Why Americans don't like Mexicans. How the Americans took over half of Mexico

Boiled corn is one of the most favorite summer dishes, suitable for both adults and children. How to cook corn correctly in order to preserve all the beneficial properties - read further in the material.

We invite you to learn a few basic rules and tips on how to cook corn better and more correctly in order to preserve maximum beneficial properties and taste.

How to cook corn correctly: instructions

Preparing corn for cooking is that it must first be washed under clean running water and all dirty leaves removed. It is not necessary to completely clear the leaves from the cob. The main thing is to remove spoiled leaves before cooking.

How to cook corn: the first step is cleaning

Before cooking, it is advisable to soak the corn for an hour in cold water, and cook the ears of corn of approximately the same size. This is necessary so that the corn is cooked evenly. If the cobs are too large, cut them in half.

How to boil old corn

Even overripe and “old” corn will be soft and juicy after boiling if it is cooked correctly. To do this, you must first clean the cobs from fibers and leaves, then cut them in half and then pour in a mixture of regular drinking water. cold water with milk in a 1:1 ratio.

The corn should sit in this milk mixture for a total of 4 hours, after which it can be boiled in the classic way.

How many minutes to cook corn

The amount of cooking time for corn depends directly on its degree of maturity. For example, young corn will be ready after 20-30 minutes of cooking, while mature corn should be cooked for 30-40 minutes. The cooking time for well-ripened cobs is 2-3 hours.

How to cook corn: the main rule is not to overcook it

The most important thing is not to overcook the corn so that the grains do not begin to harden. By the way, young corn is tasty even without salt, it is tender and soft, and boiling only takes thirty minutes.

It is ideal to boil corn on the cob in a cast iron pan with fairly thick walls, with the lid of the pan closed. Corn also cooks well in a clay pan. You can cook corn in a double boiler, and even in the microwave. Some people manage to bake it in the oven.

Important and very useful tips for all housewives on how to cook corn correctly.

Boiled corn is probably one of the most beloved inexpensive summer dishes by many. We remember aromatic, juicy, tasty and satisfying boiled corn from childhood. By the way, corn has many beneficial properties for the human body. It contains vitamins B, C, D, K, PP, as well as magnesium, potassium, copper, iron, phosphorus, glutamic acid and many other various beneficial substances.

Preparing corn for cooking is that it must first be washed under clean running water and all dirty leaves removed. It is not necessary to completely clear the leaves from the cob. The main thing is to remove completely dirty and spoiled leaves before cooking.

Before cooking, it is advisable to soak the corn for an hour in cool water. You should cook the cobs of the same size, this is necessary so that all the corn is cooked evenly. If the cobs are too big, good decision will cut them in half.

How to boil old corn

How to cook overripe corn? Even overripe and old (that is, not young) corn after boiling will be soft and juicy if it is cooked correctly. To do this, you must first clean the cobs from fibers and leaves, then cut them in half and then pour a mixture of regular drinking cold water and milk in a 1:1 ratio, that is, 1 part of cold drinking water requires 1 part of milk. The corn should sit in this milk mixture for a total of 4 hours, after which it can be boiled in the classic way.

How many minutes to cook corn

How long to cook corn directly depends on its degree of maturity. For example, young corn will be ready after 20-30 minutes of cooking, but mature corn should be cooked for 30-40 minutes. Cooking time for well-ripened cobs is 2-3 hours. In that delicate matter the main thing is not to overcook the corn so that the grains do not begin to harden. By the way, young corn is tasty even without salt, tender and soft, and boiling only takes thirty minutes.

It is ideal to boil corn on the cob in a cast iron pan, which has fairly thick walls, with the lid of the pan closed. Corn also cooks well in a clay pan. You can also cook corn in a double boiler or even a microwave oven. Some people manage to bake it in the oven.

How to cook corn correctly

• Corn should be placed in boiling water.
• There is no need to salt the water before and during cooking, otherwise the grains will be hard.
• Corn is usually salted 5 minutes before it is ready or before serving.
• You can add a little sugar and butter to the cooking water, which will give the dish a delicate taste.
• On big fire You can't cook corn. Immediately after boiling, reduce the heat as much as possible.
• When the corn cools, it hardens a little, so it is advisable to eat it almost immediately after cooking while it is still warm.

Today we invite you, together with us, to carefully understand and remember how to cook corn. How to choose and cook truly delicious corn that will bring us and our children only pleasure and joy.

At first glance, identical cobs may actually turn out to be completely different in taste, which depends on the type, variety of corn and its degree of maturity. Without delving too deeply into the variety of varieties, all corn can be divided into two main types: food or sweet and regular feed, which is intended mainly for animal feed. You can eat both food and feed corn. Some “gourmets” like the harsh and less sugary feed varieties even better, but still it is food corn that has the best taste, because its juicy sweet grains simply melt in your mouth. To prepare young food corn of early varieties it will take from 15 minutes to one hour, while forage and late varieties will have to be cooked from two to five hours.

How to choose corn

It is best to choose freshly picked ears of young edible corn for cooking. You should buy unhusked corn, since the natural “wrapper” will indicate not only the freshness of the cob, but will also prevent it from drying out prematurely. First of all, bright green leaves and slightly damp, cool “antennae” will help you identify young cobs. If the leaves begin to turn yellow, it means that the corn was picked a long time ago and may have already lost some of its juiciness.

So that there is not a single doubt about the quality of the purchased product, you can carry out a simple ripeness test: at the very base, press one of the grains with your fingernail: if it turns out to be soft and juice comes out, then everything is fine. in perfect order– this is young, so-called milk corn. The tougher and drier the seed, the riper and older the cob.

The degree of corn ripeness affects not only the cooking time, but also the taste of the product. The fact is that when corn dries, the sugar inside the grains begins to turn into starch, which deprives it of its aroma and sweetness.

How to cook corn on the cob:

1. You can cook corn in several well-known ways: in the microwave, double boiler, multicooker. We will cook on the stove.

2. We clean the cobs from leaves. We wash the bottom leaves and place a few pieces on the bottom of the pan.

3. Then we fold the whole cobs, breaking very large ones into two parts.

5. Cover the pan with a lid and bring to a boil.

6. After boiling, reduce the heat. Cook over low heat until done.

7. How long to cook corn depends on the degree of maturity. This can be from half an hour to 2 hours. To find out for sure, we take out one ear of corn, remove the grain from it with a knife and taste it.

8. Drain the water, transfer the cobs to a large plate, sprinkle salt on top, grease with oil if desired, and serve hot to the table as a separate dish or as a side dish.

How long to cook corn?

The cooking time is calculated from the degree of its ripeness; corn cobs can be divided into 3 types of maturity: slightly unripe, ripe and overripe.

1. If the corn is pale yellow in color and tastes very soft and juicy, it is enough to cook such cobs for about 15 minutes after the water boils.

2. Yellowish color indicates her medium degree ripeness, when you taste the raw cob it is juicy and starchy. The cooking time for this type of corn is about 30 minutes; this type of maturity is considered optimal when cooking corn.

3. Pronounced yellow seeds indicate its overripe state. Such cobs are tough, and sometimes very tough. They should be cooked for 60 minutes to 2 hours.

More on how to boil corn on the cob

Cooking corn optimally in thick-walled and deep dishes(better - a cauldron or cast iron) with a tight-fitting lid. Cooking boiled corn in a pressure cooker gives good results. My favorite method is boiling unhusked corn on the cob. At the same time, it is laid out in a bowl and filled with water to a level of up to 5 cm above the layer of corn. This cooking method makes the grains as sweet and juicy as possible.

You can also cook corn with peeled cobs. The secret of proper cooking in this case, the corn leaves are laid out on the bottom of the dish, then the cobs are placed and covered with the remaining leaves on top. This is done so that the corn kernels do not come into contact with the cooking utensils.

Cook the dish only until the grains soften, which is checked by piercing them with a fork. Cooking for too long, as well as cooking in salt water, makes corn on the cob too tough. It is better to lightly sugar the water during cooking and add salt only after cooking.

The dish must be served freshly cooked, as the corn is not as tasty after it cools. For juiciness, you can grate peeled cobs butter. It is better to salt boiled corn not with fine, but with coarse salt; you just need to lightly rub the grains with it.

How to cook milk corn

Let's try to boil our first, juiciest and most tender milk corn. For this recipe, only very young corn is suitable, the kind whose softest kernels release onto your finger when crushed. a large number of juice Peel four ears of young corn from leaves and stigmas, and then rinse thoroughly in running water. Boil three liters of water in a deep saucepan. Don't add salt! Place the prepared cobs in boiling water and bring to a boil again over high heat. Once the corn cobs float to the surface, reduce the heat to medium, cover the pan and simmer your corn for 5 to 10 minutes. After this time, immediately remove the corn from the water, drizzle with melted butter, sprinkle with salt and serve. Do not overcook young milk corn! Cooking for too long can cause it to become tough.

How to cook mature corn

Mature corn differs from very young corn in a much brighter taste and aroma, but such corn should be cooked longer. Remove leaves and stigmas from four ears of corn. Don't throw away the leaves! Soak the shelled corn in cool water for one hour and then rinse thoroughly. If necessary, cut each cob crosswise into two halves. Boil three liters of water in a deep saucepan, add half the corn leaves, bring to a boil again, add the cobs and bring the water to a boil again over high heat. When the water boils, reduce the heat to medium, cover the pan with a lid and cook the corn for 40 - 45 minutes. Once the time is up, add salt to taste and the remaining leaves. Cook everything together for another 15 - 20 minutes. Remove the finished corn from the water, dry it slightly, pour in butter and sprinkle with salt. Serve immediately.

How to cook corn in the oven

Tender young ears of corn can be boiled by placing them in the oven. When prepared in this way, they turn out extremely aromatic and tasty. Grease the baking dish vegetable oil, place four whole ears of corn in it, not peeled from the leaves. Add hot water so that it covers the cobs halfway. Carefully cover the dish with corn with foil and place in an oven preheated to 200⁰ for 40 - 120 minutes, depending on the degree of ripeness of the corn. Remove leaves from the finished corn, pour melted butter over it, sprinkle with salt and serve.

How to cook corn in a double boiler

Corn cooked in a double boiler turns out to be very tasty and tender. You can steam both de-leafed and unshelled corn. Corn cooked with leaves is much more flavorful, but requires a little more time to cook. Pour enough water into the steamer, grease the rack with butter and place the ears of corn on it. Close the steamer tightly and cook the corn for 30 to 40 minutes until tender. While your corn is cooking, prepare the sauce. Melt 15 gr. butter in a small saucepan, add 50 g to it. crushed walnuts and a pinch of ground cardamom. Stir quickly and remove from heat. Place the finished corn on a dish, pour over the aromatic nut butter and serve. Serve salt separately.

How to cook corn in the microwave

If you are short on time, delicious boiled corn can be prepared in the microwave. Soak young corn cobs without removing leaves for an hour in cool water. Once the time is up, transfer the corn cobs to a plastic bag, add a couple tablespoons of water and seal tightly. Place the bag in a microwave-safe bowl and poke a couple of tiny holes in it to allow excess steam to escape. Bake in the microwave at maximum power for 10 - 15 minutes depending on the ripeness of the grains. Remove the finished corn from the bag, peel off the leaves and stigmas, brush with melted butter and sprinkle with salt. Corn prepared in such a quick way turns out to be very aromatic and tasty, but it should be served immediately; once it cools down, your corn will lose most of its taste.

Hello everyone! Today is such a wonderful day, despite the fact that for almost several days the weather is not pleasant, it is raining and very cloudy. But, on the other hand, they are everywhere in the bazaars and markets. big mountains corn cobs.

Therefore, I wanted to tell you about how to properly prepare this seemingly simple, but at the same time sometimes time-consuming dish.

How many of you love corn, admit it?! I simply adore it, my favorite delicacy, I love it either salty or sweet. The main thing is that it is very juicy and soft, and then you will certainly not only lick your fingers, but also swallow it.

I think that this delicacy will not leave anyone indifferent, even children. But in fact, there is a reason for it, because it contains great amount useful substances, but which ones do you know? Let me say briefly, boiled corn will reward you with 30 types of vitamins and microelements, can you imagine?! Here, here, I would say wow!

I want to dedicate this short note to how to cook corn correctly and quickly, as well as how long to cook corn, when and at what point to add salt or sugar. In general, stay in touch with me, don’t switch, as they say on TV, you’ll learn all the cooking tricks.

Whatever one may say, in order for these yellow gifts of nature to turn out very tasty, you need to know some secrets that will help you make and please your loved ones with juiciness and softness.

Important! Choose the right variety of corn. It should not be feed, but food. How they differ from each other and how not to confuse them and buy them at the market or bazaar the right type? I answer easily and directly: take exactly those cobs that are lighter, the fodder one is very yellow in appearance.

Step number two, you need to choose only fresh, almost picked corn. The old one is no good, how to do it, and what other subtleties of cooking there are, read on for more details step by step description with photo.

We will need:

• corn
• water (milk)
• butter

Cooking method:

1. Let me start with the fact that despite the simplicity of this delicious delicacy, beginners and young housewives make mistakes. First of all, as I said above, take only the one that is fresh and appearance looks great.

Important! Pay attention to the tops, they should also not be wilted, but fresh. Try to buy with leaves, because it is the tops that protect the corn from dryness, and then the kernels on the cobs will be smooth, beautiful and not dull, they should be like in this photo below.

It is best to take milk corn or, as is now fashionable, to choose the Bonduelle variety; it is obtained at home the same as what you are used to eating on the beach or buying at the markets from grandmothers. This variety is very sweet, soft, and cooks very quickly in literally 15-20 minutes.

2. The second important condition for good corn is the grains and their appearance. Pay attention to them, if you see one like the one in the picture, then refrain from buying it; it’s better not to take it or cook it.

Important! The grains should not have holes or depressions; they are already dry, and as a result the dish may turn out hard.

It can be seen that all the juiciness has already gone; when you press on the grains, milk should come out.

3. At the very beginning of cooking, everyone usually clears the leaves from the cobs.

Important! Remember, the yellower, brighter the color on the cob, perhaps even already orange, this means that the fruit is old.

I advise you not to clean them immediately, but to place them together with the leaves in water, or better yet, in milk and soak them. The ratio of milk and water should be 1 to 1.

Then the corn will turn out even more tender. It must be kept in water or in water with milk for at least one hour, keep this in mind.

4. The next step is to boil the corn along with the leaves, or you can peel it and place the leaves and stigmas on the bottom of the pan. In my opinion, the aroma will remain, and cooking will be more convenient.

Important! Choose cobs of the same size and thickness, then they will all cook at the same time.

5. Take a saucepan, preferably a cauldron or fireproof with a thick bottom bigger size, place the leaves on the bottom and then the cobs. Remove the beginning and tail of the cobs in advance; they are not edible.

Important! Fill with water, the main thing is that it is boiling water, this is very, very important, not cold.

If the peeled corn does not fit into the pan, then don’t worry; you can easily tear it in half with your hands.

6. The water in the pan should cover all the cobs; be sure to cook under the lid over low heat for 20-30 minutes.

Important! You cannot salt it ahead of time, otherwise the grains will become hard and tasteless. You can add salt at the end of cooking, or better yet, when it is already cooked. How much salt and in what quantity? I usually stick to these proportions: per 1 liter I take 0.5 tbsp of coarse salt. How are you doing?

Interesting! To improve the taste, add oil to the water at the end, before turning off the stove, and also if you want the taste to be sweet, add granulated sugar to taste, but this is not necessary, if desired.

7. How do you know that the grains are ready and can be consumed? This can be done using a fork or a sharp stick, such as a toothpick. Just pierce it and you will see that if the corn is cooked, the kernel will fall apart, taste it.

Important! Than corn yellower color, the longer it will need to be cooked, up to 2-3 hours. But in our case, 20-30 minutes, since we have fresh young ones and specifically the Bonduelle variety.

The readiness of corn can also be determined by the intoxicating smell in the kitchen.

8. You can leave the cobs to lie for an hour and then sweat hot water, or you can serve it immediately. Rub each piece with salt or sprinkle lightly, as you prefer, and coat it traditionally with butter. Eat it hot. Bon appetit!

9. If you leave it on the table and it cools down, then later it will become hard and not so attractive.

Important! If you are not going to eat the corn right away, then it is better to leave it in the water, but no more than 3-4 hours. If you want to store it for more than a day, then put it in the refrigerator, but remember, it is best consumed warm or hot.

Recipe for boiling corn on the cob in a saucepan

In this video I also learned about one very important point which must be performed to achieve greater aroma and juiciness. For those interested, I’m sharing this link from the YouTube channel:

How long to cook young corn cobs in a pan of water

This question is probably the most popular. Everyone is always scratching their heads and don’t know what to do. Let's figure it out. Although I think that from what you have already read above, you yourself understood everything.

Light corn will cook much faster than yellow fodder corn. 15-20 or 25-30 minutes will be enough for well cooked corn.

Interesting! Remember that if you overcook the cobs, you will end up with a hard-tasting grain.

Only forage varieties are cooked for more than 2 hours.

If you want to reduce the cooking time, then break the cobs in half or cook in the microwave.

Important! You need to add salt only at the end of cooking, in water or then, on the surface of the corn itself, as if rubbing it.

Corn in a pressure cooker

Due to the fact that the world does not stand still and new technologies appear every day, this, by the way, is a big plus, they came up with a miracle assistant, such as a multicooker. If you also use it as a pressure cooker, then I will say this is doubly pleasant.

After all, with this electric appliance you can cook corn much faster, and most importantly, easier.

There are two methods of cooking, the regular method or the steam method.

Cooking method:

1. As usual, start by peeling the corn well, washing it and placing it in the multicooker bowl.

2. Second step - fill it with hot water.

3. Turn on the desired mode. If you do not have the opportunity to select the time in the modes, then turn it on for an hour, and after 15 minutes, turn off the mode, and then let it stand in the “Heating” mode for 20-30 minutes.

4. The best part is the tasting. You can add sugar or salt on top, brush with butter to give it a creamy, delicate taste.

Now use these instructions to steam your corn. Of course, you can also use a steamer for this. IN in this case Instead of a steamer, we will have a steamer bowl from a multicooker.

1. Pour water into the bottom of the bowl and place the leaves and silks of corn.

Important! Don't forget to wash everything well under running water.

2. Take a special cup with holes and place the cobs on it; if they are very large, don’t worry, break them in half with your hands.

3. Well, now select the appropriate mode, such as “Steam” and set the time to 20 minutes.

4. Meanwhile, set the table, because very soon it will cook and turn into this wonderful bright yellow color. Bon appetit! When serving, you can also sprinkle with salt or sugar and brush with butter.

Interesting! In one TV show I saw that at the end, after pulling out the corn, they sprinkle it with grated cheese and it melts on it while it is hot. You might want to experiment, good luck!

How to quickly cook corn in the microwave

Surprised? By the way, I was also a little stunned when I found out that this method of cooking exists. But this is the most quick way, so to speak, in a quick hurry. I note that this is the only option without leaves, and in 10 minutes.

We will need:

• whole dairy corn - 2 pcs.

Cooking method:

1. Rinse the cobs well and then soak them in a bowl of water for one hour.

Interesting! You can set the time for 5 minutes, and then take it out, coat it with butter, put it back in the bag and turn it on for another 5 minutes.

3. After the time has passed, check whether the grains have become soft, pierce them with a toothpick, everything should work out.

4. Such a beautiful creation of nature will certainly delight you and your loved ones. Try making it at home, it’s simply delicious! Take note of this recipe and you won’t regret it!

Video on how to freeze corn for the winter

Probably everyone always wants to leave the gifts of summer for a longer time, we all make different pickles, jams, preparations, but what to do with corn? Yes, everything is elementary simple, you need to freeze it, and as you ask, watch everything yourself and you will learn how to do it with ease:

That's all for me, please your loved ones. See you again, subscribe to my group in contact, see you soon)))

Sincerely, Ekaterina Mantsurova

170 years ago, on April 25, 1846, the Mexican-American War (Mexican War) began. The war began with territorial disputes between Mexico and the United States following the capture of Texas by the United States in 1845. Mexico was defeated and lost vast territories: the United States was given Upper California and New Mexico, that is, the lands of the modern states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and Utah. Mexico lost more than 500 thousand square miles (1.3 million square kilometers), that is, half of its territory.

Background

For a significant period, there have been controversial issues between Mexico and the United States. The American government laid claim to the entire continent (the so-called concept of “predetermination of Fate”) and treated with contempt the republic, which could not restore order on its territory. The Mexicans were afraid of the expansion of the Anglo-Saxons. After Mexico gained independence in 1821, the American government tried to raise the issue of territorial concessions to the United States as a condition for Mexico's recognition. The first US envoy to Mexico City, Joel Poinsett, in 1822 put forward a project to include Texas, New Mexico, Upper and part of Lower California and some other territories into the US. It is clear that such a project did not find understanding among the Mexican authorities.

The United States did not abandon hopes for the annexation of Texas and California after the conclusion of a border treaty with Mexico in 1828, confirming the boundaries established by the Transcontinental Treaty of 1819. Attempts by the administrations of Andrew Jackson and John Tyler to buy at least part of the California coast from Mexico were unsuccessful. They also failed to achieve changes in the border with Mexico so that the San Francisco harbor, important for the whaling fleet, would go to the United States. The origin and rapid development of whaling in the second quarter of the century had great importance for USA. From 1825 to 1845, the total recorded whaling tonnage of the American whaling fleet increased from 35 thousand to 191 thousand tons. The vast majority of whalers hunted in the Pacific Ocean, and they needed a convenient base on its coast.

Another problem was the issue of losses to American citizens. American citizens living in Mexico suffered great losses due to unrest associated with coups and military confiscations. The Americans first sought damages through Mexican courts. Not having achieved positive result, they turned to their government. America has always been sensitive to money issues, and now there is a reason to legitimately blame Mexico. When peaceful protests failed, the United States threatened war. Mexico then agreed to submit the American claims to arbitration. Three quarters of these claims turned out to be illegal, and in 1841 an international court rejected them, although it awarded Mexico to pay the rest - amounting to about $2 million. Mexico made three installments on the debt and then stopped making payments.

But the more serious problem that was spoiling relations between the two countries was Texas. By the mid-1830s, the dictatorship of President Antonio Santa Anna and unrest in Mexico led to the fact that the state was on the verge of collapse - Texas decided to secede. In addition, slavery was abolished in Mexico, and in Texas, settlers from the United States refused to comply with this law. They also expressed dissatisfaction with the control of the territory carried out by the central government that constrained them. As a result, the free state of Texas was created. The Mexican army's attempt to regain control of Texas led to the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, between an 800-man Texan force led by Sam Houston and an army twice that size of the Mexican president, General Santa Anna. As a result of the surprise attack, almost the entire Mexican army led by Santa Anna was captured. The Texans lost only 6 people. As a result, the Mexican president was forced to withdraw Mexican troops from Texas.

Mexico did not recognize the secession of Texas and clashes continued for almost 10 years and depended on whether the Mexican government was strengthening or weakening. Washington did not officially intervene in this fight, although thousands of volunteers in the United States were recruited to help the Texans. Most Texans welcomed the republic's accession to the United States. But northerners feared that the admission of another slave state would shift the domestic balance in favor of the South, and therefore delayed the annexation of Texas for almost ten years. As a result, in 1845, the United States of America annexed the Republic of Texas and recognized Texas as the 28th state of the unified state. Thus, the United States inherited the territorial dispute between Texas and Mexico.

Mexico expressed dissatisfaction that by annexing its “rebel province,” the United States interfered in the internal affairs of the country and unjustifiably took possession of its territory. In turn, the American government also sought war to consolidate the result. The pretext was the issue of the Texas border. Mexico, which never recognized the independence of Texas, declared the border between Texas and Mexico to be the Nueces River, which lies about 150 miles east of the Rio Grande. The states, citing the Treaty of Velasca, declared the Rio Grande River itself to be the border of Texas. Mexico argued that the treaty had been signed by General Santa Anna in 1836 under duress while he was a Texan prisoner and was therefore invalid. Additionally, the Mexicans argued that Santa Anna had no authority to negotiate or sign agreements. The treaty was never ratified by the Mexican government. The Mexicans feared that Texas was just the beginning and that the Americans would continue to expand.

For the Mexicans, the Texas problem was a matter of national honor and independence. Mexico City has repeatedly stated that the annexation of Texas would mean war. In addition, Mexico hoped for help from England. True, Mexican President José Joaquin de Herrera (1844-1845) was ready to accept the inevitable, provided that the offended pride of the Mexicans received proper reassurance. However, the Americans themselves did not want peace. In 1844, James Knox Polk became President of the United States. Democratic Party, to which Polk belonged, was a supporter of the annexation of Texas. In addition, the Americans laid claim to California. This deserted but rich region seemed to be asking for expansion. IN XVIII century the wave of Spanish expansion reached its peak and swept through California. Then the degradation of the Spanish colonial empire began, and in California there were only a few families of Creole landowners who lived in luxury, owning huge hacienda estates. They owned huge herds of horses and herds of cattle. And the Mexican government, weakened and virtually bankrupt after the Mexican War of Independence, had enormous problems governing its northern territories, which were hundreds of miles from Mexico City. The Mexican government had almost no power in California. From the mid-1830s, American settlers began to enter California.

The American government, alarmed by rumors about England's desire to buy California, decided to offer Mexico a deal. Polk planned to offer Mexico City to waive its demand for payment of unsatisfied claims in exchange for establishing an acceptable border between Texas and Mexico, and also wanted to purchase California. The Americans also laid claim to New Mexico. The United States offered $25 million for California, and $5 million for New Mexico. The disputed territories between the Nueces and the Rio Grande were to go to Texas. Such a deal, as the Americans assured, was beneficial to Mexico, as it gave it the opportunity to pay off its debts. Herrera informed Polk that he would accept his representative. Polk immediately appointed John Slidell as envoy to Mexico.

Meanwhile, resentment of US policies grew in Mexico. Under these conditions, the government of the country, consisting of a party of moderate liberals, headed by Herrera, did not dare to accept Slidell. Moreover, the Mexican government could not begin negotiations with him due to political unrest in the country. In 1846, the country's president alone changed four times. President Herrera's military opposition viewed Slidell's presence in Mexico City as an affront. After a more nationalistic Conservative government led by General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it again openly reaffirmed its claims to Texas. On January 12, Washington received a message from Slidell that the Herrera government had refused him a meeting. The regiment considered the unpaid claims and Slidell's expulsion sufficient reasons for war.

American President James Knox Polk (1845-1849)

War

Simultaneously with the negotiations, the Americans were actively preparing for war. Back in May 1845, General Zachary Taylor received secret orders to transfer his troops from West Louisiana to Texas. American troops were to occupy the neutral zone between Nueces and the Rio Grande, which Texas had claimed but never occupied. Soon, most of the regular US Army of 4 thousand people was stationed near the town of Corpus Christi. Naval squadrons were sent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean to blockade the coast of Mexico. Thus, the US government provoked the war. Washington covered up its aggressive goals with the alleged aggression of Mexico. The Americans planned to capture California, New Mexico and the main vital centers of Mexico in order to force Mexico City to accept peace on Washington's terms.

Mexican President Paredes considered the advance of General Taylor's troops an invasion of Mexican territory and ordered resistance. On April 25, 1846, Mexican cavalry attacked several American dragoons and forced their surrender. Then several more clashes occurred. When news of this reached Washington, Polk sent a message to Congress declaring war. American blood, Polk explained, had been shed on American soil—by this act Mexico had brought about the war. The joint session of Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war. Democrats unanimously supported military action. 67 representatives of the Whig Party voted against the war when discussing the amendments, but in last reading Only 14 of them were against it. On May 13, the United States declared war on Mexico.

Mexico, with its outdated weapons and weak army, was doomed to defeat. In terms of population and economic development, the United States surpassed Mexico. The strength of the American army at the beginning of the war was 7883 people, and in total during the war years the United States armed 100 thousand people. Most of The American army was made up of volunteers with a 12-month service period. They were eager to fight. The possessions of the former Spanish Empire have always been a magnet for northerners who “dreamt of feasting in the palaces of Montezuma.” At the beginning of the war, the Mexican army numbered more than 23 thousand people and consisted mainly of recruits - Indians and peons (peasants) who were not eager to fight. The Mexicans' firearms and artillery were of an outdated type. Unlike the United States, Mexico produced almost no weapons of its own and had virtually no navy.

In May 1846, American troops defeated General Arista. The Mexicans could not hold their positions for long under American artillery fire. On May 18, 1846, Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and captured Matamoros. After spending two months in Matamoros and losing several thousand people to dysentery and a measles epidemic, Taylor decided to move south. At the beginning of July, Taylor headed from Matamoros to Monterrey, from which there was the main road to the capital. He stormed Monterrey, which was defended by the 7,000-strong army of General Pedro de Ampudia, and finally settled in Saltillo.

At the same time, the American fleet, with the help of the Americans living there, captured California. American settlers captured Sonoma and proclaimed the California Republic. The American fleet occupied Monterey on July 7, and San Francisco on July 9. In early August, the United States captured San Pedro. On August 13, American troops captured the capital of California, Los Angeles. Next, the Americans captured the ports of Santa Barbara and San Diego. The majority of the population of California went over to the American side. On August 17, California was annexed to the United States. True, Mexican partisans recaptured Los Angeles at the end of September.

Brigadier General Stephen Kearny's "Army of the West" was sent to capture New Mexico. He was supposed to travel from Fort Leavenworth (Missouri) to Santa Fe and, after occupying New Mexico, head to the Pacific coast. In July 1846, Kearny's army of 3 thousand people with 16 guns entered the territory of New Mexico. August 14, the Western Army captured Las Vegas, August 16 - San Miguel, August 18 - main city Santa Fe State. On August 22, a decree was issued declaring all New Mexican territory to be part of the United States. Kearny then moved with a force of 300 dragoons to the Pacific Ocean. Kearney and Stockton united their troops and marched on Main Headquarters guerrilla - Los Angeles. On January 8-9, 1847, they were victorious at the San Gabriel River and entered the city on January 10. Thus California was conquered.

Meanwhile, another coup took place in the country, Paredes showed a complete inability to wage war, and power in Mexico was seized by extreme liberals led by Gomez Farias. They restored the 1824 constitution and brought back from exile in Cuba Santa Anna, considered by many to be the most capable of the Mexican generals. However, Santa Anna only wanted to return power and was ready to territorial concessions, he conducted secret negotiations with the Americans. In exchange for unhindered passage through the American naval blockade and 30 million dollars, he promised to cede the lands they claimed to the Americans. On August 16, Santa Anna landed in Veracruz, and on September 14 he entered the capital. Santa Anna marched in September to San Luis Potosí, where he was to form an army. The Mexicans convened a liberal congress, which appointed Santa Anna as acting president and Gómez Farias as vice president.

In August and October, the Americans made two unsuccessful attempts to capture the port of Alvarado. On November 10, Commodore Matthew Perry's squadron occupied one of the largest Mexican ports on the coast. Gulf of Mexico- Tampico. The American government, convinced of Taylor's inability to end the war, replaced him with Winfield Scott. He was supposed to land in Veracruz. And Taylor was ordered to withdraw, leaving his forward position in Saltillo. Taylor retreated but remained near Saltillo, provoking the enemy to fight.

By January 1847, Santa Anna had collected 25 thousand. army, financing it through massive confiscations, including church property. At the end of January 1847, the commander-in-chief of the Mexican army, Santa Anna, moved north to meet Taylor, who stood with 6 thousand people 18 miles from Saltillo. Upon learning of Santa Anna's approach, Taylor retreated ten miles and took up advantageous position at Hacienda Buena Vista. The battle took place on February 22-23, 1847, in a narrow mountain pass on the road from San Luis Potosí to Saltillo. Santa Anna threw his excellent cavalry into the area between the American army and the mountains on the east side of the pass. Taylor, misjudging the nature of the area, left this area unprotected. But if Santa Anna was the best commander, then the American artillery literally mowed down the Mexicans. Taylor's position was threatening, but reinforcements arriving from Saltillo allowed the Americans to regain their lost positions. By nightfall, both armies stood in their original positions. There were three times fewer Americans than Mexicans, and they waited with trepidation for the battle to continue. However, Santa Anna decided otherwise. His army, made up of peasant recruits and Indians, did not want to fight. Santa Anna unexpectedly retreated to San Luis Potosi, leaving fires burning to conceal his retreat. He captured several cannons and two banners, which was enough to demonstrate victory. The losses of Taylor's army amounted to 723 killed, wounded and missing. According to American data, the Mexicans lost over 1,500 people killed and wounded. The Mexican troops retreated in disarray, the soldiers died of hunger and disease, and froze.

At this time, another unrest began in Mexico. Farias and his supporters, the puros, encountered many difficulties in the capital. The clergy prayed for victory and organized solemn processions, but did not want to share the money. Congress eventually authorized the confiscation of 5 million pesos from church property. This caused resistance from the clergy and increased sympathy for the Americans. They say that the occupiers may capture Mexico, but they will not touch church estates. 1.5 million pesos were taken from the church, and then the civil war began. The Mexico City police, which were assembled for defense against the Americans, came out in defense of the churchmen. Several Creole regiments rebelled against Farias. When Santa Anna arrived at the capital, all parties supported him. And he decided to seize power. Farias was expelled. Santa Anna received another 2 million pesos from the church for a promise of immunity in the future and marched east against Scott's army.

On March 9, 1847, American troops began landing three miles south of Veracruz. On March 29, after heavy bombardment, Veracruz was forced to capitulate. Scott then moved on to the Mexican capital. On April 17-18, on the way to Mexico City, in the Cerro Gordo gorge, a battle took place between 12 thousand soldiers under Santa Anna and a 9 thousand-strong American army. The Mexicans took a strong position where the road goes uphill. However, Scott's engineers found a way to outflank the Mexicans on the northern flank, and a detachment of Americans dragged the guns through the ravines and dense forests that Santa Anna had declared impenetrable. Attacked from the front and left flank, the Mexican army was cut into pieces, and those who remained alive fled, rolling down the roads in confusion back to Mexico City. The Mexicans lost 1000-1200 people killed and wounded, 3 thousand were captured, including 5 generals. The losses of American troops amounted to 431 people.

On April 22, the vanguard of the American army under the command of General Worth occupied the city of Perote, capturing a large number of weapons. On May 15, Worth's troops entered the clerical city of Puebla. The city was surrendered without resistance, and the American troops were favorably received by the clergy, who were in opposition to the liberals in power.

End of the war

Panic began in Mexico City. Moderados ("moderates", right-wing liberals) and puros, clerics and monarchists all blamed each other for Mexico's troubles. All were united by their distrust of Santa Anna. Rumors appeared about his negotiations with the Americans. They began to ask questions about how he broke through the American naval blockade. However, in Mexico there was no person who could lead the people in this situation. Santa Anna was recognized as the only person who could overcome the crisis. Santa Anna began to form a third army and prepare the capital for defense.

In August, Scott left Puebla and the Americans climbed to a pass above the snowy peak of Popocatepetl, which overlooked the Valley of Mexico with lakes, fields and estates. On the afternoon of August 9, the bells of the Cathedral of Mexico notified the population of the approach of the enemy. The Mexican army awaited the invaders on the isthmus between two lakes, east of the city. The battle has begun. This time the Mexicans amazed the enemy with their courage and tenacity. The factions between the parties were forgotten, the Mexicans fought for their homeland. The army no longer consisted of recruits, but of volunteers who were ready to die rather than give up the capital. And Santa Anna, tirelessly organizing troops, calmly standing under fire at the forefront, recalled his nickname - “Napoleon of the West.” At that moment he was a real national leader.

However, the Americans broke through the enemy’s defenses, using the power of their artillery. On August 17, the Americans occupied San Agustin. Next, near the village of Contrares, they met with the troops of General Valencia. On August 20, Valencia, who had disobeyed Santa Anna's orders to retreat, was defeated. On the same day, a bloody battle took place near the Churubusco River, defeating General Anaya. Irish Catholics were captured here. The Mexican Army included the St. Patrick's Battalion, which consisted of Irish Catholics who left the American army and joined the Mexicans. The Irish were shot as deserters.

On August 23, a truce was concluded until September 7 and peace negotiations began. General Valencia declared Santa Anna a traitor. Santa Anna, while continuing to assure the Americans that he was committed to peace, hastily strengthened his defenses. The United States demanded that more than two-thirds of the territory be transferred to them, not counting Texas. Fearing a popular uprising, the Mexican government rejected these terms.

When the Mexicans rejected US proposals, American troops launched a new assault. On September 8, the Americans began an assault on the fortified point of Molino del Rey, which was defended by 4 thousand people. The number of American troops was 3,447, but the Americans had twice as much artillery. The Mexicans were defeated in this battle. The Americans rose to the heights of Chapultepec and broke into the capital on the evening of September 13. Santa Anna decided to withdraw his troops from the capital and retreated to Guadalupe. On September 14, the Americans entered Mexico City. The townspeople revolted. Snipers fired from shelters, and townspeople threw stones at the invaders. Bloody street battles continued throughout the day. But by morning, city authorities convinced the townspeople to stop resisting.

Santa Anna planned to continue the war. He was going to gather fresh troops and cut off Scott's army from his main base in Veracruz. Mexico could turn to guerrilla warfare and hold out indefinitely. The rather small number of American troops in such a war had no chance of success. In winter, squadrons of patriots, as well as semi-bandit formations, raided the Americans and provoked bloody acts of revenge on the part of the invaders. But after the attack of Santa Anna's troops on the garrison in Puebla ended in failure, power passed to the supporters of peace - the moderados. The President of the Supreme Court, Manuel de la Pena y Pena, became interim president. The decision on peace was left to the Mexican Congress. Santa Anna fled to the mountains and then went into another exile in Jamaica.

The rich part of the population was afraid of ruinous guerrilla warfare. Landowners and churchmen feared that complete anarchy would begin in the country. Half of the northern states were ready to declare independence. Indian tribes in Yucatan, driven to rebellion by the greed of white landowners, captured almost the entire peninsula. Under such conditions, the Mexican government decided to make peace.

Results

Under the threat of renewed hostilities, the majority of the Mexican Congress accepted the American conditions, and on February 2, 1848, a peace treaty was signed in the town of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Mexico was forced to cede Texas, California and the vast, almost uninhabited territory in between to the United States. This territory now contains the American states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and part of Wyoming. Thus, Mexico lost more than half of its territory. As “compensation,” Mexico received $15 million plus the cancellation of unpaid claims. It must be said that in the United States at that time there were strong sentiments to occupy all of Mexico. But once the agreement was concluded, Polk decided to accept it. On March 10, 1848, the treaty concluded in Guadalupe Hidalgo was ratified by the American Senate. By the end of July, American troops had withdrawn from Mexico. As a result of the war with Mexico, the United States established its undivided hegemony in North America.

Mexico was devastated and devastated. The country was in complete decline. Officials competed in abuses and corruption. The generals rebelled. All the roads were infested with bandits. Mexican territories were raided by Indians from Texas and Arizona and no less bloodthirsty Anglo-Saxon bandits. Indians from the Sierra Gorda devastated the northeastern lands. In Yucatan, the war between the Indians and the descendants of the whites (Creoles) continued to rage. It carried away half the population of the peninsula. And American politicians and journalists, intoxicated by victories, persistently demanded to expand the borders of the American Empire all the way to Guatemala. However, the beginning Civil War in the USA stopped American expansion.

In the early 1850s, the American government came up with the idea of ​​building railway along the 32nd parallel. Part of the future road was planned through the Mesilla Valley between the Rio Grande, Gila and Colorado rivers. The valley belonged to Mexico and the US envoy to this country, J. Gadsden, was instructed to buy it. For 10 million US dollars we purchased an area of ​​29,400 square meters. miles. The treaty, concluded on December 30, 1853, completed the modern southern border of the United States.

Mexico began to recover in 1857, when a liberal republic was proclaimed. The new government promoted the colonization of the vast and sparsely populated northern Mexican states to avoid further territorial losses.

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