Architectural sculpture. Masterpieces of architecture and sculpture
Like no other form of fine art, sculpture is close to architecture. Both types are three-dimensional and light and shadow participate in creating an artistic image. Even the material when it comes to stone sculpture can be the same. There are also sculptures that match the size of architectural structures, such as the Sphinx in Giza, the colossal bronze Buddha in Kamakura (Japan) or the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. Works created specifically for buildings and organically related to them are called architectural sculpture, although, of course, stone sculpture and sculpture made of metal, concrete or plaster are different from each other. Architectural plastic only in rare cases serves simply as decoration; more often than not, it clearly expresses the meaning and purpose of the structure and thus gives additional expressiveness to the building.
None of the objects is more suitable for this purpose and attracts the sculptor more than the human figure, his image, body, plasticity. Figures of animals have also been and remain the subject of architectural sculpture. Evidence of this is the Romanesque portal with lions and the Königslutter and quadrigas on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin and on the Opera building in Dresden. This also includes such fabulous animals and birds as vultures, chimeras and sphinxes. The forms of depicting people within the framework of architectural plasticity are generally varied. They range from head portraits in medallions and more or less grotesque masks, such as the head of Medusa, to busts and full-length figures depicting the clothed and naked human body, sometimes of enormous size. The seated colossal figures of the Egyptian rock temple of Abu Simbel are 20 m high.
An individual or group of people are represented on or near buildings in various actions and positions. Various types of sculpture are used, including relief images, niche sculpture and circular sculpture. In some cases, statues also take on the functions of a load-bearing architectural element. The caryatids calmly and majestically prop up the entablature with their heads. Atlanteans and giants carry their weight on their shoulders or arms, and it seems that the mass of portals, balconies or flights of terraces almost crushes them. Herms-caryatids or simply herms are load-bearing sculptures, the lower part of the body of which turns into a pilaster tapering downward.
Sculpture reached Central European architecture in the 13th century. its first flowering, depicting religious scenes, figures of saints and saints. For example, the quality of the sculptures of saints in Naumburg Cathedral is excellent. 500 sculptures, most of them larger than a man, decorate the western portal of the cathedral in Reims; 1800 statues were originally part of the decoration of Chartres Cathedral. We owe the sculptures of the Medici tomb in the New Sacristy of the Florentine Cathedral of San Lorenzo to the outstanding artistic genius of the past, Michelangelo. Characteristic of the period after 1500 was the replacement of religious motifs with ancient mythological and images of rulers. Both themes were very closely intertwined during the Baroque period. Sculptures of Mars, Zeus or Hercules are often to be understood as an allegory of the power of a prince or king. Often rulers were depicted in Roman togas.
To the purely architectural sculptures celebrating their triumph in the Dresden Zwinger or Sanssouci Castle, garden sculptures and sculptures decorating fountains were added. Internally and inextricably linked with architecture, sculpture of the 18th century. fell into some isolation during the period of classicism. Reliefs, figures and teams of horses borrowed from antiquity sometimes seemed only a decorative addition and least of all an organic architectural detail.
This distance between sculpture and building grew even more in the 20th century. due to the contradictions between a work of art and a mass industrial product - a building. However, the goal of modern architectural creativity is to preserve new and well-established old forms of art related to architecture and use them to add more emotion to the architectural environment around us.
Schmalkalden (district Suhl), the so-called “architect's head” on the buttress of the altar of the city church of St. Georg. This portrait appeared after 1437 in a false window with iron-clad window shutters. It can be assumed that the architect depicted himself in his heyday.
Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek roots αρχι and τεκτονική - builder, construction, architecture, construction art), the art of designing and constructing buildings and other structures that create a materially organized environment necessary for people for their life and activities, in accordance with their purpose, modern technical capabilities and aesthetic views of society. There is a significant difference between architecture, painting and sculpture: architecture uses almost exclusively geometric forms and only resorts to organic forms in ornamentation; painting and sculpture depict predominantly animal and plant forms and only in accessories they turn to architectural, that is, geometric forms.
In its subordination to known mathematical laws in the field of proportions, architecture comes closest to music, which also obeys mathematical laws in the field of sound relationships; in this sense, architecture is very aptly called “stone” or “frozen” music. Each work of art contains two main elements - an abstract idea and its material representation, that is, in other words, essence and form. The combination of these elements into one coherent whole represents the purpose of art; and if this goal is achieved, then the work can certainly be called elegant. Consequently, any elegant architectural work must, by its external presentation, fully reveal the internal meaning and purpose of the building. By virtue of this law, it is impossible, for example, to give a church the external appearance of a theater or to give a one-story building a two-story façade inside.
As an art form, architecture enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically shapes the human environment, and expresses social ideas in artistic images. The historical development of society determines the functions and types of structures (buildings with organized internal space, structures that form open spaces, ensembles of buildings and other real estate), technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures. In architecture, decorative and applied arts, design - those types of plastic arts where it is impossible to identify the subject of the image - genre classification is replaced by typological divisions based on the functions of the work (in architecture, types of palace, temple, residential building, etc. are distinguished, in turn divided into many subtypes). The architectural organization of the space of settlements, the creation of cities, suburban cottage settlements, the planning of small-scale architecture, the regulation of settlement systems have become a special area - urban planning.
In architecture, functional, technical, and aesthetic principles (usefulness, strength, beauty) are interconnected. The purpose and functions of an architectural structure determine its plan and volumetric-spatial structure, construction equipment - the possibility, economic feasibility and specific means of its creation, building ceramics - materials and ceramic products used in construction. According to their intended purpose, ceramic materials and products are divided into the following types: wall products, roofing products, floor elements; products for facade cladding, products for internal wall cladding, aggregates for lightweight concrete, thermal insulation products, sanitary products, floor tiles, road bricks.
repair of household air conditioners
Wall products include brick, hollow stones and panels made from them. Roofing products – tiles. Floor elements; products for cladding facades are facing bricks, small-sized and other tiles, typesetting panels, architectural and artistic details. Products for interior wall cladding - glazed tiles and shaped parts for them (cornices, corners, figured windows, belts). Fillers for lightweight concrete – expanded clay, agloporite. Thermal insulation products - cellular ceramics, perlite ceramics, etc. The figurative and aesthetic principle of architecture is associated with its social function and is manifested in the formation of the volumetric-spatial and structural structure of the structure. Expressive means of architecture - composition, tectonics, scale, proportions, rhythm, plasticity of volumes, texture and color of materials, synthesis of arts, etc. In the second half of the 20th century, social, scientific and technical changes caused the emergence of new functions, structural systems, artistic means of architecture, industrial construction methods.
(Latin sculptura, from sculpo - cut, carve), sculpture, plastic, a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional, three-dimensional shape and are made of solid or plastic materials. Sculpture, sculpture, plastic art - in the broad sense of the word, the art of creating from clay, wax, stone, metal, wood, bone and other materials an image of a person, animals and other natural objects in their tactile, bodily forms. The sculpture depicts mainly humans, less often animals, its main genres are portraits, historical, everyday, symbolic, allegorical images, animalistic and mythological genres. Artistic and expressive means of sculpture - construction of a three-dimensional form, plastic modeling (sculpting), development of silhouette, texture, and in some cases also colors.
A distinction is made between a round sculpture (statue, group, figurine, bust), viewed from different sides, and a relief (a type of sculpture in which the image is convex or recessed in relation to the background plane; the main types are bas-relief and high relief). Monumental sculpture (monuments, monuments) is associated with the architectural environment, is distinguished by the significance of its ideas, a high degree of generalization, and large sizes; monumental and decorative sculpture includes all types of decoration of architectural structures (Atlantes, caryatids, friezes, park, fountain and pediment sculpture); easel sculpture has dimensions close to life or smaller, and a specific in-depth content.
Regarding the material and method of execution of the image, sculpture, in the broad sense of the word, falls into several branches: modeling, or modeling - the art of working with a soft substance, such as wax and clay; foundry, or toreutics - the art of making a sculpture from molten metal; glyptics, or sculpture in the strict sense, is the art of carving an image from stone, metal, wood and solid substances in general; Among the genres of sculpture one can, in addition, include engraving, carving on hard and precious stones and the production of stamps for coins and medals (medal art). The materials of sculpture are metal, stone, clay, wood, plaster, etc. The methods of their processing are modeling, carving, casting, forging, chasing, etc.
Two weeks ago in New York I visited an exhibition dedicated to Italian futurism. Avant-garde movements of the early 20th century are my special love. The world was changing rapidly, people tried to keep up with the times, sometimes ahead, sometimes not keeping up with progress, and all this chaos gave rise to many interesting artistic solutions and trends. To understand futurism, you need to know the history of its creation, and also remember the historical context of the countries in which this movement received special development: Italy and Russia in those years.
Destroy the old, wash away museums, old experiences and authorities to open the world to the new: cars, speed, aggression. To immediately introduce the main tenets of this new movement, I will give a few quotes from Marinetti's Manifesto, published in Le Figaro, February 20, 1909:
- We say: our beautiful world has become even more beautiful - now it has speed. Under the trunk of a racing car, exhaust pipes snake and spew fire. Its roar is like a machine gun burst, and no Nika of Samothrace can compare with it in beauty.
- We want to glorify the man at the helm of the car, who throws the spear of his spirit over the Earth, in its orbit.
We will destroy museums, libraries, educational institutions of all types, we will fight against moralism, feminism, against any opportunistic or utilitarian cowardice.
To be a futurist is to be modern, young and rebellious. An industrial metropolis, cars and speed - adherents of futurism celebrate destruction and glorify war. They strive to breathe new life into an old, static culture.
In Russia, in 1912, a manifesto also appeared, accompanying the first poetry collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” which accompanied the Russian Manifesto of the same name. Compare the postulates:
- The past is tight. The Academy and Pushkin are more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs. Abandon Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc. and so on. from the steamship Modernity.
- Wash your hands that have touched the dirty slime of the books written by these countless Leonid Andreevs. To all these Maxim Gorkys, Kuprins, Bloks, Sologubs, Averchenkos, Chernys, Kuzmins, Bunins and so on. and so on. - All you need is a dacha on the river. This is the reward fate gives to tailors. From the heights of skyscrapers we look at their insignificance!
In my opinion, the Russian manifesto carries a more destructive charge than the Italian one, which is not surprising - such was the mood in the country before the revolution.
Futurism originates in literature, but very soon it takes on other forms: painting, politics, even advertising. The energy of youth and speed is overflowing in these young revolutionaries; it is impossible to remain indifferent to the charge of energy that they carry. If you think that you are thinking progressively, relax - the futurists have already thought of everything before you.
And with this knowledge I come to the exhibition of Italian Futurism at the Guggenheim, 1909-1944.
There are seven themes in total at the exhibition, I will show the most memorable fragments from each of them, presented at the exhibition.
Theme one: Heroic futurism. This phase lasted until 1916. The beginning of the futurist movement is characterized by an atmosphere of optimism, dynamism and rhythm. Futurists sought to convey dynamics in different ways. For example, Giacomo Balla studied in detail and tried to depict universal dynamics through the stratification of motion, for example, through the image of the dispersion of light (the painting is not shown in the exhibition):
Giacommo Balla,Iridescent Interpenetration No.7, 1912
Giacommo Balla's visual vocabulary consisted of combining the principles of dynamics and synchronicity, with an attempt to convey an atmosphere of light, sound and smells.
Two other futurists, Umberto Boccioni and Gino Severini, sought to depict the effect of movement through an object. Boccioni conveyed movement through the athletic body, combining the human figure and the surrounding landscape. Move further away from the screen and you will see how the picture below will form the image of a cyclist flying at high speed (the picture is not shown in the exhibition):
Umberto Boccioni, Dinamismo di un ciclista ” 1913
Severini, my favorite Italian futurist, creates his concept of depicting dynamics through a shift in space in a painting, through fragmentation, connecting displaced and disproportional space, adding the effect of crushed mosaics to everyday objects (he borrowed this idea from the Cubists).
I can admire this picture for hours, looking at the intricate interweaving of the landscape, the rushing train and the village. Even if this magic of fragments does not captivate you at first, think about how you would depict the movement of a high-speed train (not a high-speed train, but its movement) and compare it with what Severini did:
G. Severini “Sanitary train rushing through the city”, 1915
I would also like to mention Carr’s painting, the funeral of the anarchist Galli. The subject of the film was a clash at the funeral of Angelo Galli, who was killed by police during the strike. The government feared that the anarchists would make a political demonstration out of the funeral, and banned them from entering the cemetery. The clash could not be avoided, the anarchists began to resist, and the police brutally dealt with them. The artist was present at this scene; and his work is full of vivid memories of violent scenes and chaos: the movement of bodies, the clash of anarchists and police, black flags flying in the air. The artist would later write in his memoirs: “I saw in front of me a coffin covered with red carnations, dangerously swaying on the shoulders of the people carrying the coffin. I saw restless horses, clubs and spears, collisions, and it seemed to me that at any moment the corpse would fall to the ground and be trampled by the horses”...
Carlo Carrà, Funeral of the Anarchist Galli (Funerali dell'anarchico Galli), 1910–11
Topic two. Words-in-freedom, or, as in the Russian manifesto, “word-innovation”. As I already wrote, futurism began with poetry and its key invention is free form poetry. Following Marinetti, futurists free words from their usual form, destroy syntax, abolish punctuation, eliminate adjectives and adverbs, use verbs in the indefinite form, insert musical and mathematical symbols into poetry, and use onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia). Such poems are read as literature, experienced as visual art, and performed as dramatic works. Futurists publish them in a variety of formats and recite them at special evenings (Futurist serate). Marinetti introduced the idea of form-free poetry, many Futurists invented their own interpretations. Mayakovsky’s “Ladder” is most familiar to us as this part of the Futurists’ work, but there were others: Balla with phonovisual designs, Fortunato Depero and the abstract language of sounds (onomalingua), Carlo Carra’s circular structure with a whirlwind of voices and sounds.
Francesco Cangiullo, Piedigrotta. Book (Milan: Edizioni futuriste di Poesia, 1916)
Topic three. Architecture. Futurism, with its rejection of tradition and shockingness, could only exist within the city, and the futurists reveled in the modern city. Many architects proposed their designs for megacities using new materials and industrial methods. Futuristic designs have a floating, light, modern look, with an emphasis on speed and seamless operation of transport systems (air and rail transport should fit seamlessly into the urban architecture). Their projects were not destined to come to fruition, with the exception of several futuristic structures erected for temporary fairs according to sketches by Enrico Prampolini. Compare the sketch and reality:
Enrico Prampolini, Design for hall, decorations, and furnishings for Aeronautica Company: Plan for Milan Triennial Installation, ca. 1932–33
The Futurist Pavilion at the exhibition in the Parco Valentino in Turin (1928) was designed by Enrico Prampolini.
Then their ideas were not destined to come true, but look now at modern cities - isn’t this the dream of the futurists?
Topic four. Reconstructing the universe. Poetry, literature, painting - this was not enough. To move forward with old ideals and live in new times, it was necessary to change every detail of the everyday world. In 1915, Balla and Depero, already familiar to us, wrote another manifesto, which I especially love for its title: “Reconstruction of the Universe.” Using habitually aggressive language, they call for the reconstruction of every object in the world around them, even demanding futuristic toys. A futurist should be surrounded by a futuristic environment, new clothes, new room design, new furniture, dishes and clothing. Balla and Depero created such spaces in their lives: one renovated a house in Rome, the second a studio in his hometown of Roverto. At the exhibition there were many objects in futuristic design: ceramics, sets, vests and suits. Now all this looks quite funny and certainly does not at all correspond to the futuristic vision of design to which we are accustomed. For me, futuristic design comes from the Dutch and Scandinavians. But if the futurists had not turned to such trifles then, who knows whether we would have received modern design (and architecture) in the form in which we have it now?
What surprises me most here is the scope: from speeds and airplanes to tea sets. How can so much and so little coexist in one idea? It seems to me that nationality is of great importance here, the aesthetics of everyday life is important to Italians, but in Russian futurism everything ended at the level of global ideas, without tea sets.
Gerardo Dottori, Cimino home dining room set, early 1930s
Topic five. Arte meccanica, or machine aesthetics. After the First World War, new artists came to futurism, introducing new qualities, one of which was the aesthetics of mechanical objects. I can’t say that this is something fundamentally new in futurism, since initially the movement was built on the celebration of progress and speed. New members of the movement emphasized the Futurists' enduring interest in mechanical objects. The powerful train depicted in Ivo Panadji's painting rolls diagonally towards you, which enhances the effect of presence (hello 3D fans!), You hear the deafening whistle of the train and the loud operation of the engine. Panadji doesn't paint a picture, he conveys a sensory experience. The artistic techniques used here convey movement, speed and power. Look at this picture, it conveys the trajectory of the train in fragments (like Severini), or, more simply, like in animation, in parts:
Ivo Pannaggi, Speeding Train (Treno in corsa), 1922
Topic six. Aeropittura or painting inspired by flight. Soaring or diving, sometimes simply abstract, aerial painting appeared in 1930, at the late stage of futurism. Airplanes fit perfectly into the idea of the cult of machines in futurism, both as a symbol of progress and as the embodiment of speed, so they immediately shift the focus to themselves, leaving cars and trains behind. In addition, airplanes open up new perspectives on familiar objects due to new, previously unseen inspection angles. Aeropainting begins with simply documenting flights, and moves on to depicting soaring in space. It represented a new approach to the world that combined speed, technology, war, and national pride. In the early thirties in Italy, it is clear that nationalist sentiments were very strong, and the power and technical equipment of the Italian army spurred the Futurists to increase national pride. It would seem that the futurists had everything to become official art in fascist Italy - this is the glorification of progress, and the worship of aggression and war, and the denial of the old world, and destruction. One nuance got in the way: Hitler could not stand “degenerate art” (any non-classical art), and over time forced Mussolini to get rid of the favoritism of the Futurists.
Gerardo Dottori, Aerial Battle over the Gulf of Naples or Infernal Battle over the Paradise of the Gulf, 1942
Topic seven. Photo. Futurists could not ignore photography, which they began to adapt in 1911. The Bragaglia brothers sought to bring the painting to life and developed a whole method of capturing movement: photodynamism. The movement of the figure in their photographs usually goes from right to left, with the stages of the beginning of the movement blurred. After these experiments, the Futurists left photography until the 1930s, until Marinetti, in collaboration with Tato, in his next manifesto (no one else had so many manifestos!) declared photography to be an excellent tool for eliminating barriers between art and life, since with the help of a camera one can both create art and explore its social function (however, Tato used the camera for diametrically opposed purposes; his works expressed ideological support for the fascist regime).
Anton Giulio Bragaglia, Waving (Salutando), 1911
In 1944, the founder and ideological inspirer of futurism, Marinetti, died. With his death, futurism ceases to exist. Russian futurism began to disappear even earlier, in the late 20s, with the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, and finally became obsolete with the death of Mayakovsky and the emigration of the main authors (after all, in Russia futurism was more of a literary movement than a painting one). The authors who started with futurism joined other directions.
What did futurism bring to humanity? The shocking and aggressive manner characteristic of futurism helped to popularize and glorify progress. The modern development of art owes a lot to futurism: their merits include the liberation of poetry from the usual form, poetic performances, a new look at the depiction of movement, and the fragmentation of speed. Rejection of authorities is always a search for something new, always an expansion of the usual view of the world around us. The search for new ideals and the creation of new norms helps humanity not to stand still, helps to develop. And of course - the glorification of the “beautiful distance”, progress, the power of human thought, for this desire for an ideal world, special thanks to them.
Architecture. First half of the 19th century was marked by the brilliant development of architecture. At the beginning of the century, classicism, which established itself at the end of the 18th century, occupied a strong position in it. Then the Empire style gained great recognition. Empire style is a type of classicism (late classicism), based on the artistic heritage of imperial Rome (the name of the style goes back to the word “emperor”). The architecture of the ancient world was perceived as a model of perfection; antique elements (columns, porticoes, pediments, etc.) became indispensable details of the architectural design of buildings. This style is characterized by monumentality, clarity and severity of lines, a synthesis of architecture and sculpture. Triumphal arches and memorial columns were built, buildings were decorated with colonnades, and military emblems were used. The most prominent representatives of this trend in architecture were A.N. Voronikhin (1759-1814), A.D. Zakharov (1761-1811), K.I. Rossi (1755-1849), D.I. Gilardi (1785-1845 ).
A.N. Voronikhin built the Mining Institute and the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, which are characterized by strict monumentalism. A.D. Zakharov created the Admiralty building. He also built hospitals, food warehouses and shops.
Both Alexander I and Nicholas I, continuing the traditions laid down by Peter the Great, paid great attention to urban planning. During this period it took on a large scale. Monumental ensembles of St. Petersburg are being created, squares of the Northern capital are being formed - Dvortsovaya, Senate. According to the project of K.I. Rossi, new buildings of the Senate and Synod are being built, which completed the layout of Senate Square, as well as the Main Headquarters, which completed the design of Palace Square. In the 20-30s. XIX century According to the designs of K.I. Rossi, the Mikhailovsky Palace with Arts Square, the Alexandrinsky Theater, and the public library building are being built. The architectural structures of Russia are characterized by classical severity combined with pomp and lightness.
In Moscow, the Russian Empire style had a certain peculiarity: a softer, more intimate character. This is typical for buildings and ensembles created by O.I. Bove (1784-1834), D.I. Gilardi (1785-1845).
During the years when Moscow was intensively rebuilt after the fire of 1812, O.I. Bove erected the buildings of the Bolshoi and Maly theaters, the Triumphal Arch in honor of the victory of the Russian people in the war of 1812, carried out the reconstruction of Red Square, and designed the architectural facade of the Trading Rows. D. Gilardi is rebuilding the fire-damaged building of Moscow University. According to Gilardi's designs, a wonderful Lunin house was built in Moscow. A.A. Betancourt and O.I. Bove erected the Manege building.
In the 30s, there were signs of the decline of Russian classicism in architecture. Pseudo-Russian and pseudo-Gothic styles are becoming fashionable, and interest in Baroque is growing. Eclectic forms of classicism and baroque are reflected in the architecture of A.A. Montferrand, whose main buildings are St. Isaac's Cathedral and the Alexander Column in St. Petersburg. A.P. Bryullov developed pseudo-Gothic forms in architecture, A.I. Stackenschneider - Baroque forms.
By decree of Nicholas I, the “Russian-Byzantine” style was created, which became the embodiment in architecture of the idea of “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.” Its creator was K.A. Ton, according to whose design the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory Chamber in the Moscow Kremlin, and the buildings of the Nikolaevskaya Railway stations in Moscow and St. Petersburg were erected.
In the 30-40s. XIX century architecture begins to acquire a functional-utilitarian character. This was reflected in the construction of apartment buildings, which gradually began to replace noble mansions. But the vast majority of the provincial population lived in one-story wooden houses.
In the first half of the 19th century. Construction of residential and public buildings continues in Kazan. A significant work of classicist architecture was the building of the First Kazan Gymnasium (now it is the first building of the Kazan Aviation University, K. Marx St., 10). It was built in 1808-1811. designed by architects V.A. Smirnov and Y.M. Shelkovnikov.
A big event in the life of Kazan residents was the construction of the Gostiny Dvor, according to the project of F.E. Emelyanov. Its facade was made in the forms of Russian classicism, and the colonnade, completed by a pediment, was in the Ionic style.
The Kazan University complex has become a remarkable architectural ensemble that forms the public center of the city. The main building of the university was built in the classicist style (architect P.G. Pyatnitsky). The university campus was built with the participation of the architect M.P. Korinfsky.
An interesting phenomenon in the architecture of Kazan is the residence of the Governor General in the Kremlin (architect A.K. Ton). The building was stylized in the Byzantine style.
Stone construction was typical for the central part of the city; in other areas, wooden buildings predominated. The architecture of Tatar settlements testified to the perception of elements of classicism. In Tatar rich residential buildings, classical forms were combined with national characteristics.
Stone and wooden mosques, which preserved ancient local traditions in their architecture, gave the city a special flavor.
Thus, the urban planning of Kazan reflected both modern trends in Russian architecture and local traditions of Tatar architecture.
Sculpture. First half of the 19th century marked by the flourishing of Russian sculpture and especially its monumental forms. It was during this period that monuments to outstanding Russian people, tombstones, and original works of easel and decorative sculpture were created. A characteristic feature of Russian sculpture of this period is the enormous achievements in the field of synthesis of sculpture and architecture.
The largest sculptor in Russia at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. and a prominent representative of classicism in sculpture is I.P.Martos (1752-1835). Having started with memorial sculpture and creating wonderful examples in this form of art (the tombstones of S.S. Volkonskaya and M.P. Sobakina), by the beginning of the 19th century. he turns to the monumental genre.
Martos's outstanding work is the monument to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow (1804-1818). The erection of the monument opposite the Kremlin was symbolic evidence of the patriotic upsurge that Russian society was experiencing in those years. The monument is distinguished by the severity and simplicity of the silhouette, the emotionality of the image, and the monumentality of its plastic forms. When creating a monument, the sculptor also solves an urban planning problem - he proportions the sculptural image to the huge area. Other monuments to Martos are also known - the monument to Richelieu in Odessa and to Lomonosov in Arkhangelsk.
Martos contributed to the development of the synthesis of sculpture and architecture, especially during the construction of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. He created the monumental high relief “Moses Giving Out Water in the Desert” (1807) on the attic of the cathedral colonnade. Martos depicted people suffering from excruciating thirst and finding life-giving moisture exuded by Moses from a stone.
In monumental and decorative sculpture of the beginning of the first quarter of the 19th century. F.F. Shchedrin (1751-1825) worked with great success. Shchedrin's best works include his statues and sculptural groups for the Admiralty. The allegories created by the master glorify the greatness of Russia as a maritime power and convey the triumph of man over the forces of nature.
The work of V.I. Demut-Malinovsky (1779-1846) and S.S. Pimenov (1782-1833) developed in line with the mentioned genre. They own the main decoration of the arch of the General Staff building, the facades of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Mikhailovsky Palace and other buildings in St. Petersburg.
A talented sculptor was I.I. Terebenev (1780-1815). His most significant work is the high relief “Establishment of the Fleet in Russia” (1812-1814), placed on the Admiralty building. Here you can see a portrait image of Peter, and allegorical images like Neptune, Minerva, and images of Russian workers pulling nets and ships on ropes. The depiction of labor scenes was an unusual phenomenon in monumental sculpture of the early 19th century.
In the 30-40s, certain changes occurred in the development of sculpture. The images lose their previous conventionality, become more real, but at the same time lose their monumentality. The vitality of the heroes is conveyed in the works of B.I. Orlovsky (1792-1838). He is the author of monuments to the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812, M.I. Kutuzov (1829-1832) and M.B. Barclay de Tolly (1829-1837), erected near the Kazan Cathedral.
An outstanding role in Russian sculpture belongs to P.K. Klodt (1805-1867). One of the early major works that brought him universal recognition were equestrian groups for the Anichkov Bridge in St. Petersburg (1849-1850). It is no coincidence that their copies were donated to Naples and Berlin. These groups express the idea of man's conquest of nature. The taming of a horse by a man is conveyed in a dynamic and temperamental composition. This work reflected knowledge of the character of the animal, its habits, and anatomy. The skill of sculpting, the expressiveness of movements and the beauty of the silhouette made these sculptural groups one of the best decorations in St. Petersburg.
Klodt’s monument to the great fabulist I.A. Krylov, installed in the Summer Garden, is popular. The writer is depicted sitting in deep thought with a book in his hands, and bas-reliefs with various scenes from fables are placed on the pedestal. The image has a completely concrete and everyday connotation. The sculptor was considered a virtuoso casting master. Klodt cast all his works himself and for a long time, as a professor at the Academy of Arts, he directed its foundry.
The original works in the field of medal art belong to F.P. Tolstoy (1783-1873). Impressed by the events of the War of 1812, he created a series of medallions (“People's Militia of 1812”, 1816; “Battle of Borodino”, 1816), which brought him true fame. His work contributed to the development of medal art.
Thus, Russian architecture and sculpture achieved great success. They represented a creative synthesis of world European achievements with national tradition.
Music
Music occupied a special place in the life of Russian society in the first half of the 19th century. Musical education was a necessary component of the upbringing and enlightenment of a young man. The musical life of Russia was quite rich. In 1802 the Russian Philharmonic Society was founded. Sheet music becomes available to the general public.
Interest in chamber and public concerts has increased in society. The musical evenings held by A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky, and in the literary salon of Z.A. Volkonskaya especially attracted the attention of many composers, writers, and artists. The summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, which began to be organized in 1838, when the railway from St. Petersburg was built here, enjoyed great success among the public. The Austrian composer and conductor I. Strauss performed at these concerts several times.
In the first decades of the 19th century. Chamber vocal music became widespread. Listeners were especially fond of the romances of A.A. Alyabiev (“The Nightingale”), A.E. Varlamov (“Red Sundress”, “A blizzard is blowing along the street...”, etc.), (romances, songs in folk style - “Bell”, “The blue-winged swallow flutters...” A.L. Gurilev).
The operatic repertoire of Russian theaters at the beginning of the century consisted mainly of works by French and Italian composers. Russian opera developed mainly in the epic genre. The best representative of this trend was A.N. Verstovsky, the author of the opera “Askold’s Grave” (1835), as well as several musical ballads and romances (“Black Shawl”, etc.). The operas and ballads of A.N. Verstovsky were influenced by romanticism. The opera “Askold’s Grave” reflected the appeal to historical subjects and epic, which was characteristic of romantic art, which recorded the people’s understanding of their past.
It was possible to approach the level of the great works of Western European composers - Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and others only on the basis of a deep mastery of folk-national melodicism with its simultaneous transformation in line with the main achievements of European musical culture. This work began in the 18th century. (E. Formin, F. Dubyansky, M. Sokolovsky) and continued successfully in the first decades of the 19th century. A. Alyabyev, A. Gurilev, A. Varlamov, A. Verstovsky. However, the beginning of a new (classical) period in the development of Russian music is associated with the name of M.I. Glinka.
M.I. Glinka (1804-1857) belonged to a noble family from the Smolensk province. Glinka received his first musical impressions from his uncle's serf orchestra. Russian folk songs heard in childhood had a great influence on the character of Glinka's musical works. In the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century. Glinka created a number of outstanding vocal works, including such romances as “Night Zephyr” (poems by A.S. Pushkin, 1834), “Doubt” (1838), “I remember a wonderful moment...” (1840). An outstanding event in the musical life of Russia was the production in 1836 of the opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In the person of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, the composer showed the greatness of the common people, their courage and resilience. Glinka's innovation was that the representative of the Russian people, the Russian peasant, became the central figure of the musical narrative. Folk-heroic pathos was vividly embodied on the basis of virtuosic technique and a wide variety of vocal and instrumental parts. The opera “A Life for the Tsar” became the first classical Russian opera, which marked the beginning of the worldwide recognition of Russian music. High society greeted the opera rather dryly, but true connoisseurs of art enthusiastically greeted the performance. Fans of the opera were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky, V.F. Odoevsky and others.
Following the first opera, Glinka wrote the second - “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1842) based on the fairy tale by A.S. Pushkin. Based on Pushkin's poems, Glinka wrote a number of wonderful romances, which are still widely known today. The romance “I Remember a Wonderful Moment” convinces how close Glinka’s musical style was to Pushkin’s lyrics. Glinka was the author of instrumental plays and the symphonic poem “Kamarinskaya”.
It is difficult to overestimate Glinka's contribution to the development of Russian national music. Glinka is the founder of the genres of domestic professional music. He created the national Russian opera, the Russian romance. Glinka was the first Russian musical classicist. He was the founder of the national school of music.
Another remarkable composer was A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) - a student of M.I. Glinka. His work is characterized by great dramatic tension (opera “Rusalka”, 1856). Dargomyzhsky took stories from everyday life and chose ordinary people as his heroes. The Russian intelligentsia welcomed Dargomyzhsky's opera "Rusalka", which depicted the bitter fate of a peasant girl deceived by the prince. This work was in tune with the public sentiments of the pre-reform era. Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music. He introduced new techniques and means of musical expression into it. It was in Dargomyzhsky’s opera “The Stone Guest” that an expressive melodic recitative appeared. The declamatory form of singing had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian opera.
History of music of the first half of the 19th century. indicates that there is further development of genres, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, and the development of the musical heritage of the people. The main result of this period is the emergence of musical classics, the creation of the Russian national school in music.
Painting- depiction on a plane of pictures of the real world, transformed by the creative imagination of the artist; isolating the elementary and most popular aesthetic feeling - the sense of color - into a special sphere and turning it into one of the means of artistic exploration of the world.
In ancient painting, the relationship between the phenomena depicted was not so much spatial as semantic. On the island of Cham (Australia, Gulf of Carpentaria), in an ancient cave on a white wall, kangaroos are painted in black and red paint, pursued by thirty-two hunters, of which the third in order is twice as tall as the others, as it represents the leader.
Ancient Egyptian artists, for the sake of semantic emphasis, also depicted the figure of a military leader several times larger than the figures of his warriors. These were the first compositional accents of painting that did not know perspective. In ancient times, graphics and painting were close not only to each other, but also to literature. Ancient Chinese and ancient Egyptian painting and graphics are related by narrative. The picture is a chain of events, a story unfolded in a number of figures. Already at this early stage of development, painting expresses on the plane different points of view on the subject. Artists of Ancient Egypt painted both eyes on a face depicted in profile, and painters of Southern Melanesia depict planes hidden from direct view: a disk is drawn above a person’s head, indicating the back of the head, or a double face, conveying a “circular gaze.” The ancient artist did not perceive the beauty of the landscape.
The ancient artist knows well the anatomy of not only animals, but also humans. Gymnastics, music and fine arts are involved in the education of a warrior, sensing the beauty and strength of the human body, which has deep socio-historical roots. The Olympic Games and sculptural images of heroes perform similar social and aesthetic functions: raising the warriors needed by slave-owning democracy - the defenders of Hellas and the miners of slaves for its economic development.
Medieval painting gave a conventionally flat image of the world. The composition emphasized not the distance of the object from the eye of the observer, but its meaning and significance. These same features are inherent in Russian icon painting. The Middle Ages did not yet know the anatomical difference between an adult and a child: in the paintings, the Christ Child is an adult in reduced size. Medieval fine art peers into the inner world of man and penetrates into the depths of his spirit. The cult of the beauty of the naked body is being replaced by a fashion for clothing that drapes the body and falls to the floor. A monastic robe is characteristic, concealing the outlines of a person’s figure, making his appearance shapeless and sexless.
The Renaissance revives the cult of the naked body, emphasizing not only its beauty and power, but also its sensual appeal. The joy of being, the spiritual and sensual pleasure of life shines through in paintings that glorify the beauty of the female body, its Giorgionean chastity, Rubensian splendor, Titianian earthly and heavenly beauty, and El-Grecian spirituality.
Painting plays a leading role in the system of art forms of the Renaissance. Artists affirm the universal human significance of painting, which, like literature, does not require translation into another language. Leonardo da Vinci wrote: “... if the poet serves the mind by the ear, then the painter - by the eye, more worthy of feeling... A painting, so much more useful and beautiful, you will like it more... Choose a poet who would describe the beauty of a woman to her lover, and choose a painter who would depict her, and you will see where nature will incline the enamored judge.”
Geniuses always appear in the most necessary areas of social practice. And it is no coincidence that the Renaissance produced such great artists as Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Titian.
The anti-ascetic, anti-scholastic pathos of the era, the impulse for the richness of life, for its spiritual and sensual joys, find full expression precisely in painting (“Spring” by Botticelli). Artists convey the age-related anatomy of a person (the child in the arms of the Madonna Litta by Leonardo da Vinci is not a dwarf, but really a baby), they reveal the dynamic anatomy of a person at different rates and sharpness, angles, directions of movement (the frescoes of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo).
During the Renaissance, detailed principles of perspective-spatial composition developed. The arrangement of the figures in the picture revealed their life relationships. The Renaissance discovered the laws of perspective or, even more broadly, the free use of space. The idea of perspective was developed by Brunelleschi and Alberti, who taught how to organize space in a painting according to the principles of a truncated pyramid formed by rays coming from objects to our eye. The mastery of space is indicated not only by the construction of perspective (for example, in “The Last Supper” by Leonardo da Vinci), but also by the creation of “dematerialized” space.
In the 19th century The previously outlined process of demarcation between painting and graphics is being completed. The specificity of graphics is linear relationships, reproduction of the shape of objects, transmission of their illumination, the relationship between light and shadow. Painting captures the relationships of the colors of the world; in color and through color it expresses the essence of objects, their aesthetic value, verifies their social purpose, their correspondence to the environment. The process of demarcation between painting and graphics was completed by the Impressionists. They convey nothing outside of color, everything linear is secondary for them; It is not the drawing, but the color relationships of the depicted objects that become the main carrier of aesthetic meaning. Painting gains independence from drawing, which was previously its main goal, and approaches music, moving away from literature.
In the 20th century The nature of painting changes dramatically. It is influenced by photography, cinema, television, the breadth and variety of impressions of a modern person who perceives reality from great heights, and at high speeds, and from unexpected angles, and from variable, moving points of view. The intellectual and psychological world of man deepens. The advent of photography and its mastery of color posed new challenges for painting. Photography can now simply capture an object as a keepsake. In the painting of the twentieth century. The role of the subjective principle increases, the importance of personal vision, individual perception of life becomes more acute (remember Grabar’s “March Snow”).
The meaning-forming elements of painting are a processed flat base, regular edges of the picture and a frame (these elements were absent in rock painting). In modern times, painting appeared that did not depict deep space and was not framed. Its analogue was a sculpture without a pedestal - suspended or standing on the ground. Parts of the pictorial plane, the place of the image of the object on it, have a symbolic meaning. In Munch’s portrait, the self-absorbed subject is positioned slightly to the side in an empty space. This creates an artistic and semantic effect of sadness and alienation, which is enhanced by the pose of the person being portrayed.
Architecture. When a person learned to make tools, his home was no longer a hole or a nest, but an expedient building that gradually acquired an aesthetic appearance. Construction became architecture.
Architecture is the formation of reality according to the laws of beauty when creating buildings and structures designed to serve human needs for housing and public spaces. Architecture creates a closed utilitarian-artistic mastered world, delimited from nature, opposed to the elemental environment and allowing people to use humanized space in accordance with their material and spiritual needs. The architectural image expresses the purpose of the building and the artistic concept of the world and personality, a person’s idea of himself and the essence of his era.
Architecture - art and buildings have a certain style. Thanks to architecture, an integral part of “second nature” arises - the material environment that is created by human labor and in which his life and activities take place.
Architecture tends to be ensemble-like. Its structures skillfully fit into the natural (natural) or urban (city) landscape. For example, the building of Moscow State University fits well into the landscape of the Sparrow Hills, from where it offers views of the capital and the receding distances of the Central Russian plain. The former CMEA building (now the City Hall building), resembling an open book, is successfully integrated into the urban landscape of Moscow.
The forms of architecture are determined: 1) naturally (depending on geographical and climatic conditions, the nature of the landscape, the intensity of sunlight, seismic safety); 2) socially (depending on the nature of the social system, aesthetic ideals, utilitarian and artistic needs of society; architecture is more closely linked than other arts with the development of productive forces, with the development of technology).
Architecture is art, engineering, and construction, which requires enormous concentration of collective efforts and material resources (St. Isaac's Cathedral, for example, was built by half a million people over forty years). Architectural works are created to last forever. The creator of the “stone book” and its “reader” are the people. A work of architecture is a huge stone symphony, a mighty creation of the people, like the Iliad, an amazing result of the combination of all the forces of an entire era.
Even in ancient times, architecture interacted with monumental sculpture, painting, mosaics, and icons. In this synthesis, architecture dominates. Sometimes literature, in the form of a quotation from a literary text, enters into a relationship of subordination with architecture and sculpture. There is also a known case of the subordinate interaction of music with architecture: one of the Burmese pagodas is hung with bells, which create a silver cloud of the lightest and most gentle ringing around the structure. Organ music was associated with Gothic cathedrals.
The basis of architectural composition is the volumetric-spatial structure, the organic relationship of the elements of a building or ensemble of buildings. The scale of the structure is semiotically significant and largely determines the nature of the artistic image, its monumentality or intimacy. Architecture does not reproduce reality pictorially, but is expressive in nature. Rhythm, the ratio of volumes, lines are the means of its expressiveness. One of the modern artistic structures is arrhythmia in rhythm, dissonance in harmony (for example, an ensemble of buildings in the city of Brazil).
Architecture originated in ancient times, at the highest level of barbarism, when the laws of not only necessity, but also beauty began to operate in construction.
In Ancient Egypt, huge tombs were built (the height of the Cheops pyramid in Giza is about 150 m), temples with many powerful columns (in the Temple of Amun in Karnak, the height of the columns is 20.4 m and the diameter is 3.4 m). This architecture is characterized by geometric clarity of forms, lack of divisions, disproportion between the scale of the structure and the person, and monumentality that overwhelms the individual. Grandiose structures were created not to satisfy the material needs of the people, but in the name of spiritual and religious goals and served the cause of the social organization of the Egyptians under the despotic rule of the pharaoh.
In Ancient Hellas, architecture takes on a democratic appearance. Religious buildings (for example, the Parthenon Temple) affirm the beauty, freedom, and dignity of the Greek citizen. New types of public buildings are emerging - theaters, stadiums, schools. Architects follow the humanistic principle of beauty formulated by Aristotle: beauty is not too big and not too small. The person here acts as a measure of the beauty and scale of the building, which, unlike the buildings of Ancient Egypt, does not suppress, but exalts the individual, which corresponded to the social goals of Athenian democracy. The architects of ancient Greece created an order system that played a large role in the development of architecture. In ancient Rome, arched and vaulted structures made of concrete were widely used. New types of buildings appeared: forums, triumphal arches, reflecting the ideas of statehood and military power.
In the Middle Ages, architecture became the leading and most popular form of art, whose images were accessible even to illiterate people. Gothic cathedrals reaching towards the sky expressed a religious impulse towards God and the people's passionate earthly dream of happiness.
Renaissance architecture develops on a new basis the principles and forms of ancient classics.
Classicism canonized the compositional techniques of antiquity.
From the end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th century, during the era of the formation of national states, accompanied by wars, Baroque developed (a large number of stucco decorations, complexity of divisions and spatial relationships, pomp, exaltation, contrast of forms). Baroque buildings served to glorify and affirm absolutism (such as the Palace of Versailles) and Catholicism (for example, the Roman church of Santa Maria della Vittoria).
At the beginning of the 18th century. in France, the Rococo style arose and spread throughout Europe (for example, the Sans Souci Palace in Potsdam) as an expression of the tastes of the aristocracy (decoration, whimsical ornamentation of form, deliberate asymmetry and complexity of winding lines, and in the interior - rich paintings and large mirrors creating the impression lightness and immateriality of walls).
In the second half of the 18th century. Rococo gives way to Empire - a monumental, majestic style based on the traditions of classicism and the style of the era of the Roman emperors. It expresses military might and the greatness of power (for example, the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, superior to the arches of the ancient world, or the Vendôme Column, repeating Trajan's Column in Rome).
The achievements of Russian architecture are depicted in Kremlins, fortifications, palaces, religious and civil buildings. Russian architecture is rich in original national creations (the bell tower of Ivan the Great, St. Basil's Cathedral, wooden buildings with their clear design solutions and rich ornamental forms, such as the churches in Kizhi). “Russian Baroque” asserted the unity of the Russian state, the rise of national life (the works of Rastrelli: the Winter Palace and the ensembles of Tsarskoe Selo).
In the XVIII-XIX centuries. the principles of Russian classicism are developed: clarity and expressiveness of the architectural image, simple constructive and artistic means. In the 19th century Eclecticism is affirmed.
In the 20th century New types of buildings are appearing: industrial, transport, administrative multi-storey buildings and residential areas. Their construction is carried out using industrial methods using new materials and standard factory-made elements. This changes aesthetic criteria and opens up new means of expression in architecture (in urban planning, for example, the problem of artistic expressiveness of mass development arises).
The embellishment that characterized Soviet architecture from the 30s to the 50s hampered its development. The abandonment of decoration reduced the cost of construction, increased its scale and pace, and directed the creative minds of architects towards the search for simple, expressive architectural solutions. In this regard, the House of Cinema Veterans, a complex of buildings on Novy Arbat in Moscow, are indicative.
Sculpture- spatial-visual art, mastering the world in plastic images that are imprinted in materials capable of conveying the vital appearance of phenomena.
Sculptural works are carved from marble, granite and other stone, carved from wood, and sculpted from clay. Soft materials are considered temporary; when working with them, it is usually assumed that further casting into more durable ones - cast iron, bronze. In our time, the number of materials suitable for sculpture has expanded: works of steel, concrete, and plastic have appeared.
Man is the main, but not the only subject of sculpture. Animal artists create animal figures. A circular sculpture can only recreate the details of the environment surrounding a person. Such types of sculpture as bas-relief and high relief are close to painting and graphics, and they can depict landscapes.
Sculpting always conveys movement. Even complete rest is perceived in sculpture as internal movement, as a lasting state, extended not only in space, but also in time. The sculptor has at his disposal only one moment of action, but it bears the stamp of everything that preceded and followed. This gives the sculpture dynamic expressiveness. The sculptural image of a dead man conveys the hidden movement diffused in the body, his eternal peace and the last efforts of struggle, frozen forever. This is the image of the dead Christ lying on the lap of the Mother of God in the sculpture “Pieta” by Michelangelo. The movement sleeps in the body of God the Son, falling from the mother’s lap and at the same time, as it were, resisting this lifeless fall.
The perception of sculpture always unfolds sequentially in time, which is used in the sculptural composition and helps to convey movement. All-round visibility, changing position, viewing angle reveal different sides of a three-dimensional image.
Monumentality is one of the possibilities of sculpture, providing it with a synthesis with architecture.
There is a broad generalization inherent in the very nature of sculpture. Pushkin noted that a painted sculpture makes less of an impression than a one-color sculpture; coloring takes away its generalization.
The means of representation and expressiveness of sculpture are light and shadow. The planes and surfaces of the sculptured figure, reflecting light and casting shadows, create a spatial play of forms that has an aesthetic effect on viewers.
Bronze sculpture allows for a sharp separation of light and shadow, while marble, permeable to light rays, allows for the subtle play of light and shadow to be conveyed. This feature of marble was used by ancient artists; Thus, the delicate pinkish, slightly translucent marble of the statue of Venus de Milo amazingly conveys the tenderness and elasticity of a woman’s body.
Sculpture is one of the oldest forms of art, dating back to the Paleolithic era. During the development of ancient society, on the basis of magical realities (syncretistic and ritual in nature, pre-artistic images) that arose from practical needs, a sign system was born, which then contributed to the artistic and figurative reflection of the world. For example, a stone that personified an animal and served as a target for inflicting wounds (a “rehearsal” for a hunt) is replaced by a natural stuffed animal, and then by a sculptural image of it.
In Ancient Egypt, sculpture was associated with the cult of the dead: the belief that the soul is alive as long as the image of a person exists forced the creation of durable sculptures from the strongest materials (Lebanese cedar, granite, red porphyry, basalt). Ancient Egyptian sculpture is characterized by monumentality, some simplicity of forms, and a tendency towards static figures.
In Ancient Greece, sculpting reached its highest level. It is no coincidence that Hegel associated the classical (ancient) period of art with sculpture. In ancient sculpture there is always a feeling of inner freedom. The hero is at ease and retains his inner dignity; even suffering does not distort, disfigure his face, or disturb the harmony of the image (for example, “Laocoon”).
The Middle Ages developed monumental forms of sculpture that were in synthesis with architecture. Gothic sculpture combined naturalistic detail with decorative and dynamic figures that conveyed intense spiritual life. Illusory, phantasmagoric, allegorical images also appear (for example, chimeras of Notre Dame Cathedral).
Sculptors during the Renaissance created a gallery of brightly individualized images of strong-willed, proactive, active people.
Baroque sculpture (17th century) was solemn, pathetic, ceremonial, full of a bizarre play of light and shadow, the boiling of swirling masses.
The sculpture of classicism, on the contrary, is rationalistic, calm, majestic, and nobly simple. In the 18th century the sculpture gravitates towards the socio-psychological portrait characteristics of a person.
In the 19th century Realism blossoms in sculpture: images acquire aesthetic versatility, historical specificity, everyday and psychological character.
In the 20th century sculptors give a generalized, sometimes symbolic, interpretation of sculptural images. The sculpture deepens the psychological content of the image, expanding the possibilities of expressing the spiritual life of the era in plastic.
