A message on the topic of Byzantine culture. Byzantine culture
Notes on cultural studies
Byzantine Empire arose at the turn of two eras - the collapse of late antiquity and the birth medieval society as a result of the division of the Roman Empire into eastern and western parts. The geographical position of Byzantium, which spread its possessions over two continents - Europe and Asia, and sometimes extended its power to areas of Africa, made this empire a kind of connecting link between East and West. Mixture of Greco-Roman and eastern traditions left its mark on social life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went its own way historically, in many ways different from the destinies of countries, both East and West, which determined the characteristics of its culture.
In the history of European, and indeed the entire world culture, Byzantine civilization has a special place; it is characterized by solemn pomp, inner nobility, grace of form and depth of thought. Throughout thousand years of existence The Byzantine Empire, which absorbed the heritage of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. In addition, until the 13th century. Byzantium, in terms of the level of development of education, the intensity of spiritual life and the colorful sparkle of objective forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe.
Features of Byzantine culture are as follows:
1) synthesis of Western and Eastern elements in various spheres of the material and spiritual life of society with the dominant position of Greco-Roman traditions;
2) maintaining traditions to a large extent ancient civilization, which served as the basis for development in Byzantium humanistic ideas and fertilized European culture Renaissance era;
3) The Byzantine Empire, in contrast to the fragmented medieval Europe, retained state political doctrines, which left its mark on various areas culture, namely: with the ever-increasing influence of Christianity, secular artistic creativity has never faded;
4) the difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, which was manifested in the originality of the philosophical and theological views of Orthodox theologians and philosophers of the East, in dogmatics, liturgics, and rituals Orthodox Church, in the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values Byzantium.
The formation of Byzantine culture took place in an atmosphere of deeply contradictory ideological life in early Byzantium. This was the time of the formation of the ideology of Byzantine society, the formation of a system of Christian worldview, which was established in a bitter struggle with the philosophical, ethical, aesthetic and natural-scientific views of the ancient world.
IN patriotic literature the early Byzantine era, in the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, where the foundation of medieval Christian theology was laid, we see a combination of ideas early Christianity with Neoplatonic philosophy, the paradoxical interweaving of ancient rhetorical forms with the new ideological content. Cappadocian thinkers Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus lay the foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their philosophies are rooted in ancient history Hellenic thinking. At the center of patriotic philosophy is the understanding of existence as a good, which provides a kind of justification for the cosmos, and, consequently, the world and man. In Gregory of Nyssa, this concept sometimes approaches pantheism.
Byzantium entered the Middle Ages, preserving cultural heritage antiquity. Crafts and trade continued to develop in its cities. The Christian religion had a strong influence on the cultural and political life countries. In the VII-VIII centuries. Greek language became the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire. Despite the reduction of Byzantium's possessions, education continued to develop (even among peasants and artisans there were literate people), and public and private schools were opened. In the 9th century. in its capital Constantinople operated graduate School, in which religion, mythology, history, geography, and literature were taught. Two centuries later, the first university in Europe was opened in the capital.
The Byzantines preserved and developed ancient knowledge in mathematics, chemistry, medicine, geography and history. Scientist Leo Mathematician (9th century) laid the foundation for algebra. “Greek fire” was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and tar that cannot be extinguished with water (with its help, the Byzantines won battles more than once).
Construction of Christian churches was underway. Their distinctive feature was the rich decoration and beauty of the interior. In plan, the temple was divided into a vestibule - a room at the western, main entrance, a nave - the main part of the temple, where believers gathered for prayer, and an altar, where only clergy could enter. The altar was facing east, towards the city of Jerusalem, where Jesus Christ was crucified. Church of St. Sophia (Wisdom of God) in Constantinople is the most remarkable monument Byzantine architecture. Its gigantic dome (31.5 m in diameter) is surrounded by a wreath of forty windows. It seems that the dome, like the vault of heaven, floats in the air. Beautiful mosaics - images made of multi-colored stones and pieces of glass - decorated the walls of the temple. In the X-XI centuries. Instead of a rectangular one, a cross-domed type of temple was established, which had the shape of a cross in plan with a dome in the middle.
The temple was both a model of the world and the abode of God. A strict canon has developed in the design of churches - the rules for depicting Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, saints and scenes from the Bible. Meaning Christian art was to instruct believers how to earn heavenly bliss after death. In churches and dwellings, icons were placed - picturesque images of God, the Mother of God, scenes from the Holy Scriptures on smooth wooden boards. The faces of the Savior, the Mother of God and the saints reflected high thoughts and spiritual concentration. One of the best examples of Byzantine icon painting - “Our Lady of Vladimir” was brought to Rus' and became one of the main Russian shrines.
Byzantium was the main carrier of culture in medieval Europe: its masters, artists, architects were invited to other countries, European youth studied with Byzantine masters and scientists.
Southern and Eastern Slavs experienced the strong influence of Byzantium. Rus' adopted the Christian faith from Byzantium. The first churches in Rus' were built and decorated by Byzantine craftsmen.
Introduction. 3
1. Philosophy and education. 4
2. Architecture and music. 5
3. Literature in Byzantium. 7
4. Fresco painting Byzantium.. 9
6. Icon painting in Byzantium.. 11
7. Development artistic culture.. 12
Conclusion. 16
List of used literature... 17
Historians associate the birth of the Byzantine civilization with the founding of its capital, the city of Constantinople. The city of Constantinople was founded by Emperor Constantine in 324. And it was founded on the site of a Roman settlement in Byzantium.
In fact, the history of Byzantium as an independent state begins in 395. It was only during the Renaissance that the name “Byzantine civilization” was coined.
Constantinople, which was the founding center of the Byzantine civilization, was well located.
The purpose of this work is to analyze the main directions of Byzantine culture.
Textbooks on cultural studies, history, etc. served as the information base for the work.
Philosophy
The philosophical thought of Byzantium was formed during the period when a religious and philosophical doctrine was created in the Eastern Roman Empire, combining the teachings of Plato and the concept of the Logos as one of the hypostases of the Trinity and of Christ the God-man, reconciling the earthly and the heavenly. The victory of official Orthodoxy entailed the closure of the Alexandria and Athens schools by Emperor Justinian I in 1529 and virtually meant the end of secular philosophy. From the end of the 4th century. Church literature was firmly established in Byzantium. On the base church canons and the Holy Scriptures are based on Christian teaching.
Most famous fathers Eastern Church - John Chrysostom, Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great, Theodorite of Crete. This period is characterized by Neoplatonism as the most widespread philosophical teaching, which combines Stoic, Epicurean, skeptical teachings with an admixture of elements of the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. In the V-VI centuries. In Neoplatonism, two branches appear: pre-Christian and later, in which Neoplatonism is the basis of ideological Christian doctrine. An outstanding representative of this school was Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. His teaching was improved by Maximus the Confessor and firmly entered the spiritual life of Byzantine society.
The second period of Byzantine philosophy is iconoclasm, the ideologists of which were the icon-worshipers John of Damascus and Fyodor the Studite.
In the third period, rationalistic philosophical concepts developed, philosophy was declared a science that should explore the nature of things and bring this knowledge into a system (11th century).
The last period of Byzantine philosophy is characterized by the development of a religious-mystical direction as a reaction to rationalism. The most famous is hesychasm (Gregory Palamas). It has similarities with Yoga: cleansing the heart with tears, psychophysical control to achieve unity with God, self-concentration of consciousness.
Education
In the IV-VI centuries. old ones were preserved scientific centers(Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza) and new ones arose (Constantinople). In 1045, the University of Constantinople was founded with two faculties - law and philosophy. Books were copied mainly on parchments and were very expensive. Monasteries and private libraries were repositories of books.
From the end of the 7th century. to the 9th century higher education practically disappeared and was revived only at the end of the century.
2. Architecture and music
Architecture
In the art of Byzantium, refined decorativeness, the desire for magnificent entertainment, and conventionality are inextricably linked artistic language, sharply distinguishing it from antiquity, and deep religiosity. The Byzantines created artistic system, in which strict norms and canons dominate, and the beauty of the material world is considered only as a reflection of the unearthly, divine beauty. These features were clearly manifested both in architecture and in the fine arts.
Type ancient temple was rethought in accordance with new religious requirements. Now it did not serve as a place to store the statue of a deity, as it was in ancient times, but a place for believers to gather to participate in the sacrament of communion with the deity and listen to the “word of God.” Therefore, the main attention was paid to the organization of the internal space.
The origin of the Byzantine church building should be sought in antiquity: the Roman basilicas that served in ancient Rome judicial and commercial buildings began to be used as churches, and then Christian basilica churches began to be built. Byzantine basilicas are distinguished by their simplicity of plan: the main rectangular volume is adjoined on the eastern side by a semicircular altar apse, covered with a semi-dome (conch), which is preceded by a transverse nephtransept. Often to west side The basilica is adjacent to a rectangular courtyard, surrounded by a gallery with arcades and having a fountain for ablutions in the center. Arched ceilings rest not on the entablature, as in antiquity, but on pulvan pillows lying on the capitals and evenly distributing the load of the arches onto the capitals of the columns.
Inside, in addition to the main, higher nave, there are side naves (there can be three or five of them). Later, the most widespread type was the cross-domed church: a building with a square plan, in the central part of which there were four pillars supporting the dome. Four vaulted arms diverged from the center, forming an equilateral, so-called Greek cross. Sometimes the basilica was connected to a cross-domed church.
The main temple of the entire Byzantine Empire was the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. It was built in 632-537. by the architects Anthemius of Tral and Isidore of Miletus during the time of Emperor Justinian. The gigantic dome of the temple has a diameter of 30 m. Thanks to the design features of the building and the windows cut at the base of the dome, it seems to float in the air. The dome rests on 40 radial arches.
Interior decoration cathedral was damaged during crusades and the invasion of the Turks. After the defeat of Constantinople, it became the Hagia Sophia mosque. Instead of a cross, there is now a crescent on it, a sign of the pagan goddesses Hecate and Diana.
Music
Only church music has reached us. Secular music was preserved only in the form of "recitation" of the palace ceremony and a few melodies. They sang a cappella (without accompaniment). Three vocal methods: solemn reading of Gospel texts with singing along, singing psalms and hymns, hallelujah singing. The oldest document of liturgical chant dates back to the 4th century. Byzantine singing reaches its peak in the era Early Middle Ages. With the increase in the pomp of church services in the XIII-XIV centuries. the flowering of musical art begins.
At this time, a distinction was made between “simple” and “rich” singing, in which one syllable was extended by a whole note group or phrase. Byzantine services, liturgical melodies and hymns had an impact big influence for both Catholic and Russian church services, formed the basis of Russian church music. The oldest Russian church singing was of Byzantine origin. Along with the adoption of Christianity, Byzantine performers appeared in Rus' church service(Bulgarians and Greeks).
3. Literature in Byzantium
The influence of Byzantine literature on European literature is very great, and its influence on Slavic literature is undeniable. Until the 13th century. in Byzantine libraries one could find not only Greek manuscripts, but also their Slavic translations. Some works have survived only in Slavic translation; the originals have been lost. Byzantine literature proper appears in the 6th-7th centuries, when the Greek language became dominant. Monuments folk art Almost none have survived to this day. According to Western European scientists, Byzantine literature was considered the “archive of Hellenism”, its free character was underestimated, meanwhile Byzantine literature is original, and one can speak of Hellenism as literary influence along with the influence of Arabic, Syriac, Persian, Coptic literature, although Hellenism was more clearly manifested. The poetry of the hymns is best known to us: Roman the Sweet Singer (VI century), Emperor Justinian, Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople, Patriarch Sophronius of Jerusalem. The hymns of Roman the Sweet Singer are characterized by closeness to the psalms in musical and semantically(Old Testament themes, depth and asceticism of music). Of the thousand hymns he wrote, about 80 have survived. In form, it is a narrative with elements of dialogue; in style, it is a combination of scholarship and edification with poetry.
Historical storytelling in the style of Herodotus was popular in Byzantine literature. In the VI century. these are Procopius, Peter Patricius, Agathia, Menander, Protiktor, etc. Best Writers, brought up in ancient schools on pagan traditions, - Athanasius of Alexandria, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom. The influence of the East is observed in the patericons of the V-VI centuries. (stories about hermit-ascetics). During the period of iconoclasm, the lives of the saints and their twelve-month collections “Cheti-Minea” appeared.
Starting from the 9th century, after iconoclasm, historical chronicles with a church orientation appeared. Particularly interesting is the chronicle of George Amartol (late 9th century) from Adam to 842 (a monastic chronicle with intolerance for iconoclasm and a predilection for theology).
Among literary figures Patriarch Photius and Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus should be noted. Photius was a highly educated man, and his house was a learned salon. His students were compiling a dictionary-lexicon. The most outstanding work Photius - his “Library” or “Polybook” (880 chapters). They contain information about Greek grammarians, orators, philosophers, naturalists and doctors, novels, hagiographic works (apocrypha, legends, etc.).
The culture of Byzantium covers the period European Middle Ages. She became the actual heir to ancient Greek traditions, while simultaneously absorbing cultures eastern peoples, in large numbers inhabiting the territory of the empire.
Byzantine culture: historical period
It does not have strictly defined territorial or periodic boundaries. It is believed that First stage its development dates back to the founding of Constantinople - that is, from 330, and its end is determined by the middle of the 15th century, when in 1456 the empire was finally destroyed by the Turks. However, the influence of Byzantium on culture is undeniable Ancient Rus' and other Slavic states, so it continued to exist in these countries. It is believed that the 11th century was its heyday.
Byzantine culture developed under the influence of various historical events within the framework of the struggle between paganism and Christianity, as well as the formation of the state from antiquity to medieval times. The result of these processes was that Christianity was the basis of Byzantine culture.
Byzantine culture: features
It is considered very original because, unlike the culture of Europe in the Middle Ages, it contains elements eastern civilizations. At the same time, it is impossible not to notice the influence of bygone antiquity and a new trend - Islam. The dominant role of religion determined the main feature of this original culture - the person in it was oriented towards the world of the highest truth, ideal and often irrational. This is explained by the fact that religion was at the center of the entire paradigm.
Rice. 1. Byzantine icon.
For the same reason, Byzantine art represents a very special cultural phenomenon, which is discussed today in history lessons in the 6th grade. The fact is that artists in this cultural period were considered conductors of spirituality; accordingly, on their canvases they embodied the divine world, and not their own vision of the real world.
Education in the empire was available to everyone, and the school provided an opportunity to move up the social ladder and occupy a prominent position. If in Western Europe schools were church, then in Byzantium they were secular, Holy Bible was studied in them along with ancient philosophy and poetry.
Rice. 2. Book from Byzantium.
The role and further influence of Byzantine culture
She had a particular influence on the culture of Kievan Rus, which after baptism inherited its traditions. They became the basis for her own cultural traditions, and almost everything was borrowed. Thus, Prince Vladimir, after his visit to the capital of Byzantium, was so impressed by the local architecture that he immediately ordered the construction of temples in Rus' based on the Byzantine model. In addition, the art of icon painting was completely adopted.
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Rice. 3. Byzantine temple.
Its role on a European and world scale was also noticeable, mainly because Byzantine culture synthesized antique samples Greco-Roman period from oriental elements. It is also impossible to overestimate her influence on the art of eastern and southern Europe.
What have we learned?
From an article that can be used for a report in history class, we learned that Byzantine culture took shape over more than 10 centuries: from the founding of Constantinople until its capture by the Turks. The information briefly presented about the culture of Byzantium helped to compile general idea about what lay at its basis - it was a religious component, and the arts and civilization developed thanks to the universal availability of education. Byzantine culture had a significant influence not only on Kievan Rus, which is considered its successor, but also to Southern and Eastern Europe.
Byzantium- This is the Eastern Roman Empire. Initially, the main center was the colony of Byzantium, then Constantinople became it. Byzantium included the territories of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, India with Palestine, Syria, North. Africa, North Black Sea region. This empire existed from the 4th century BC. - mid 15th century, until it was destroyed by the Seljuk Turks.
She is the heiress of Greco-Roman culture. Culture is contradictory, because tried to combine the ideals of antiquity and Christianity. The world was perceived as God's beautiful creation. allocated Divine essence human soul.
The role of cities. In the 4th-5th centuries largest cities were: Alexandria, Antioch (Syria), Edes (Mesopotamia), Tyre, Beirut, Ephesus, Smyrna, Nicaea (Asia Minor), Thessalonica and Corinth (European part).
Constantinople (located in the Bosphorus Strait) played a special role. Already in the 4th century. it became the largest trade and craft center, it was called the “Workshop of the Universe.” Ships arrived at the port from different countries. Its importance as a cultural and religious center also grew. The construction of secular buildings, entertainment venues, and temples was underway.
The role of the church. Byzantium was an empire state. The emperor had unlimited power. He was considered mortal, but in relation to society he was like the Heavenly Father. The emperors showed themselves to be faithful sons of the church, although they exercised deep influence. The church influenced society. The Church fought against heresies (deviations from official teaching). In the 9th century The Eastern Church (Orthodox) separated from the Western (Catholic). In the 11th century There was a split in the church, they became independent branches of Christianity. Byzantium itself separated from Western Christianity.
Early Middle Ages.
Education was on top level. Preference was given to encyclopedic knowledge. The Laws of God, music, aesthetics, and physical education were studied.
Develops in Byzantium Institute of Monasticism, especially in the 7th-9th centuries. A lot appears religious literature lives of the saints. The first higher education institution was opened school in the 9th century in Constantinople (closed in the 7th), and a medical school.
The science.
IN geography- they drew maps of seas, countries, cities, this was incomprehensible to the West.
Significant advances in medicine: the doctor Oribasius compiled medical encyclopedia from 70 books. After the establishment of Christianity, scientists were persecuted, schools were closed, and some Library of Alexandria. Science becomes theological.
All R. 6th century monk Cosmas Indicoplous wrote "Christian Topography"(the shape of the earth is a flat quadrangle).
In the 6th-7th century. dominated alchemy in search of a divine elixir (metal into gold, cure any disease, restore youth). Developed chemistry: paints for painting and fabrics, ceramics, mosaics, enamels.
In 7 the Byzantines invented "divine fire"- a mixture that burned on water, it was used in the siege of fortresses.
Scientist Leo Mathematician perfected light telegraph.
Doctor Nikita compiled collection of surgery 9th century
Philosophy.
Common in the 4th-5th century Neoplatonism- a combination of Stoic, Epicurean and skeptical teachings with the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Representatives: Proclus and John Philosponus or Grammar.
Literature.
Secular poets retell ancient myths, use ancient metrics, and church poets. More gospel stories.
Poetic size folk verse is church poetry vernacular(Roman Sladkopevets).
Poems about the fight against enemies - a poem about Digenis Akritos.
Animal epic - satirical image gentlemen
Almost only theological literature has been preserved: Cosmas of Magom (8th century - hymn singer), John of Damascus (canons - hymns of 9 songs), Theodore the Studite (canons, hymns). “Myriobiblion” was written by Photius – these are annotations to 280 ancient and early Byzantine legends with commentaries.
Art and Architecture.
Tasks Byzantine art - translate into artistic images divine ideas and the beauty of the human spirit.
IN architecture rounded shapes appear, a rotunda, a basilica, and domes appear. The most famous is the Cathedral of St. Mary (6th century Constantinople), built by Anthemius and Isidore. It is a domed basilica in shape.
Style is emerging wall painting – mosaic. Mosaic of the Church of St. Vitaliy in Ravenna, mosaic of Sophia of Constantinople, 9th century.
Is born icon painter b - she depicts Divine world in images of earthly reality (the Virgin and Child, Jesus).
Ivory sculptures– consular diptychs.
Music.
Hymns are religious and philosophical song lyrics that combined mysticism with emotional content (John of Damascus).
Period of the Macedonian dynasty and the Komnic dynasty.
Interest in classical literature and philosophy.
Science and education .
In the 9th century reborn unand university- This is the center of secular education for the entire empire.
In the 10th century collections have been created and encyclopedias(historical, agricultural, medical and veterinary).
~ 975 Suda was created - 30 thousand articles explaining ancient realities, biographical notes, quotes from ancient authors, etc.
Literature.
Representatives: Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Simeon Metaphrastus, adapted the cultural heritage to the interests of the ruling elite.
In 11 in Michael Psellus - works on history, theology, mathematics, poetry, odes (“Chronography”).
Art and architecture.
Instead of a basilica - cross-domed church, this became dominant in the 10th-12th centuries. Temples are becoming smaller, but taller. The dome looked from the inside - it symbolized the Universe. New look temples - are faced. First new type– Basilica of St. Basil the Macedonian “New Church”.
In art of the 10th-11th centuries. dominates lush decorativeness.
In the 11th-12th centuries. Church painting is put together into a scheme - all churches are painted according to it.
11th-12th century rise in the art of icon painting– icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, belongs to the type of tenderness. High craftsmanship in gold processing, brocade fabrics, glassware, ivory carvings.
Music - church singing.
The Age of Palaiologos.
In the 13th century Constantinople is captured by the Crusaders. Decline of culture. Cultural values were destroyed.
Large historian – Nikita Choniates, author of a work of 21 books.
Geography – Nikifor Vlemmydes, author of “History of the Earth”, “General Geography”.
Maxim Planud pointed to Indian origin Arabic numeral system "Numeracy according to the Indian model."
Mathematics - Nikolai Artabasd Rabd.
Philosophy
15th century - Georgiy Gemist Plifon, humanistic worldview. Late Byzantine philosophical mysticism was represented by Gregory the Sinaite, Nicholas Kavasil, and Gregory Palamas.
Literature.
Representatives: Nikifor Grigor, Lapith, Akindin.
The first Italian humanists were Manuel Chrysolor, Pletho and Vissarion of Nicaea.
Art and architecture.
The temples are more picturesque, the proportions are more fragile - the Church of the Apostles in Thessaloniki. Painting- a dramatic experience of the gospel story. The colors are more muted, fresco, miniature, icon. 14 in Theophanes the Greek - painting of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Novgorod.
