Cultural stereotypes. Stereotype as a cultural phenomenon

Stereotypes are ideas about the characteristics of group entities. It is important to distinguish autosteriotypes(for example, what Americans think about themselves) and heterostereotypes(for example, what Americans think about the Japanese or the Japanese about Americans). Some stereotypes are correct, in which case they are called sociotypes. For example, the stereotypical idea that African Americans vote for democratic party, is a sociotype, since there is empirical data confirming that about 90% of them actually vote this way.

Stereotypes vary according to difficulties(the number of inclusions of independent representations), clarity(the degree of agreement that a given attribute is a characteristic of the group), specificity(for example, the characteristic “does a good job in court” is more specific compared to the more abstract one – “smart/reasonable”), validity(the degree of consistency between the stereotype and objective scientific data) and significance (value)(degree of inclusion of positive or negative characteristics).

The clarity of stereotypes increases when two groups are in contact. When one cultural group has many resources that are valued positively by another group, the rich group will be perceived more favorably, i.e. the value of the heterostereotype will be positive. The greater the similarity between two cultural groups, the more positive the value of the corresponding heterostereotypes.

The work of Triandis, Lisansky, Setiadi, Chang, Marin, Betancourt (1982) provides examples of auto- and heterostereotypes. During certain period they recorded all the recruits from Spanish names recruited into the US Navy at three recruiting stations (Florida, California and Illinois). They were asked “do they consider themselves Spanish?” Then the respondents were divided into 2 groups using a random sampling method (identical in size), one of which considered itself to be Spaniards, and the other did not. After this, respondents from both groups were asked to name 15 characteristics that they considered most important to describe their own and other ethnic groups. Based on the surveys, 15 attributes were identified to describe each ethnic group.

After this, respondents were asked to rank the degree to which, in their opinion, specific attributes were present in different ethnic groups. For example, the characteristic “Spaniards are inherently uneducated” was ranked on a 10-point scale: from 1=never to 10=always. Table 4-4 shows how the Anglo-Saxon and Spanish ethnic groups ranked the Spanish and Mexican American ethnic groups on these attributes.

To understand the table, we will explain the method of analyzing judgments. First, the data on the 15 attributes were subjected to factor analysis. It allows us to identify the compatibility of the manifestations of certain characteristics.

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Table 4-4. Like the Spaniards and Mexican Americans perceived by the Anglo-Saxons and Spaniards.
2. stimulus group: Chicanos (Spanish)
3. stimulus group: Mexican Americans
4. scales
5. How are they perceived by the Anglo-Saxons?
6. how are they perceived by Spaniards?
7. factors
uneducated
educated
family oriented
friendly
unfriendly
competition oriented
collaboration-oriented
dependent
independent
not ambitious
ambitious
lazy
hardworking
ethical
unethical
23. well socialized
24.
25. good citizens
26. well socialized
27. not retarded
28. good citizens
29. well socialized
30. lack of antisocial orientation
31. underprivileged
32. well socialized
33. not retarded
34. socialized in general
35. name of the factor
Source: Triandis et al., 1982. Reprinted with permission from Sage Publications, Inc.

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Secondly, the table shows the percentage of expression of each attribute when describing stimulus groups. For example, the first column of Table 4-4 suggests that Anglos perceive Chicanos as cooperative, ambitious, and hardworking. This factor was named "well socialized". (The naming of these factors is a matter of personal opinion and the reader may use other names when viewing the tables.)

The numbers in the first column indicate that the correlation coefficient between a particular attribute and a factor is approximately 0.70. The numbers in parentheses indicate the proportion of Anglo-Saxons who used this attribute to describe the Chicano group. For example, 59% of Anglo respondents used the attribute “collaborative oriented” when ranking Chicanos. One can easily look at the rest of the table and examine the consistent differences in Anglo-Saxon heterostereotypes (in the evaluation of Chicanos and Mexican Americans) and in the self-stereotypes of Spaniards (in the evaluation of stimulus groups). Note that some factors ("well socialized") were the same, although the levels of approval (expressiveness) were slightly different (about 60% by the Spaniards and only about 50% by the Anglo-Saxons).

Table 4-5 presents similar data for the nonwhite and white American stimulus groups. Here, autostereotypes based on the factor “well socialized” are supported by groups at the level of 85%. When analyzing these tables, a number of interesting differences and similarities can be identified.

table 4-5. How colored and white Americans are perceived by the Anglo-Saxons and Spaniards.
2. stimulus group: Americans of color
3. stimulus group: white Americans
4. good citizens
5. lack of unfriendliness
6. enterprise
7. profligacy
8. enlightenment
9. subject of situational ethics
10. Protestant ethics

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A cultural stereotype is a certain canon of thoughts and perceptions, a stable reproduction of leisure activities and forms of behavior. On the one hand, a cultural stereotype helps an individual navigate situations; an entrenched form of prejudice plays a role negative role, prevents us from objectively assessing the contradictions that arise during the development of social relations and the ambiguity of people’s actions.

IN in a broad sense a cultural stereotype as part of a worldview can be considered as a carrier of collective ideas, as an imprint of power relations, as a manifestation of implicit knowledge, as a component of motivation for social practice. Its versatile study is relevant, first of all, from the position of the anthropological version of cultural studies, which, by studying the specifics of the subject cultural activities, is aimed at providing him with pragmatic, adaptive and expedient knowledge.

Study cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is related to the needs modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, often very far from reality, has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself . It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities.

Despite all the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in every new historical era is important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant voltage ripple between traditional installation and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and rethinking the already known. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself, is still a problem.

Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, a prejudice, a cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences.

Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, under the stereotype in general outline is understood as a relatively stable and simplified image social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, emerging in conditions of information deficiency as a result of generalization personal experience individual and often preconceived ideas accepted in society.

At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ significantly from them in their psychological basis.

The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, consolidated by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means , in which society is interested (or not interested).

In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance and openness to others, while stereotypes are a product of hidden subjective attitudes.

By their nature, stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and interactions of individuals. Having this nature, stereotypes have a number of qualities: integrity, value, stability, conservatism, emotionality, rationality, etc. Thanks to these qualities, stereotypes perform their various functions and tasks, of which for the process intercultural communication special meaning have the following:

explanation of human actions by providing ready and simple information about their specific sociocultural characteristics;

foresight various forms behavior from communication partners;

formation of the foundations of one’s own behavior in relation to interlocutors and partners;

protection of traditions, customs, habits, one’s culture, apology for one’s own co-cultural group;

providing members of society with appropriate standards, models, and standards of behavior;

stabilization and integration of relations between sociocultural groups in society.

Stereotypes are rigidly “built-in” into our value system; they are its integral part and provide a kind of protection of our positions in society. For this reason, stereotypes are used in every intercultural situation. The mechanisms of intercultural perception activate the selective application of the norms and values of the native culture. Without using these extremely common cultural specific ways assessments like own group, and others cultural groups, it is impossible to get by. Representatives of another group are identified by such characteristics as gender, ethnicity, speech characteristics, appearance, color of the skin, marriage customs, religious beliefs, etc. cultural stereotype tradition

The relationship between the cultural background of a person and the character traits attributed to him is usually not adequate. People belonging different cultures, have different understandings of the world, which makes communication from a “single” position impossible. Guided by the norms and values of his culture, a person himself determines which facts and in what light to evaluate, which significantly affects the nature of our communication with representatives of other cultures.

For example, when communicating with Italians who are animatedly gesturing during a conversation, Germans, accustomed to a different style of communication, may develop a stereotype about the “eccentricity” and “disorganization” of Italians. In turn, Italians may have a stereotype about Germans as “cold” and “restrained”, etc.

Depending on the methods and forms of use, stereotypes can be useful or harmful for communication. Stereotyping helps people understand a situation and act in accordance with new circumstances in the following cases:

if it is consciously adhered to: the individual must understand that the stereotype reflects group norms and values, group traits and characteristics, and not specific qualities characteristic of an individual from a given group;

if the stereotype is descriptive and not evaluative: this involves the reflection in the stereotypes of real and objective qualities and properties of people of a given group, but not their assessment as good or bad;

if the stereotype is accurate: this means that the stereotype must adequately express the characteristics and traits of the group to which the person belongs;

if the stereotype is only a guess about the group, but not direct information about it: this means that the first impression of the group does not always provide reliable knowledge about all individuals of this group;

if the stereotype is modified, i.e. based on further observations and experience with real people or comes from experience of a real situation.

In situations of intercultural contacts, stereotypes are effective only when they are used as a first and positive guess about a person or situation, and are not considered as the only correct information about them.

Stereotypes become ineffective and impede communication when, based on them, they mistakenly assign people to the wrong groups, incorrectly describe group norms, when they confuse stereotypes with a description of a particular individual, and when it is not possible to modify stereotypes based on real observations and experience. In such cases, stereotypes can become a serious obstacle to intercultural contacts.

In general, the following reasons are distinguished, because of which? stereotypes can hinder intercultural communication:

if stereotypes cannot be revealed individual characteristics people: Stereotyping assumes that all members of a group have the same traits. This approach applies to the whole group and to the individual over a period of time, despite individual variations;

if stereotypes repeat and reinforce certain erroneous beliefs and beliefs until people begin to accept them as true;

if stereotypes are based on half-truths and distortions. Keeping it inside real characteristics stereotyped group, stereotypes distort reality and give inaccurate ideas about the people with whom intercultural contacts are made.

People retain their stereotypes, even if reality and their life experience they are contradicted. In this regard, in a situation of intercultural contacts, it is important to be able to effectively deal with stereotypes, i.e. be aware of and use them, and also be able to refuse them if they do not correspond to reality.

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Stereotypes like cultural phenomenon

Human consciousness is endowed with the ability to reflect surrounding a person objective reality, and this reflection is a subjective image of the objective world, i.e. a certain model, picture of the world. When reality is objectified by consciousness, the mechanisms of stereotyping are activated. The result of the reflection of a fragment of the world picture in the individual’s consciousness is a stereotype, a fixed mental “picture” [Krasnykh 2002:177-178]. Thus, from a content point of view, a stereotype is a certain stable fragment of the picture of the world stored in the mind.

The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (U. Lippman, I. S. Kon, Yu. D. Apresyan, V. A. Ryzhkov, Yu. E. Prokhorov, V.V. Krasnykh, V.A. Maslova).

Social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of an individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of typical features characterizing any people. German neatness, Russian “maybe”, Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, hot temper of Italians, stubbornness of Finns, slowness of Estonians, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about the whole people that apply to each of its representatives.

In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with “ a naive picture peace." We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.

The stereotype is interpreted in modern social sciences as “a set of stable, simplified generalizations about a group of individuals that allows group members to be categorized and perceived in a stereotyped way, according to these expectations.” However, the stereotype does not only apply to groups of subjects. It also expresses a person’s habitual attitude towards any phenomenon or event. Stereotypes are formed in the process of socialization of the individual [Ryzhkov 1988:11] and are formed under the influence social conditions and previous experience.

In linguoculturology, the following types of stereotypes are distinguished: simple and figurative. Both have autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. (think about examples).

Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of the queue in different cultures are different, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or just stand in line, in a row European countries tear off the ticket in special apparatus and after that they follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.

According to Harutyunyan, “a peculiar National character feelings and emotions, ways of thinking and acting, sustainable and national traits habits and traditions formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, characteristics historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture" In other words, a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation.

Ethnic cultural stereotypes cannot be considered separately from the culture of communication, since interethnic communication is not an isolated area social life, but a mechanism that ensures the coordination and functioning of all elements of human culture.

The culture of interethnic communication is a system of specific of this ethnic group stereotypical forms, principles, methods of communicative activity. The system of ethnocultural stereotypes is specially adapted to perform socially significant functions in the life of an ethnic group.

Ethnic stereotypes in situations of intercultural communication act as “guides” of behavior. Based on the formed ideas, we predict in advance the behavior of representatives of another ethnic group, and without meaning to, we establish a distance in the process of intercultural communication.

The perception of another ethnic group is a direct reaction to contact with a foreign ethnic environment. Typically, perception comes through the prism of one’s ethnic “I,” that is, a certain traditional stereotype of thinking and behavior determined by ethnicity. Now that ethnic differences dominate people's behavior more and more, determining the nature of perception of other ethnic groups, intercultural communication gives rise to many problems.

The basis for the formation of ethnic stereotypes are cultural differences, which are easily perceived during intercultural interaction. Formed in the zone of ethnocultural contacts on the basis of systems of ethnic ideas about the imaginary and actual traits of one’s own and other ethnic groups, stereotypes are consolidated on a subconscious level as an unquestionable imperative in relation to representatives of other ethnic cultures.

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The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is connected with the needs of modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, is often very far from reality , has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself. Artificially created images and representations begin to play an active role in shaping the mentality of contemporaries and possibly subsequent generations. A person, perceiving the world in accordance with the ideas, relationships and values that prevail in his native culture, behaves in accordance with them. Therefore, people’s ideas about the world are always relative and varied and depend on the culture in which a person was born and raised. To understand why a representative of another culture behaves this way in a certain sociocultural context, one must first understand how he perceives this world, see the situation through his eyes, and imagine how his perception works. When meeting with representatives of other peoples and cultures, a person usually shows a natural tendency to perceive their behavior from the perspective of his culture. Moreover, without the ability to quickly and correctly assess the interlocutor, it is difficult to navigate in a different social and cultural environment. Most often, misunderstanding of someone else's language, symbolism of gestures, facial expressions and other elements of behavior leads to a distorted interpretation of the meaning of their actions, which gives rise to such negative feelings as wariness, contempt, and hostility. Stereotypes are a form of collective consciousness. Stereotypes reflect people's social experience, something that is common and repeated in their daily practice. They are formed as a result joint activities people by focusing human consciousness on certain properties, qualities of phenomena in the surrounding world that are well known, visible or understandable a large number of people. In their content, stereotypes are a concentrated expression of these properties and qualities, which most schematically and clearly convey their essence. (For example, Europeans who first came into contact with the Japanese were shocked and are still shocked by the fact that the Japanese talk about such sad things with a cheerful smile, like the illness or death of close relatives. This became the basis for the formation of a stereotype about the callousness, cynicism and cruelty of the Japanese. However, in similar cases a smile must be understood in the sense that it does not have European culture behavior, but in Japanese. There, she actually symbolizes the Japanese desire not to bother others with his personal sorrows.) There are different kinds stereotypes. These include the following: Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes: This additionally includes Native American Stereotypes, Black Stereotypes, Middle Eastern and Muslim Stereotypes, White American Stereotypes, Irish Stereotypes, Italian Stereotypes, Polish Stereotypes, Jewish Stereotypes, East and South Asian Stereotypes and Hispanics or Latino stereotypes. Gender stereotypes: These include male, female and transgender stereotypes. Sexually oriented stereotypes: These stereotypes include gays, lesbians and bisexuals. Socio-economic stereotypes: They are classified as homeless, working class and upper class stereotypes.

Stereotypes are forms that determine behavior not only individuals, but also groups, cultures, ethnic groups, societies. It is clear that they must be taken with some limitations. Experts in ethnic psychology who study ethnocultural stereotypes note that nations located on high level economic development, emphasize such qualities as intelligence, efficiency, enterprise, and nations with more backward economies - kindness, cordiality, hospitality. This can be confirmed by the research of S. G. Ter-Minasova, according to the results of which, in American society Professionalism, hard work, responsibility, etc. are more valued, whereas in Russian - hospitality, sociability, and fairness.

According to research in the field of ethnocentrism, it can be concluded that most individuals consider what is happening in their culture to be natural and correct, and what is happening in other cultures to be unnatural and incorrect. This concerns behavior, customs, norms and values.

As a rule, on the one hand, ethnic stereotypes represent a serious barrier in intercultural communication. On the other hand, for all their schematism and generality, stereotypical ideas about other peoples and cultures prepare for a collision with a foreign culture, weaken the blow, and reduce cultural shock.

Stereotypes allow a person to form an idea of the world as a whole, to go beyond his narrow social, geographical and political world. The reason for the formation of stereotypes, as a rule, is ignorance of the national and cultural specifics that determine the behavior of representatives of a particular community, limited horizons, etc. Stereotypes entail certain expectations regarding the behavior patterns of representatives of other cultures. However, it should be noted that the formation of stereotypes is partly reinforced real facts. However, stereotypes, as a rule, are not identical national character, nor the people's idea of themselves.

It is clear that stereotypes are reflected in language. Constantly repeated phrases over time acquire a certain linguistic stability and move to the level of clichés.

The functions of stereotypes can be of the following nature (E. N. Belaya):

1) the function of transmitting relatively reliable information. When entering an alien culture, people tend to organize and generalize what they see, creating a primary cultural model;
2) the orienting function of stereotypes directly follows from the previous function. Its role is to create a simplified matrix of the surrounding world, a kind of “guide”;
3) the function of influence on the creation of reality - with the help of stereotypes there is a clear differentiation into one’s own and someone else’s cultural models. A stereotype helps preserve primary cultural identity.

By type, stereotypes can be differentiated into autostereotypes(strong opinions that have formed about themselves, their own culture influenced various sources information) and heterostereotypes - external stereotypes that representatives of one culture develop about another.

As an example, here are several common sociocultural stereotypes.

Stereotype of Germans: bureaucratic, overzealous at work, overly punctual. Rationalism is put at the forefront.

Stereotype of the French: arrogant, hot-tempered, emotional. As a rule, they are very careful in both formal and informal relationships. They are sensitive to politeness. Economical and thrifty.

Stereotype of the British: very conservative, quite reserved and arrogant towards representatives of other cultures.

Stereotype about Norwegians: silent, distrustful, completely unromantic, reserved.

Stereotype about Finns: they talk little, eat little, don’t like feasts. Expensive gifts are not accepted in gifting etiquette.