena, abstract concepts to their individual characteristics, relative concepts are always presented in pairs, and absolute concepts do not contain paired relations.

Judgment- is a thought that contains the affirmation or denial of something through a connection of concepts. Judgments can be affirmative and negative, general and particular, conditional and disjunctive, etc.

Inference is a thinking process that connects a sequence of two or more judgments, resulting in a new judgment. Essentially, inference is a conclusion that makes possible the transition from thinking to practical action. There are two types of inferences: direct; indirect.

In direct inferences one comes from one judgment to another, and in indirect ones the transition from one judgment to another is carried out through a third.

The process of cognition goes from a scientific idea to a hypothesis, subsequently turning into a law or theory.

Let's consider basic elements of the theoretical level of knowledge.

Idea- an intuitive explanation of a phenomenon without intermediate argumentation and awareness of the entire set of connections. The idea reveals previously unnoticed patterns of a phenomenon, based on the knowledge already available about it.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the cause that causes a given effect. A hypothesis is always based on an assumption, the reliability of which cannot be confirmed at a certain level of science and technology.

If a hypothesis agrees with observed facts, it is called a law or theory.

Law- necessary, stable, repeating relationships between phenomena in nature and society. Laws can be specific, general and universal.

The law reflects the general connections and relationships inherent in all phenomena of a given kind or class.

Theory- a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic idea of ​​the patterns and essential connections of reality. It arises as a result of generalization of cognitive activity and practice and is a mental reflection and reproduction of reality. The theory has a number of structural elements:

Data- knowledge about an object or phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven.

Axioms- provisions accepted without logical proof.

Postulates- statements accepted within the framework of any scientific theory as true, playing the role of an axiom.

Principles- the basic starting points of any theory, doctrine, science or worldview.

Concepts- thoughts in which objects of a certain class are generalized and highlighted according to certain general (specific) characteristics.

Provisions- formulated thoughts expressed in the form of a scientific statement.

Judgments- thoughts expressed as a declarative sentence that can be true or false.

A person’s cognitive relationship to the world is carried out in various forms - in the form of everyday knowledge, artistic, religious knowledge, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as non-scientific forms. Scientific knowledge grew out of everyday knowledge, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far apart.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be confused with the aspects of cognition in general - sensory reflection and rational cognition. The fact is that in the first case we mean various types of cognitive activity of scientists, and in the second we are talking about the types of mental activity of an individual in the process of cognition in general, and both of these types are used both at the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) in the subject of research. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical research is focused on essence; 2) by means and instruments of cognition; 3) according to research methods. At the empirical level, this is observation, experiment, at the theoretical level - a systematic approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the acquired knowledge. In one case these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of essential connections, theories.

In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. science was still at the empirical stage, limiting its tasks to the generalization and classification of empirical facts, and the formulation of empirical laws. Subsequently, the theoretical level is built on top of the empirical level, which is associated with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns. Moreover, both types of research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the holistic structure of scientific knowledge.

Methods applicable at the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.

Observation- this is the deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct interference in their course, subordinated to the tasks of scientific research. The basic requirements for scientific observation are the following: 1) unambiguous purpose and design; 2) consistency in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the possibility of control either through repeated observation or through experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation. Measurement- is the definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., an important component of the study is the interpretation of the data obtained.

Observation in the social sciences is particularly difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participant (participant) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment in contrast to observation, it is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of experiment in comparison with observation are that, firstly, it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times.

There are several types of experiments.

1) The simplest type of experiment is qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of phenomena proposed by the theory.

2) The second, more complex type is a measuring or quantitative experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of any property (or properties) of an object or process.

3) A special type of experiment in the fundamental sciences is a thought experiment.

4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are the source scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that capture empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science; they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories.

Let us designate some processing and systematization methods empirical knowledge. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis- the process of mental, and often real, division of an object or phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure to analysis is synthesis. Synthesis- this is the combination of the sides of an object identified during the analysis into a single whole.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observations and experiments belongs to induction (from the Latin inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of experimental data. During induction, the researcher’s thought moves from the particular (particular factors) to the general. There are popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction, the movement of thought from the general to the specific. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge.

The induction process is associated with an operation such as comparison- establishing similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis prepare the ground for the development of classifications - combining various concepts and corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish connections between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications - the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of diagrams and tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

Empirical knowledge is primary scientific knowledge that is obtained through contact with the object being studied. Empiria (lat.) – experience.

They learn from negative experiences (mistakes).

Empirical knowledge is descriptive.

Science, 3 functions: description, explanation and prediction.

Empirical level: there is no explanation, but it can be predicted (if we see that copper expands when heated, then we can predict that other metals too).

Methods of obtaining knowledge: empirical research is carried out through observation, experiment and measurement.

Observation is present not only during real contact with an object, but also in our imagination (sign observation - reading, mathematics).

First, observation precedes cognition, we formulate the problem. We can make a hypothesis. The observation at the end of the study is a test of our theory.

The structure of observation includes: object, observer, observation conditions, devices (tools), basic knowledge.

Scientific observation requires recording of all phenomena (so that the scientist can check).

Observations: direct (the object is accessible) and indirect (the object is not accessible, only its traces, etc., that it left are available).

Approbation (lat.) – approval (it does not come from the word “test”).

Measurement: direct (measurement of length), indirect (time, temperature; temperature is the energy of movement of molecules).

Measurement in science is carried out many times. Since all quantities will be different in measurement. Each specific result is an average value (the error is also considered).

An experiment is an active influence on an object. Task: search (we don’t know what will happen) or testing an already existing hypothesis.

Empirical knowledge has the logical form of a concept. When we connect two empirical concepts or phenomena, we get a law (the larger the volume, the lower the pressure, etc.).

Empirical knowledge is the first and last scientific knowledge (Comte, Mach, this is the opinion of the positivists). Theoretical knowledge does not contain new knowledge, in their opinion.

But a scientist cannot be an empiricist, since he uses language (and language is abstract, it uses concepts that cannot be touched).

A fact is almost the same as a theory (both are one knowledge). The fact needs interpretation. The interpretation of a fact gives meaning to it. A fact always has many interpretations.

The structure of the fact: what we experience (psychological component); what we expressed (linguistic component); the event itself.

Facts, role in science: source and verification. Facts must confirm knowledge. Post-positivism (Poper): a fact cannot confirm, but it can refute a theory.

Locator: any scientific knowledge is an assumption (it cannot be refuted or confirmed). The goal is to replace old assumptions (guesses) with new ones. And we “guess” that the new ones are better than the old ones.

Scientific knowledge is a complex developing system in which, as evolution progresses, new levels of organization arise. They have a reverse impact on previously established levels of knowledge and transform them. In this process, new techniques and methods of theoretical research constantly emerge, and the strategy of scientific research changes.

There are two types of organization of knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Accordingly, two types of cognitive procedures that generate this knowledge can be distinguished.

Turning to the philosophical aspect of this issue, it is necessary to note such philosophers of the New Time as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that we derive all our knowledge from experience and sensations.

The difference between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge concerns the means of research, the specifics of methods and the nature of the subject of research.

Let us consider the means of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. Empirical research is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object being studied. It involves making observations and experimental activities. Therefore, the means of empirical research necessarily include instruments, instrumental installations and other means of real observation and experiment.

In theoretical research, there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one.

In addition to the tools that are associated with the organization of experiments and observations, conceptual tools are also used in empirical research. They function as a special language, often called the empirical language of science. It has a complex organization in which the actual empirical terms and the terms of the theoretical language interact.

The meaning of empirical terms is special abstractions that could be called empirical objects. They must be distinguished from objects of reality. Empirical objects are abstractions that actually highlight a certain set of properties and relationships of things. Real objects are represented in empirical cognition in the image of ideal objects that have a strictly fixed and limited set of characteristics. A real object has an infinite number of characteristics.

As for theoretical knowledge, other research tools are used in it. There are no means of material, practical interaction with the object being studied. But the language of theoretical research also differs from the language of empirical descriptions. It is based on theoretical terms, the meaning of which is theoretical ideal objects.

The features of the means and methods of the two levels of scientific knowledge are associated with the specifics of the subject of empirical and theoretical research. At each of these levels, a researcher can deal with the same objective reality, but he studies it in different subject sections, in different aspects, and therefore its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given differently. Empirical research is fundamentally focused on studying phenomena and the relationships between them. At this level of cognition, essential connections are not yet identified in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena, appearing through their concrete shell.

At the level of theoretical knowledge, essential connections are identified in their pure form. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws to which this object is subject. The task of the theory is precisely to divide this complex network of laws into components, then to recreate their interaction step by step and thus reveal the essence of the object.

The empirical and theoretical levels differ in research methods. With the help of empirical research methods, the accumulation, recording, generalization and systematization of experimental data, their statistical and inductive processing are carried out, while with the help of theoretical ones, the laws of science and theories are formed.

Empirical research methods include observation, comparison, measurement and experiment; theoretical methods include analogy, idealization, formalization, etc.

Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of an object, providing primary material for scientific research. Purposefulness is the most important characteristic of observation. By concentrating attention on an object, the observer relies on some knowledge he has about it, without which it is impossible to determine the purpose of the observation. Observation is also characterized by systematicity, which is expressed in the perception of an object many times and under different conditions, systematicity, eliminating gaps in observation, and the activity of the observer, his ability to select the necessary information, determined by the purpose of the study.

Requirements for scientific observations:

Clear statement of the purpose of observation;
- choice of methodology and development of a plan;
- consistency;
- control over the reliability and correctness of observation results;
- processing, comprehension and interpretation of the resulting data array;
- As a method of scientific knowledge, observation provides initial information about an object necessary for its further research.

Comparison and measurement play an important role in cognition. Comparison is a method of comparing objects in order to identify similarities or differences between them. If objects are compared with an object that acts as a standard, then such a comparison is called measurement.

The most complex and effective method of empirical knowledge is experiment, based on other empirical methods. An experiment is a method of studying an object, in which the researcher (experimenter) actively influences the object, creates artificial conditions necessary to identify certain of its properties. An experiment involves the use of certain means: devices, instruments, experimental installations, is characterized by an active influence on the object, and can be repeated as many times as required to obtain reliable results.

There are two types of experimental problems:

A research experiment that involves searching for unknown dependencies between several parameters of an object;
- a verification experiment, which is used when it is necessary to confirm or refute certain consequences of a theory.

In an experiment, as a rule, devices are used - artificial or natural material systems, the principles of which are well known to us. Those. within the framework of our experiment, our knowledge and some theoretical ideas already appear in material form. Without them, experimentation is impossible, at least within the framework of science. Any attempt to separate experiment from the theory of knowledge makes it impossible to understand its nature, to understand its essence.

Experiments and observational data.

The difference between observational data and empirical facts as special types of empirical knowledge was recorded in the positivist philosophy of science of the 30s. At this time, there was a rather intense discussion regarding what could serve as the empirical basis of science. At first it was assumed that they were the direct results of experience - observational data. In the language of science, they are expressed in the form of special statements - entries in observation protocols, the so-called protocol sentences.

The observation protocol indicates who observed, the time of observation, and describes the devices if they were used in the observation.

An analysis of the meaning of protocol sentences showed that they contain not only information about the phenomena being studied, but also, as a rule, include observer errors, layers of external disturbing influences, systematic and random errors of instruments, etc. But then it became obvious that these observations, due to the fact that they are burdened with subjective layers, cannot serve as the basis for theoretical constructions.

During the discussions, it was established that such knowledge is empirical facts. They form the empirical basis on which scientific theories are based.

The very nature of fact-recording statements emphasizes their special objective status in comparison with protocol sentences. But then a new problem arises: how is the transition from observational data to empirical facts accomplished and what guarantees the objective status of a scientific fact?

Question #10

Empirical level of scientific knowledge: its methods and forms

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually divided according to the degree of their generality, i.e. by the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

Method concept(from the Greek word "methodos" - the path to something) means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality, guided by which a person can achieve the intended goal. Mastery of a method means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice. The main function of the method is to regulate cognitive and other forms of activity.

There is a whole field of knowledge that is specifically devoted to the study of methods and which is usually called methodology. Methodology literally means “the study of methods.”

General scientific methods are used in a wide variety of fields of science, i.e. they have a very wide, interdisciplinary range of applications.

The classification of general scientific methods is closely related to the concept of levels of scientific knowledge.

Distinguish two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. This difference is based on the dissimilarity, firstly, of the methods (methods) of the cognitive activity itself, and secondly, of the nature of the scientific results achieved. Some general scientific methods are used only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical level (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - at both the empirical and theoretical levels.

Empirical level scientific knowledge is characterized by direct research into real-life, sensory-perceptible objects. At this level of research, a person directly interacts with the natural or social objects being studied. Living contemplation (sensory knowledge) predominates here. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by making observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments. The primary systematization of the obtained factual data in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out here.

However, to explain the real process of cognition, empiricism is forced to turn to the apparatus of logic and mathematics (primarily to inductive generalization) to describe experimental data as a means of constructing theoretical knowledge. The limitations of empiricism consist in exaggerating the role of sensory knowledge and experience and underestimating the role of scientific abstractions and theories in knowledge. So uh empirical research is usually based on a certain theoretical construct, which determines the direction of this research, determines and justifies the methods used.

Turning to the philosophical aspect of this issue, it is necessary to note such philosophers of the New Time as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes and D. Locke. Francis Bacon said that the path leading to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment. John Locke believed that we derive all our knowledge from experience and sensations.

While distinguishing these two different levels in scientific research, one should not, however, separate them from each other and oppose them. After all empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected between themselves. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts and statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.), with which the empirical level of research deals.

features or forms of empirical research

The main forms in which scientific knowledge exists are: problem, hypothesis, theory. But this chain of forms of knowledge cannot exist without factual material and practical activities to test scientific assumptions. Empirical, experimental research masters an object using such techniques and means as description, comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction, and its most important element is fact (from the Latin factum - done, accomplished). Any scientific research begins with the collection, systematization and generalization facts.

Science facts- facts of reality, reflected, verified and recorded in the language of science. Coming to the attention of scientists, a fact of science excites theoretical thought . A fact becomes scientific when it is an element of the logical structure of a specific system of scientific knowledge and is included in this system.

In understanding the nature of a fact in modern scientific methodology, two extreme trends stand out: factualism and theoreticism. If the first emphasizes the independence and autonomy of facts in relation to various theories, then the second, on the contrary, argues that facts are completely dependent on theory and when theories change, the entire factual basis of science changes. The correct solution to the problem is that a scientific fact, having a theoretical load, is relatively independent of theory, since it is fundamentally determined by material reality. The paradox of the theoretical loading of facts is resolved as follows. The formation of a fact involves knowledge that is tested independently of theory, and facts provide an incentive for the formation of new theoretical knowledge. The latter, in turn - if they are reliable - can again participate in the formation of new facts, etc.

Thus, empirical experience never - especially in modern science - is blind: he planned, constructed by theory, and facts are always theoretically loaded in one way or another. Therefore, the starting point, the beginning of science is, strictly speaking, not the objects themselves, not bare facts (even in their totality), but theoretical schemes, “conceptual frameworks of reality.” They consist of abstract objects ("ideal constructs") of various kinds - postulates, principles, definitions, conceptual models, etc.

methods of scientific knowledge

Studying phenomena and connections between them, empirical knowledge is capable of detecting the operation of an objective law. But it records this action, as a rule, in the form of empirical dependencies, which should be distinguished from a theoretical law as special knowledge obtained as a result of the theoretical study of objects. Empirical dependence is the result inductive generalization of experience And represents probabilistic-true knowledge. Empirical research studies phenomena and their correlations in which it can capture the manifestation of law. But in its pure form it is given only as a result of theoretical research.

Let us turn to methods that find application at the empirical level of scientific knowledge.

Observation - this is the deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct interference in their course, subordinated to the tasks of scientific research. The basic requirements for scientific observation are as follows:

• 1) unambiguity of purpose, plan;
• 2) consistency in observation methods;
• 3) objectivity;
• 4) the possibility of control either through repeated observation or through experiment.