Stereotype as a cultural phenomenon. Cultural stereotype as a way of mastering reality

ECOLOGY(E) - the science of the organization and functioning of organismal systems at all levels. E examines the relationships of organisms with each other and with the nonliving components of the functionally unified nature of the Earth - its biosphere (see).

Modern energy, its main tasks, concepts and methods arose in the course of studying both individual natural systems and regions, and the nature of the Earth as a whole. It may seem that the concepts and terms of E are not applicable to space habitable objects of existing or expected sizes. However, the point is not in the size of the system (quantity), but in the way of its existence (quality).

In modern foreign literature, mainly American, the concept of “ecological system” is usually used for any isolated inhabited objects, regardless of the method of ensuring living conditions in them, even with supplies of oxygen, water and food. This use of the term is unjustified. The basic concepts of E become applicable to inhabited space objects when the life support of crews is based on methods and means based on the biological (primarily) cycle of substances, which forms the basis for the existence of terrestrial ecological systems and the Earth’s biosphere as a whole. One of the basic concepts of ecology are biocenosis (see) and ecosystem (see).

ECOSYSTEM(ES) - the totality of organisms and their habitat ES is dimensionless and corresponds to phenomena of various scales - from the ocean to individual reservoirs of seasonal significance, from a forest to an individual tree stump, where, at least for a short time, stable relationships are established between the organisms inhabiting them and the environment environment. ES is an important and often used concept in ecology (see). The basic concepts of ES are the theoretical basis for the development of human life support systems (see) based on the biological cycle of substances.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY(E) - a method for recording bioelectrical phenomena associated with cardiac contraction (ECG). The method is widely used in preventive and clinical medicine and plays a leading role in functional diagnostics cardiovascular diseases. E allows you to study the automaticity, excitability and conductivity of the myocardium, as well as indirectly judge its contractile function. In space medicine, E is one of the main methods of medical monitoring and research. The first ECG in zero gravity was obtained during the flight of the dog Laika. Currently, E is widely used for pre- and post-flight research. During the flight, E is used for medical monitoring, medical research and predicting the health status of astronauts.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY DYNAMIC(ED) - a method of long-term, daily ECG recording using special miniature magnetic recorders worn by the subject. The method is used in a cardiology clinic to identify hidden coronary changes, study cardiac arrhythmias and monitor the effectiveness of treatment. In space medicine, ED was first used during the 2nd expedition at the Salyut-6 orbital station in 1978. When examining crew members before, during and after a flight using the ED method, along with the traditional clinical approach, it is important to assess changes in the state of regulatory systems at different times of the day - see mathematical (cybernetic) analysis of heart rate. This makes it possible to judge the adaptive capabilities of the circulatory system and the body as a whole by the synchronization of individual indicators with each other and the dynamics of their daily fluctuations.

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER(ER) is a combination of oxidation and reduction processes occurring at the electrodes when an electric current is passed through an aqueous solution. For alkaline solution:

At the cathode

In general, the production of oxygen from water can be represented as follows:

The efficiency of the redox electrochemical process depends on the material of the electrodes, the method of supplying reagents to the reaction zone, temperature, electrolyte concentration, specific reaction rate (current density), etc.

The mass, volume and energy consumption of EV installations depend on the current density. Currently, electrochemical processes are carried out at current densities from 100 to 200 mA/cm2.

The temperature of the electrochemical process is determined mainly by the physicochemical properties of the electrolyte and water, in particular, their boiling point, and is maintained in the range from 80 to 100 °C.

The electrolyte concentration is selected in accordance with its maximum electrical conductivity in the interelectrode space.

More than half a century of experience in using EVs makes it possible to obtain almost absolutely pure oxygen and hydrogen (purity above 99.9%).

The use of an EV system to provide oxygen to the crew of a spacecraft involves solving problems that have not previously been encountered in the practice of electrolysis.

For a stable EV for oxygen and hydrogen, the following basic conditions must be met: good contact of the electrolyte with the electrodes, the presence of an electrical circuit cathode - electrolyte - anode, separation of the resulting gases from the electrodes and electrolyte and separation of hydrogen and oxygen from each other, maintaining a given electrolyte concentration in the interelectrode space , uninterrupted and sufficient water supply to the electrolyzer.

When using an electrolyzer as a source of oxygen in the life support system (see), it is necessary to purify the gases from electrolyte aerosol, water vapor and hydrogen impurities (in oxygen), and also return the electrolyte aerosol and water vapor to the electrolyzer.

In ground-based electrolysis installations, the organization of electrochemical and physical-chemical processes is determined by the action of gravity. Ground-based electrolysis plants cannot be used in space flight.

Contact of the electrolyte with the electrodes is ensured by the wettability of the electrodes by the electrolyte. In physics, wettability is characterized by a contact angle of 9. The contact angle for equilibrium conditions is expressed by the equation:

cos θ = σ 1.3 -σ 1.2 / σ 2.3

where σ 1.3 is the surface tension between solid body and gas, N/m, σ 1.2 - surface tension between solid and liquid, N/m, σ 2.3 - surface tension between liquid and gas, N/m.

Surface tension depends on the nature of the substance and is characterized by the strength of intramolecular interaction. Thus, wettability by its nature does not depend on the force of gravity and will persist in conditions of weightlessness.

The electrical circuit cathode - electrolyte - anode, provided under terrestrial conditions by a certain position of the electrolyte in the vessel, and the natural separation of the resulting electrolytic gases under conditions of weightlessness, will obviously be disrupted.

If no other forces act on the liquid except the forces of molecular attraction in the surface layer, then the equilibrium position determines the spherical shape of the liquid.

Under conditions of weightlessness, there is no difference in the density of gas and electrolyte, therefore, there is no separation of gases from the electrolyte. The effect of the resulting interfacial tension force appears only at the initial moment and gradually decreases to zero due to the braking effect of the electrolyte layer. In a conventional electrolysis installation under zero-gravity conditions, electrolysis will be carried out for a short time, since as a result of the accumulation of bubbles of the resulting electrolytic gases, the pressure in the interelectrode space will increase and the gas-electrolyte mixture will flow through the gas outlet channels. Simultaneously with the increase in pressure, the electrical resistance of the interelectrode space will increase.

When using a source of electrical energy with a constant voltage that varies within small limits, in accordance with Ohm's law, an increase in resistance will lead to a decrease in current. A decrease in current will entail a decrease in the amount of substance released during the electrolysis process. The resistance of the interelectrode element will tend to infinity, and the current strength will tend to zero, i.e., eventually the electrical action will stop.

In conditions of weightlessness, the force of gravity can be replaced by an artificial force field. Such a field is obtained by rotating the entire electrolysis installation or its individual parts, or by forcing the electrolyte through the interelectrode space, followed by the separation of gases from the electrolyte in special centrifugal separators or devices with selective elements. In the force field of the centrifugal separator, the liquid occupies a certain position with a sufficient free surface, which will provide an electrical circuit cathode - electrolyte - anode.

In a rotating electrolysis installation, the resulting gas bubble will move toward the phase interface under the influence of centrifugal force.

The most appropriate way to organize an electrochemical process under conditions of weightlessness should be considered a method based on the use of capillary-porous elements. Installations of this type are compact, relatively lightweight, and also simple and reliable in operation.

In such installations, the separation of electrolytic gases from the electrolyte is ensured by perforated, mesh or porous electrodes closely adjacent to the porous interelectrode element. Electrolytic gases are formed at the point of contact of the electrode with the porous element, at the interface between the gas phase and the electrolyte. The resulting gases pass through the pores in the electrodes along the path of least resistance. Mesh electrodes provide mainly directional removal of gases. Porous electrodes create conditions not only for the directed removal of gases, but also for the return of the electrolyte aerosol, mechanically carried away by the gases back into the interelectrode space. Electrolysis installations with mesh electrodes are considered as a modification of porous electrodes.

The use of porous materials is a very effective means of intensifying various chemical and electrochemical processes. Developed inner surface porous electrodes make it possible to intensively carry out processes whose specific speed is low. Diffuse restrictions can be compensated for by creating a directional forced flow. In systems with porous electrodes, the separation of electrode products is relatively simple, without special selective membranes and diaphragms. In the systems under consideration, it is necessary to transport liquid and gas through porous bodies by force or by using capillary potential for the liquid phase.

The properties of porous bodies largely depend on their structure. In turn, the structure of porous elements depends on the methods of their manufacture and the materials used. Capillary equilibrium between two phases, one of which wets and the other does not wet a solid surface, is determined by the presence of pores of a certain radius.

The electrolysis cell consists of porous electrodes and a porous interelectrode element. The electrodes and the porous element are pressed tightly against each other. The interelectrode element is homogeneous and has only small pores. Porous electrodes have large and small pores.

The supply of water to the reaction surfaces of the electrodes is extremely important for the stability of the electrochemical process with capillary-porous elements. Water supply for decomposition is possible along the periphery of the porous interelectrode element; through channels located in the interelectrode element, by capillary suction or by artificial circulation of the electrolyte through a capillary-porous element of a monodisperse structure on the back side of the hydrogen electrode; diffusion of water vapor through the hydrogen cavity of the cathode towards a higher electrolyte concentration.

The method of supplying water for decomposition must satisfy the following requirements: be reliable, provide a sufficient supply of water to the reaction surface; minimize concentration phenomena in the interelectrode space (due to the discharge of only one type of ions - (OH -); eliminate the formation of gas-air cushions (plugs) in liquid lines.

The main ones, apparently, will be methods with artificial circulation of the electrolyte and the supply of water or its vapor from the back side of the hydrogen electrode.

The EV installation does not have rotating components, devices for forced supply of water under pressure and provides the smallest distance between the electrodes, equal to the thickness of the diaphragm (porous interelectrode element).

The constancy of EV conditions is ensured by additional units and matching links as regulating and stabilizing elements in the overall system of mass transfer along gas and liquid lines.

The use of ion exchange membranes should significantly reduce the limitations associated with the redistribution of electrolyte concentration in the interelectrode space.

EV installations are generally quite energy-intensive; to obtain oxygen in quantity 1 nl/h average power required 10-12 W.

EVs require current density 100-200 mA/cm2 and temperature 80-90 0 C.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD(EMF) is a physical field of moving electric charges in which interaction occurs between them. Particular manifestations of EMF - electrical and magnetic field. Since changing electric and magnetic fields generate magnetic and electric fields, respectively, at neighboring points in space, these two interconnected fields propagate in the form of a single EMF. EMFs are characterized by oscillation frequency f (or period T = 1 / f), amplitude E ((or H) and phase φ, which determines the state of the oscillatory process at each moment in time. The oscillation frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz), kilohertz ( 1 kHz = 10 3 Hz), megahertz ( 1 MHz = 10 6 Hz) and gigahertz ( 1 GHz = 10 9 Hz). The phase is expressed in degrees or relative units, multiples of i. Oscillations of the electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields, which make up a single EMF, propagate in the form of electromagnetic waves, the main parameters of which are wavelength (λ), frequency (f) and propagation speed v. Wave formation occurs in the wave zone at a distance greater than H from the source. In this wave, E and H change in phase. At shorter distances - in the induction zone - E and H change out of phase and quickly decrease with distance from the source. In the induction zone, energy alternates between electric and magnetic fields. Here, E and H are assessed separately. In the wave zone, radiation is assessed in terms of power flux density - watts per square centimeter. In the electromagnetic spectrum, EMFs occupy the radio frequency range (frequency from 3*10 4 Hz to 3*10 12 Hz) and are divided into several types (Table 12).

In technology, industry, and medicine, EMFs of the high-frequency, ultra-high-frequency, and ultra-high-frequency ranges are most widely used. In space flight conditions, radio and television equipment becomes a source of EMF of various characteristics.

The biological effect of EMF on a living organism is based on the absorption of energy by tissues. Its value is determined by the properties of the irradiated tissue or its electrical parameters - dielectric constant (e) and conductivity (σ). Due to the high water content in them, body tissues should be considered as dielectrics with losses. The depth of penetration of EMF into tissues is greater, the lower the absorption. During total body irradiation, energy penetrates to a depth of 0.1-0.001 wavelengths. Depending on the intensity of exposure and exposure, wavelength and the initial functional state of the body, EMFs cause changes in the irradiated tissues with or without an increase in their temperature.

When exposed to microwave EMFs (microwaves)1 on experimental animals, two groups of effects were identified - thermal, accompanied by an increase in body temperature, and non-thermal - without a general temperature reaction of the body. Thermal effects observed under sufficiently intense impacts (conditionally higher 10 mW/cm2). According to most American researchers, the thermal effect is the only mechanism of biological action of microwaves. Soviet researchers recognize the existence of a specific non-thermal effect. These effects are observed at flux densities less than 10 mW/cm2.

With very intense exposure to microwaves with an increase in body temperature by 4-5°C, laboratory animals develop a characteristic reaction: a sharp increase in breathing and heart rate, heart rhythm disturbances, increased blood pressure, and generalized convulsions. When a critical level of body temperature is reached, the animal dies. With non-lethal thermal effects, changes in various body systems are observed. Characteristic changes in neurological and autonomic status develop in a certain sequence. Various changes in the bioelectrical activity of the brain are noted, not always clearly related to the nature and intensity of the impact. Against this background, the brain’s reactions to light, sound and vestibular stimulation change; A sharp depression of conditioned reflex activity is detected. It is very significant that disorders of higher nervous activity can occur in offspring when males or pregnant females are irradiated. Changes in blood circulation and respiration are observed, aimed at increasing heat transfer - a sharp increase in breathing, heart rate, dilation of skin vessels and vessels of internal organs. With less intense and longer exposures, blood pressure after a short-term increase decreases, the heart rate slows down, extrasystole and changes in the ECG occur. There is evidence of disruption of neurohumoral regulation of autonomic functions. When the abdominal area is irradiated, ulcers of the stomach, small and large intestines occur. In dogs, suppression of secretory function is noted. stomach and urination. The reaction to microwave exposure involves the endocrine glands - the cortex and medulla of the adrenal glands, thyroid, gonads, pituitary gland, as evidenced by changes in the content of hormones in biological media, some functional tests; morphological data. Changes in the gonads lead to dysfunction of reproduction.

The morphological composition of peripheral blood and bone marrow changes. The content of red blood cells decreases, leukopenia or neutrophilic leukocytosis, lymphocytopenia, and eosinopenia are noted. The effects of chronic microwave exposure are controversial. After prolonged exposure to microwaves, cases of leukemia increased.

The process of blood coagulation underwent multidirectional changes.

Certain changes are noted in metabolism. The intensity of oxidative processes and the associated energy metabolism decreases. Changes in carbohydrate metabolism are expressed in an increase in blood sugar levels, a shift in the sugar curve to the right, and a decrease in the level of phosphorus and lactic acid in the blood. Protein metabolism is disrupted - the content of alpha, beta and gamma globulins in the blood serum increases, as well as the exchange of nucleic acids, electrolytes, and vitamins.

There are indications of disturbances in tissue permeability, in particular the blood-brain barrier, which are associated with changes in brain function under microwave exposure. With intense, predominantly local irradiation of the eyes, the formation of cataracts is possible.

Exposure to microwaves of non-thermal intensity causes reactions in the same body systems as thermal effects. However, these reactions, as a rule, remain within the limits of physiological fluctuations and are detected mainly during chronic exposure.

Information about the effect of microwaves on the human body was obtained mainly from examining groups of people working under conditions of exposure to EMFs. It has been established that the nervous and cardiovascular systems are most sensitive to the effects. Changes in the endocrine system, metabolic processes, kidney function, gastrointestinal tract, blood system, and organ of vision are detected. A number of researchers have proposed classifications of ultra-high-frequency lesions according to the main clinical syndrome and the duration of contact with radiation sources. It is proposed to distinguish “radio wave disease” as an independent nosological unit. However, the changes observed when the human body is exposed to low-intensity microwaves are not specific; they are adaptive and fall within the framework of physiological fluctuations. In addition, the connection of some symptoms with exposure to EMF is inconclusive, since in a work environment a person is exposed to a complex of factors simultaneously.

Currently, regulations have been introduced to regulate levels of microwave exposure. Different fundamental approaches to the mechanism of action of microwave radiation lead to differences in the maximum permissible exposure levels adopted in different countries. In the USSR in 10 µW/cm2, in the USA it is accepted as a basic standard value 10 mW/cm2.

The effect of low-frequency EMFs on the body has been studied much less. It is known that exposure to EMF frequency 1-350 Hz affects the nervous system. In the experiment, mild and unstable disturbances of motor-food conditioned reflexes were observed, mainly in the form of disinhibition of differentiations, inhibition of the instrumental skill developed in animals and the conditioned reflex reaction of active avoidance in mice in the T-shaped maze.

Depending on the conditions of exposure, changes in bioelectrical processes in the brain are characterized by desynchronization of biocurrents in the cerebral cortex, the appearance of slow high-amplitude oscillations, or an increase in the number of slow waves and spindles, or an increase in the frequency and amplitude of biopotentials, and sometimes the appearance of epileptiform discharges. Exposure to pulsed EMF causes drowsiness or sleep in cats and the appearance of spindles or synchronized slow activity on the ECoG. When exposed to low-frequency EMFs, a reaction of the cardiovascular system and breathing is observed - a decrease in breathing, a decrease in blood pressure, a decrease in heart rate, as well as a deviation of the electrical axis of the heart to the left, an increase in the systolic indicator, a widening of the ventricular complex and the Q-T interval, a decrease in the voltage of the P and R waves on the ECG.

An increase in direct and reflex parasympathetic influences on the heart and changes in the function of the endocrine glands are observed. Hematological changes are expressed in an increase in the number of red blood cells in the blood and the content of hemoglobin in them, a moderate increase in the number of reticulocytes, and predominantly neutrophilic leukocytosis. With chronic exposure, changes are observed in the blood coagulation system - suppression of thromboplastic and increased anticoagulation activity of the blood, increase in fibrinogen content in the blood. The metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and nitrogen changes. Depending on the frequency of EMF, the blood sugar level increases or decreases, and the glycolytic transformation of carbohydrates in some organs changes. The total content of serum protein, albumin and globulin decreases (without changes in the albumin-globulin ratio). With local influences, vascular-tissue permeability increases.

ELECTROSTIMULATION(ES) - irritation by electric current of body tissues for diagnostic, therapeutic and training purposes. By imitating the physiological effects of nerve impulses, ES has not only a control effect, but also a trophic effect.

The irritating signal is characterized by its type (sinusoidal, pulse), shape, pulse duration and frequency.

ES has a powerful effect on the nervous system, both local and widespread; ES is analgesic and causes local hyperemia, indicating a local improvement in blood circulation. ES affects arterial and venous blood flow.

ES is successfully used to strengthen the muscular system, in case of poor posture, flat feet, prosthetics, primary and secondary muscle atrophy, to create an “artificial muscle pump” in patients in the postoperative period, as a means of combating thrombus formation, to normalize cardiac function -vascular system, motor-secretory activity of the gastrointestinal tract, urogenital system, to improve athletic performance, prevent disorders associated with hypokinesia, promotes nerve regeneration.

Equipment (“Tonus-2”, “Tonus-3”) and ES techniques for space flights have been developed; they were used alone or in combination with other prophylactic agents to maintain muscle tone, static and dynamic endurance, prevent skeletal muscle atrophy, general asthenia of the body, and weaken vestibulo-vegetative symptoms.

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY(E) in space medicine - the study of bioelectrical activity of the brain (registration, data analysis and their functional interpretation) in relation to the tasks of assessing the state of the central nervous system of astronauts in connection with professional activity. The picture of brain biocurrents recorded from the surface of the head - an electroencephalogram (EEG) - provides a number of direct characteristics of the activity of neural ensembles of the brain (mainly the cerebral cortex) in natural conditions.

This is constantly existing so-called spontaneous electrical activity and special electrical phenomena that arise phasically in the brain in response to an external stimulus or during an action (evoked potentials or, more precisely, “event-related potentials” - event - related potentials - ERP), as well as the dynamics of these indicators under changing external and internal conditions of brain activity. E plays an important role in the selection and examination of astronauts, monitoring and studying states of sleep and wakefulness during flight and ground tests, objective assessment of attitudes, interest, its direction (the state of motivational processes), identifying unforeseen pathological conditions of the brain and the whole organism.

There is no complete neurophysiological theory of E yet, but advances in the study of the brain over the past 25 years have significantly advanced the formation of such a theory and laid its foundation. The connection between EEG waves and cellular processes (fluctuations in membrane potential, pulse discharges) can be considered established: EEG waves are the result of the summation of relatively slow electrical processes in cortical neurons, caused by the arrival of impulse messages to these neurons and the emergence of postsynaptic potentials; The electric field resulting from the summation of the activity of many thousands and millions of neurons, which physically extends to the surface of the head and changes in which are recorded in the form of EEG, can have a reverse effect on neural processes, changing the degree of polarization of the dendritic membrane and thus controlling the excitability of neurons. EEG is the result of the summation of naturally occurring cellular processes, and, therefore, reflects the activity of a certain neural organization (functional system) that regulates the work of cortical neurons and is associated primarily with the activity of the formations of the reticular formation of the brain stem and thalamus. The EEG reflects in detail the states of wakefulness and sleep (see) and their regulation, the activity of the motivational mechanisms of the brain, and some typological characteristics of these processes.

Brain biocurrents are recorded using electronic amplification equipment (AC amplifiers and, less commonly, DC amplifiers) and inertia-free or low-inertia recording devices (ink-recording, cathode, loop oscilloscopes), arranged for simultaneous recording of several processes in special devices - electroencephalographs. The high gain (the amplitude of EEG oscillations is measured in microvolts) makes the recording system very sensitive to a variety of masking interference, primarily the electric field of ordinary mains current. In this regard, it is necessary to shield the object of study in a special chamber or the wires passing in the room, or equip the electroencephalograph with a special device to suppress network interference. Special requirements are also imposed on the quality of the output electrodes, their contact with the surface of the head, and the condition of the connecting conductors. In the conditions that space medicine deals with, when the duration of EEG recording increases sharply and signals have to be transmitted over long distances, these requirements become especially stringent. For space electronics, special electrodes were required to ensure long-term artifact-free registration, individual helmets - electrode holders, maximum proximity to the electrodes of preliminary amplifiers with telemetric transmission of amplified signals. All these technical problems practically solved.

Spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of a healthy person is represented by EEG rhythms that differ in frequency, topographic and functional characteristics. While awake (at rest with eyes closed or during activity in a standard environment) the alpha rhythm predominates 8-12 counts/s, maximally expressed in the parieto-occipital regions of the hemispheres (amplitude is usually 40-80 µV) and is suppressed when exposed to various stimuli, primarily visual (desynchronization reaction, activation), and when falling asleep. In the latter case, activation is manifested by the appearance of the alpha rhythm. A somewhat slowed arc-shaped alpha rhythm in the central parts of the hemispheres, especially suppressed by proprioceptive irritation, is sometimes called the Rolandic rhythm (mu rhythm). In some people, the alpha rhythm is poorly expressed and appears only during the period of falling asleep or is absent altogether (“flat” EEG). Beta rhythm 13-35 counts/s in a state of wakefulness, it is represented mainly in the central-frontal parts of the hemispheres by regular oscillations of small amplitude (up to 15 µV); Some people have a low-frequency beta rhythm 13-18 counts/s predominates and is similar to the alpha rhythm in topography, amplitude and response to stimuli. A pronounced beta rhythm is often observed in the superficial stages of sleep and constantly accompanies medium-depth sleep (“sleep spindles”). In the anterior central parts of the hemispheres in a state of wakefulness, fuzzy low-amplitude (less 30-40 µV) irregular slow waves 4-7 counts/s(theta rhythm) and 1-3 counts/s(delta rhythm). At certain stages of normal sleep and in certain forms of brain pathology, the amplitude of these waves increases sharply (synchronization); they can take on the character of regular rhythms and be observed in different parts of the hemispheres. One of the characteristic signs of brain pathology on the EEG is the so-called epileptoid manifestations (sharp waves, peak-wave and polypeak-wave complexes, paroxysmal, suddenly occurring, high-amplitude rhythms of different frequencies).

Typically, EEG rhythms are analyzed visually based on amplitude-frequency and topographic characteristics, as well as on the response to functional tests (presentation of single and rhythmic stimuli, performance of physical and mental tasks, pharmacological effects). Various mathematical methods for analyzing EEG have been proposed, usually using automatic devices: frequency, correlation, phase analysis, determining the statistical parameter of the asymmetry of the duration of phases of single EEG waves, the average frequency of extremes, amplitude distribution, etc. The information content of the EEG characteristics analyzed using these methods is different. However, they cannot replace visual assessment, but only complement it. It is possible that analysis of the EEG based on a combination of many signs and using computer technology will significantly increase the amount of information obtained during E.

Event-related potentials in the EEG are represented by intrinsically evoked potentials, the expectation wave (E-wave, contingent negative wave - cnv) and the so-called operant potential. Actually evoked potential is a polyphasic multicomponent oscillation that occurs when exposed to an external stimulus in the corresponding projection zone of the hemisphere, as well as in other parts of the brain, in particular, in the vertex region (vertex potential). The evoked potential has a complex origin, reflecting both the activation by an external stimulus of classical sensory systems and the subsequent processing of incoming information with the participation of the so-called nonspecific brain formations (reticular formation of the midbrain and diencephalon, some, mainly median nuclei of the thalamus, limbic system, associative cortex). In the evoked potential, it is customary to distinguish the early one (with a latent period up to 50-100 ms) an exogenous component, consisting of a number of waves of different amplitudes and phases and reflecting the perception of the physical qualities of the stimulus, and an endogenous component, consisting of waves with a long latent period and associated with the processes of the subject’s assessment of the significance of the stimulus, its probabilistic structure, attention, expectation, decision-making An endogenous component can arise without an exogenous component under conditions of a regularly presented stimulus. Wave of anticipation- a negative shift in the persistent potential in the central region of the hemispheres, arising in response to a signal of preparation for action and disappearing at the moment the action begins. The amplitude of the expectation wave correlates with the interest (motivation) of the subject, his directed attention, and active anticipation of the signal that triggers the action. Operant potential- a set of relatively slow positive-negative oscillations recorded in the EEG of the motor zone of the corresponding hemisphere immediately before a voluntary movement (reflecting the processes of active launch of an action program - decision making), as well as at t time and after it (reaction to proprioceptive signaling about movement). Registration and analysis of evoked potentials due to their relatively small amplitude and the masking influence of spontaneous activity require summation on a computer relative to the moment of presentation of the stimulus or the execution of an action to isolate the signal from the noise.

Regular changes in spontaneous and evoked activity on the EEG in connection with the dynamics of the state of sleep and wakefulness made EEG, in combination with the registration of other physiological processes, an indispensable method for studying these conditions in space flight conditions, as well as in studying the influence of flight factors on sleep in ground conditions and the corresponding corrective procedures. It is very important to control the psychophysiological parameters that characterize the cosmonaut’s internal attitude to the situation or to individual circumstances under flight conditions. Analysis of evoked potentials, as well as some indicators of spontaneous EEG associated with attitudinal, motivational processes in the brain, allows such control. EEG allows you to identify unforeseen pathological states of the brain, primarily combined with disturbances of consciousness (hypoxic states, epileptic syndrome of various origins, etc.), inform the control center about what happened and turn on the emergency automatic control system (i.e. implement one of the types bioelectric control). Finally, the reflection on the EEG of the typological features of the brain makes it possible to use E when selecting astronauts, taking into account indicators of spontaneous and evoked electrical activity both during wakefulness (for example, it is not recommended to accept people with a “flat” EEG into aviation), and during sleep, as well as in different situations.

EMBRYOGENESIS(E) - the period of individual development from fertilization of the egg to the completion of the main processes of organogenesis.

Embryos of laboratory animals are used in various experiments; tests characterizing the reproductive ability of animals and the characteristics of E can be used to assess the influence of various extreme factors on the body external environment. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the critical periods of E - nodal points with a sharp increase in sensitivity to hypoxia, cooling, overheating, ionizing radiation, drugs, etc. The damaging effect is manifested by a slowdown or arrest of development, death of the embryo or the occurrence of various anomalies and deformities, sometimes detected after a considerable time after birth.

Weightlessness and hypergravity can be interesting tool to study a number of fundamental aspects of developmental biology, in particular, to resolve the question of whether gravity determines the development of organisms in terrestrial conditions. The mother-developing fetus system is a model for studying the effect of weightlessness on metabolism, primarily on calcium metabolism.

Embryological experiments with eggs of fish and tailless amphibians were carried out under conditions of weightlessness, when it was simulated on a clinostat and in hypergravity. The effect of exposure was greater in the early stages of development. There is a hypothesis that one of the main primary mechanisms of the effect of altered gravity on developmental processes is a disruption of the normal distribution of various fractions of substances in the egg.

Experiments with mammals are so far limited to studying the effects of hypergravity. In experiments on unadapted animals placed in a centrifuge (2 g) several hours after mating, pregnancy was terminated at the stages of development preceding implantation of the embryo into the uterine wall. In experiments with animals adapted to rotation in a centrifuge before fertilization, the development of the embryo under hypergravity conditions did not stop; there were developmental anomalies,

insignificant or absent.

EMOTIONS(from lat. emoveo- shocking, exciting). In psychology, a person’s experience of his relationship to the world around him and to himself, one of the forms of reflection of objective reality; in neurophysiology - an active state of systems of specialized brain structures, prompting the subject to change behavior in the direction of minimizing (weakening, preventing) or maximizing (strengthening, repeating) this state. The quality, degree and sign of emotion (E) are determined by need (P) and prediction of the likelihood (possibility) of its satisfaction based on innate and previously acquired experience.

A low probability of satisfying P makes E negative (fear, anger, grief), an increase in the probability of satisfying P compared to a previously existing forecast gives E a positive connotation (joy, inspiration, pleasure). Emotions that arise on the basis of a person’s higher social values ​​are usually called feelings - intellectual, aesthetic, moral (sense of duty, love for the Motherland, etc.). Strong, rapidly arising E are called affects; long-lasting emotional states are called mood. Depending on the predominance of activating or depressing influences on the subject’s behavior in a given E, E is defined as sthenic or asthenic. Physiology of the late 19th - early 20th centuries associated E primarily with changes in the activity of internal organs, with the mobilization of the body's vegetative-energy resources. Since the 30s, scientists have become increasingly interested in the problem of the dependence of E on the activity of the subject, on the processes of reception, evaluation and processing by the brain of information necessary for organizing upcoming actions. I. P. Pavlov believed that E arise when the internal dynamic stereotype that has developed in the brain is compared with signals coming from the external environment. Similar ideas were later developed and experimentally substantiated in the works F. A. Hodge, D. O. Hebb, D. V. Lindsley, P. K. Anokhina, P. V. Simonova, P. Fressa, A. N. Leontyeva.

By irritating the brain with an electric current through previously implanted electrodes, first in animals, and then - with the development of neurosurgery - in humans, systems of brain structures responsible for the implementation of E were identified. These systems have their representations mainly in the neocortex, in the limbic formations ( hippocampus, amygdala) and in the hypothalamus.

Occurring with a low probability of satisfying P, negative E play the role of a mechanism that, to a certain extent, compensates for the lack of funds available to the subject. In addition to the mobilization of the body’s vegetative-energetic resources, they lead to a presumable response to a wide range of signals that may be significant (emotional dominants), change perception thresholds, activate memory, and encourage additional communication (emotional expression -

I facial expressions, voice, etc.). A different role is played by positive E, the emergence of which requires a combination of P with an increasing probability of its satisfaction. The desire to re-experience positive E“encourages living beings to actively disrupt the established “equilibrium with the environment”, to actively look for new, still unsatisfied Ps and new ways to satisfy them. If negative E primarily serve the self-preservation of living systems (individuals, offspring, groups), then positive E promote their self-development in the process of mastering new spheres of reality.

Positive and negative E of a person do not have independent social value. The latter is entirely determined by the social meaning of that P, that motive on the basis of which a given emotional state arises. Situations in which the satisfaction of important P for the subject is chronically difficult give rise to persistent emotionally negative tension - emotional stress, promoting the development of neuroses and psychosomatic diseases (coronary heart disease, hypertension, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum).

Although a person’s emotional reactivity to a certain extent depends on his individual (typological) characteristics, correct upbringing is of decisive importance for the formation of the emotional sphere, especially in early childhood. childhood. A rich world of emotions, reflecting a variety of socially valuable motivations, characterizes a productive, harmoniously developed personality.

Space flight contains all the conditions conducive to the emergence of fairly strong positive and negative E. Firstly, this is due to the high degree of motivation of the astronaut. The diverse motives of responsibility for success, the thirst for knowledge, the desire to achieve set goals, and in some cases, concern for the safety of the crew and the successful completion of the flight serve as the basis for emotional stress. The level of E. can change dynamically in accordance with the transition of maximum professional responsibility and the role of leader from one crew member to another.

Secondly, space flight inevitably contains elements of pragmatic uncertainty, novelty, the need for alternative solutions, i.e. components of that “information component” that determines the predictive probability of successful actions, the degree of risk and is therefore so important for the genesis of E (the first exit into space, landing on the moon). Reducing the degree of risk due to the receipt of additional pragmatic information leads to a decrease in the level of E. (repeated participation in the flight of the crew of the Soyuz-8 spacecraft) compared to similar situations (flights of the Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 spacecraft).

The specific features of afferentation during space flight are determined by such factors as information starvation, physical inactivity, and weightlessness. The main source of emotional stress during sensory deprivation, associated mainly with the limitation of the number of significant signals, is loss of contact with reality, confusion of memory traces with present sensations, increased internal monologues, disorientation in space and time. The performance of tasks that require imagination and assessment of the situation deteriorates the most. The goals of overcoming sensory hunger are the astronaut’s active fulfillment of the flight mission, the influx of additional information that maintains interest in the flight, communication with colleagues, organization of creative leisure, etc.

Like sensory deprivation, physical inactivity becomes a significant factor during long-term space flights. Excessive restriction of motor activity leads, in psychophysiological terms, to disturbances in mental activity and the breaking of dynamic stereotypes, thereby causing unwanted E. That is why much attention is paid to the issues of ensuring the minimum necessary living volumes and on-board physical training.

Weightlessness leads to complex disturbances in spatial analysis; the speed and clarity of motor reactions changes more strongly than with moderate overloads. Initially, weightlessness causes a feeling of falling and fear, followed by a feeling of joy, or, along with the absence of acute fear and joy, the appearance of illusions of inverted flight, position on one side, etc., accompanied by symptoms of motion sickness (see Weightlessness).

E.'s influence on activity generally follows the rule Yerkes-Dodson. According to this rule, for each type of action there is an optimal level of emotional stress at which this activity proceeds most successfully. If a low level of activation worsens the quality of actions, perception and recognition of significant signals, and leads to distraction and drowsiness, then excessive activation disorganizes purposeful activity. Emotional stress, along with other flight factors, significantly affects the duration and internal structure of astronauts’ sleep and serves as a prerequisite for difficulty falling asleep.

The important dependence of the effectiveness of activity on the qualitative side of E has been little studied. It can only be noted that greatest success is achieved by a person experiencing positive emotions caused by the very process of overcoming obstacles and associated with satisfying the need for creativity. The patterns of influence of an astronaut’s activities on his emotional state have not been sufficiently studied. The correct and justified choice of actions, which serves as a guarantee of optimal behavior in a difficult situation, is the main condition for eliminating unnecessary emotional stress.

Control for emotional state and the prevention of emotional stress in astronauts serves the purpose of preventing negative influences E. and the use of the positive properties of the latter in the interests of successful completion of assigned tasks. For all their importance, professional selection and training cannot replace a dynamic assessment of the condition during the flight, which makes it possible to judge the current functional capabilities of crew members. To assess the emotional intensity of cosmonauts, the results of psychophysiological analysis of behavioral and professional reactions, data on the state of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and characteristics of the speech signal received through standard communication channels between the crew and the Earth are used.

Of the vegetative parameters, heart rate turned out to be the most informative and least susceptible to technical transmission interference. At the same time, this indicator requires contact sensors for registration and significantly depends on physical, gravitational, operator and other loads. The speech analysis method is free from these disadvantages. It has sufficient noise immunity, secretive registration, does not require contact sensors, which relieves the astronaut of physical and psychological discomfort, allows you to differentiate emotional and physical stress and determine the degree and sign of E.

Methods for preventing unwanted emotional stress are determined by its dependence on needs and the lack of pragmatic information, which serves as the basis for predicting the likelihood of achieving a goal. Rational training of astronauts requires, on the one hand, the cultivation of motives associated with the desire to win, with confidence in the successful completion of the task, with the desire to improve their professional skills, etc., and on the other, maximum saturation with pragmatic information through mastering a variety of skills necessary during the flight. Excessive information, preventing the emergence of negative emotions, contributes to its replacement with positive emotions: confidence, presence of mind, and the joy of overcoming difficulties encountered.

ENERGY COSTS(33) - the amount of energy in kilojoules spent by a person on different types of activities.

The study of human energy per day during ground tests or during flight is of particular interest, since it allows us to determine the load on the life support systems (q.v.) of a space object, calculate the energy cost of an astronaut’s work cycle, and evaluate the food ration.

In ground tests in a mock-up of a space object, human EH is determined by the method of indirect calorimetry, generally accepted in occupational physiology, based on the analysis of exhaled air and subsequent calculation of the respiratory coefficient.

In space flight, direct study of the gas exchange of an astronaut is very difficult, which required the use of various calculation methods based on changes in heart rate, body temperature, breathing volume of astronauts, etc.

During the flight of the Soyuz-Salyut space complex, the EH of crew members was determined by a calculation method based on changes in pCO 2 in the habitable compartments of the ship.

As studies have shown, the cosmonauts’ EZ according to calculations amounted to 2600-3100 kJ/day, with average oxygen consumption 23-26 nl/h. EZ was higher when astronauts performed repair work, transferred apparatus and equipment, and during visiting expeditions. On such days, the cosmonauts’ EZ reached 3300-3500 kJ/day when consuming oxygen 28-32 nl/h, which indicated the high performance of the astronauts throughout all stages of the flight.

The description of cultural stereotypes, their stability and selection is connected with the needs of modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, often very far from reality, has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself. It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities. Artificially created images and representations begin to play an active role in shaping the mentality of contemporaries and possibly subsequent generations.

Despite the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in each new historical era is an important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional attitude and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and the rethinking of already known ones. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself, is still a problem.

Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, prejudice, cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences, etc. Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, a stereotype is generally understood as a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, etc., emerging in conditions of a lack of information as a result of generalization personal experience individual and often preconceived ideas accepted in society. A cultural stereotype is an idea that reflects the everyday level of conceptualization of cultural specifics and has a strong influence on the mutual expectations of partners during initial contact. The content of a stereotype is a collective idea, it is taken for granted and is not truly challenged by anyone.

However, the main reason for its stability as a structure of individual consciousness is that it corresponds to survival strategies learned from childhood and accepted in a particular culture. It is they who save any local civilization from collapse. For example, Russia has its own historical logic, which corresponds to its strategy of survival, unknown to American or Western European culture. Relating to the deep layers of consciousness, a stereotype in images and behavioral models forms a certain subculture precisely as a special way of survival, i.e. energy, material and information exchange with the environment.

So, for example, in the article “Features of primitive primitivism of thieves’ speech,” D.S. Likhachev, noting the similarity of the thieves’ languages ​​of all countries (the same type of word formation, when the same concepts replace each other), argued that the thieves’ environment of different peoples is distinguished by one and the same type of thinking, stereotypical attitude towards the world around us. This thinking is dominated by “general ideas,” which L. Lévy-Bruhl considered a characteristic feature of pre-logical thinking. The mass consciousness of modern man, as far as collective ideas are concerned, is largely characterized by the features of deindividualizing, primitive thinking.

Firstly, it is extremely emotional. A stereotype, taking root in consciousness, has a powerful effect on emotions, and not on the intellect, and is easily consolidated by collective experiences. An individual, personal attitude towards a subject is never expressed in this expressive form. This emotion conveys exclusively a group, collective attitude.

This is the affective function of stereotypes, which is generated by the socialization of human emotions in large groups. Concepts that express, for example, ethnic negative assessments (“Yid,” “Muscovite,” etc.) evoke certain strong emotions. But this expression is qualitatively poor, not deep, and extremely monotonous. The concept of “blonde” (a stupid and sexy creature), widespread in American jokes, acting as a stereotype and reinforced by cultural patterns, evokes an undifferentiated, but vivid emotion. Emotion is closely related to bodily motor skills and is reinforced by gestures. The motor type of thinking... creates a situation in which the word acts not only on the cerebral cortex, but also on the human muscular system. The connection between stereotypical images and behavioral reactions not only with the mental, but also with the physiological nature of a person has been well researched and is used in the practice of psychotherapy, in which they try to find and change stable emotional connections of one phenomenon with another. A person is taught to treat fixed connections as addictions or bad habits that can be destroyed with the help of awareness and special training. For example, Louise Hay wrote that a person has many different addictions. “Including a passion for creating certain stereotypes thinking and behavior. We use them to isolate ourselves from life. If we don't want to think about our future or face the truth about the present, we turn to stereotypes for help that keep us from touching reality. Some people eat a lot in difficult situations. Others take medications. It is quite possible that genetic inheritance plays a significant role in the progression of alcoholism. However, the choice still remains with the individual. Often “bad heredity” represents only the child’s adoption of parental methods of fear management.”

Of course, basic emotions are a universal cultural phenomenon. However, according to psycholinguistics and cultural linguistics, there are national differences in emotions, when faced with in a situation of intercultural contact, an individual may experience what is called “culture shock” caused by a discrepancy in expectations. Within a culture, habits are usually not reflected. In another culture, there is a possibility of encountering emotional characteristics that are different from our own.

The emotional structure of personality is formed in early age, and further, when stereotypes are set by culture, this primary situation of increased suggestibility is reproduced. First of all, the process of stereotyping captures easily suggestible people. Suggestibility creates favorable conditions for the introduction of traditional customs and beliefs. Closed traditional cultures, living by the dogma of custom, require from a person not individualization, but assimilation. With the collective ideas characteristic of each local culture, we associate the differentiating and integrating functions of stereotypes, i.e. the primary division of everything in the world into “ours” and “alien”.

A description of the world characteristic of childhood and primitive consciousness through a system of binary oppositions (“bad - good”, “warm - cold”, “day - night”, “light - dark”, “up - down”, etc.) without observing gradations and shades, participates in the formation of initial moral attitudes, but not so much in the form of the opposition “good - evil”, but in the form of the basic opposition “us/us” and “them/strangers”. “Insiders,” as a rule, are perceived with positive emotions and are given preference over “outsiders.” At the same time, as psychologists note, the following cognitive consequences are observed: 1) it is believed that all “strangers” are similar to each other and different from “our own”; 2) there is more diversity among “us” than among “outsiders”; 3) assessments of “strangers” tend to extremes: they, as a rule, are either very positive or very negative.

The integrating function of the stereotype appears here in a dual aspect. Firstly, the concept “one’s own” unites objects and phenomena of the most varied kinds. People with a certain type and pace of speech, rituals and forms of meetings, habits and passions of all kinds. As P. Weil and A. Genis wrote in their gastronomic and cultural book: “You cannot carry away your homeland on the soles of your boots, but you can take with you Far Eastern crabs, spicy Tallinn sprat, waffle cakes, pralines, sweets like “Bear in the North” , medicinal water “Essentuki” (preferably number seventeen). With such a price list (yes, strong Russian mustard), living in a foreign land (also hot sunflower oil) becomes better (slightly acidic tomatoes) and more fun (Ararat cognac, 6 stars!). Of course, at a table set in this way, there will still be room for nostalgic memories. Either jelly (more correctly, jelly) for 36 kopecks will float out in a pink haze, then pies with “jam”, then “b/m borscht” (b/m is without meat, nothing indecent). Also – hot fat cutlets, bloody roast beef, Strasbourg pie. However, sorry. This is no longer nostalgic, but a classic.” Let us note here not only an explicit quote from A.S. Pushkin, but also a hidden one - from J.V. Stalin, as well as an allusion to Gogol’s texts.

The second aspect of integration based on stereotypes of thinking and behavior consists precisely in uniting people into groups ranked according to some obvious characteristic. When R. Reagan called the Soviet Union an “evil empire,” he found a successful metaphor that integrated a whole range of stereotypical emotions and served the messianic aspirations of American democracy. An exaggerated image of the enemy exclusively contributes to consolidation within a sociocultural group. It is stereotypes that carry out the function of unified language regulation for prejudiced people; the task of stereotypes is to strengthen the opinions of their speakers. Thus, the suggestive power of language models the picture of the world for a specific cultural group. The picture of the world determines the actions of the bearers of this mentality not only at the interpersonal, but also at the public (up to governmental) levels.

By the differentiating function of a stereotype, we propose to understand, first of all, sensitivity to cultural differences. The traditional community of understanding excludes carriers of a different culture from its zone of action. American anthropologist F.K. Bok introduced the category of cultural forms into scientific circulation. By cultural form, F. Bock understood a set of interrelated and partially arbitrary expectations, understandings, beliefs and agreements shared by members social group. Culture includes all the beliefs and all the expectations that people express and demonstrate. “When you are in your group, among people with whom you share a common culture, you do not have to think about and project your words and actions, because all of you - both you and they - see the world in principle the same way, you know what to expect from each other . But being in a foreign society, you will experience difficulties, a feeling of helplessness and disorientation, which can be called culture shock.” In cultural studies, culture shock is usually understood as a conflict between two cultures (primarily national and ethnocentric) at the level of individual consciousness. It is associated with the very ability to capture the value differences of different societies, i.e. with the differentiating function of consciousness. The more complex a personality is organized, the more subtle distinctions it is able to make. However, the differentiating function of stereotypical thinking always remains within the simplest oppositions, fixing only the division into “male / female”, “one’s own / someone else’s”, “good / bad”.

It is interesting to note that the integrating function of stereotypes is more pronounced than the differentiating one, since it is more often positive emotional coloring. The use of logical quantifiers of universality in relation to particular cases, which is expressed in the use of linguistic formulas beginning with the words “all”, “always”, “never”, gives rise to both differentiating and integrating judgments. However, the integrating function is more noticeably expressed in the mechanisms of stereotype formation. One of them is bringing together the heterogeneous characteristics of people as necessarily accompanying each other. For example, in American culture, the definition of poor is very often found in combination with uneducated and stupid, and the definition of blond means dumb as a matter of course.

Of course, this is due to the obvious simplification of the real diversity of life phenomena. Perhaps the main function of stereotypes is precisely the function of simplifying the diversity of the world. We call it reducing, i.e. reducing the actual diversity of life to a simple scheme of interrelated definitions. This is the way of grouping information inherent in a stereotype as a cognitive phenomenon. The task of a stereotype is not simply to explain and justify existing social relations, but to reduce these explanations to a publicly accessible combination of images and actions. “The French consider the British to be petty, ill-mannered, rather ridiculous people who do not know how to dress at all, who spend most of their time digging in the garden beds, playing cricket or sitting in a pub drinking a glass of thick, sweet, warm beer... The English in France are also considered “treacherous” (Yapp N., Sirett M. These strange Frenchmen. M., 1999. P. 7). This is the British observation of their stereotypical perception in modern France. And according to 1935, for a Frenchman, an Englishman is an inelegant, stupid, arrogant and red-faced person unable to express himself clearly. The poor quality of English cuisine is noted, and the English habit of eating poorly cooked meat. The French consider the British to be rude barbarians, agreeing with the Germans only that the British are hypocritical.

Culturally marked features that form the content of a stereotype (clothing, occupations, traditions) can change over time, while evaluative characteristics are more stable, although they are also characterized by certain dynamics. For example, in the ethnic stereotype of a Chinese, the trait “attachment to the family” stands out: among Americans, a high degree of attachment to the family causes bewilderment associated with ridicule, as well as the trait “passion” in relation to the stereotype of an Italian, “nationalism” in relation to the stereotype of a German, “ ambition" in relation to the stereotype of a Jew. The reduction, which is carried out by the cultural-collective consciousness that forms the stereotype, can itself be assessed in two ways. Of course, the Russian philosopher and culturologist G. Fedotov is right: “There is nothing more difficult than national characteristics. They are easily given to strangers and always sound vulgar to “one of our own”, who has at least a vague experience of the depth and complexity of national life.”

The reducing function of a stereotype contributes to the formation of prejudices, a generally negative phenomenon that complicates communication. Existing in the form of everyday ideas, existing, often on an unconscious level, a stereotype cannot have complex logical ramifications. In this case, the operation of attribution (extraction of features) in order to explain the nature of the object is intended to adapt the subject in the world of diverse and countless connections by the method of their intentional minimization. Therefore, their adapting function is closely related to the reducing function of stereotypes. So the task of an autostereotype is to create and preserve a positive “I” image, as well as to protect group values. This function is performed due to the selectivity of information perception. “Sometimes consciously, sometimes without realizing it, we allow ourselves to be influenced only by those facts that correspond to our philosophy. We don’t see what our eyes don’t want to pay attention to.” Defense mechanisms also include the emotional content of stereotypes. The firmer the assessment, the greater the emotion, as a rule, caused by any attempt to question the stereotype. The adaptive function is closely related to the principle of economy of thinking.

Stereotypes can exist not only at the level of everyday ideas, but also in the form of scientific knowledge. In these cases, the explanatory model “sins” with overly broad generalizations. For example: “Men assert themselves in what they do, and women in how they look and what is said about them.” The most interesting question of the functioning of stereotypes lies in the study of how mass ideas manifest themselves at the level of individual consciousness. How do stereotypes influence the subjective meanings and values ​​of an individual? After all, the axiological nature of stereotypes is obvious. It means the development within one culture of its own value-hierarchical system, its own type moral consciousness and behavior and their evaluative structures. In a culture, only those values ​​are stereotyped that are capable of acting as common guidelines for all its bearers and influencing the formation of their cultural appearance and individual lifestyle. “Values ​​do not represent reality, neither physical nor mental. Their essence lies in their significance, and not in their factuality” (Rikkert G. Sciences about nature and sciences about culture // Culturology. XX century. Anthology. M., 1995. P. 82).

The methods and criteria on the basis of which the procedures for assessing the phenomena of life are carried out are enshrined in culture as “subjective values”. These are those attitudes, imperatives and prohibitions, goals and normative ideas that act as guidelines for human activity. Stereotypes directly relate to subjective values. We associate their very ability to serve as a criterion in assessing the phenomena of reality with the selective function of the stereotype.

Stereotypes, which are used when assessing a particular sociocultural group, make it possible to evaluate the behavior of others in accordance with the value scale of one’s own group. The mechanism of stereotyping in this case acts as a necessary and useful assessment tool. Simplification and schematization, which are the basis of any stereotype, are the inevitable costs of such absolutely necessary for regulation human activity in general, processes such as limiting and categorizing incoming information. The selector in this case is the guiding rule on the basis of which the selection is made.

The stereotype is also intended to eliminate contradictions in the general picture of knowledge about the world. A more understandable picture of the world allows you to successfully solve specific practical problems. Stereotypical consciousness moves from fixation of opposites to their emotional assessment with subsequent resistance to them. According to linguoculturologist V.V. Krasnykh, all stereotypes-images can be conditionally divided into two groups. The first includes images-representations of the “correct world”, which play the role of a stabilizer, supporting the confidence that a given world (group, nation, state) is favorable for life if certain rules are observed.

The images-representations of the second group depict the world as unfair, unsuitable for life, and the rules of behavior in it are false (“good” does not defeat “evil”). Such ideas, despite the predominance of the negative component, emphasize the importance of the individual and the relativity of traditional group values. Both groups of stereotypes coexist peacefully at the level of everyday consciousness, reproducing the original ambivalence and maintaining the completeness of the system of meanings. The images of the “correct” and “wrong” world are combined into a single picture according to the principle of complementarity. Reconciliation of contradictions of various kinds plays an important role in the adaptation of man and society. It ensures the maintenance of stability and provides the opportunity for further development.

Thus, the main principle of the stereotype is the transformation of the conditional into the unconditional. What might require proof becomes “natural” with the help of a stereotype and acts directly through the associations evoked.

Like other cognitive cultural formations a stereotype has a field structure. It can distinguish a core - a certain leading principle or concept - and a periphery - invariably accompanying the core concept-image of attribution and judgment (unambiguously expressed " folk wisdom"). A stereotype is accompanied by an associative context that provides a connection with other stereotypes of the same kind. Here is an example of stereotypes conveyed through the film industry. The American action film with comedy elements features three mafias operating in the United States: Russian, Chinese and Italian. In the first case, the agent negotiates in a bathhouse (with vodka and black caviar), in the second - in an abandoned factory (with martial arts attributes: “oriental” flavor - kicks in the face), and in the case of the Italian one, negotiations are conducted in a restaurant (with wine and spaghetti), where a charmingly sexy female agent is sent. This cultural-associative series is parodically stereotypical, it is primitive, easily recognizable, and, most importantly, it reinforces already existing stereotypes in the minds of recipients, associatively referring to other films that use film cliches based on the same stereotypes.

The core of a stereotype should be considered, first of all, the meaning of the key concept with which it is described in the language of culture. For example, all the numerous connotations and expectations (as well as habitual patterns of behavior) that are associated with the word “friend” in Russian culture are noticeably different from similar concepts in American or English cultures. Moreover, as research by cultural linguists shows, the set of meanings of this concept within each culture can change significantly over time. Words denoting the deepest cultural values ​​of some peoples can only be roughly translated into the languages ​​of others.

Key concepts are cultural artifacts of the society that created them. “When this is not recognized, there is a tendency either to absolutize the meanings of words ... and regard them as clues to the nature of man as a whole, or to ignore them and regard them as something less important than the personal judgments of individual informants about the relations between people.” The author of these words, Anna Vezhbitskaya, created a theory of universal elementary meanings, which is most close to our understanding of the structure of the conceptual-figurative content of a stereotype.

A stereotype as a category of language and thinking is, of course, an artifact of the culture that created it. Therefore, for us, it is not ideal philosophical ideas about friendship that are the core of the “friend” stereotype, but also not random overtones that depend on time and place. The core of a stereotype will be the general meaning (for all cultures without exception) of the keyword that expresses it. The nuclear part allows you to recognize and classify stereotypes regardless of cultural differences. Thus, we emphasize similarities in modeling and conceptualizing connections between phenomena in different cultures and societies. The core, in a certain sense, refers to the “truth”, “soundness” of the stereotype. As E.A. Baratynsky wrote: “Prejudice is a fragment of the old truth: the Temple fell, but its descendant did not understand the language of its ruins.”

The periphery, as a structural part of the stereotype, is everything that is created by a specific culture, but even by a scientific researcher is perceived as general property human nature. Rely on your native language as a source of universal “sound” ideas about human nature and relationships between people will certainly lead to the errors of ethnocentrism. So A. Vezhbitskaya objects to Vladimir Shlapentoch: “Being Russian, Shlapentoch believes that the duty to help a friend, although it turns out to be especially clearly articulated in Russian culture, is universal for all people.” She cites an excerpt from his work “The Public and Private Life of Soviet People,” in which he argues that in all societies people tend to expect that emergency– when your life, freedom or survival is in danger, a friend will fully provide you with help and reassurance. “But it is very doubtful,” Wierzbicka argues, “that in all societies it is expected that “friends” will “fully provide you with help and reassurance.” Of course, no expectation of this kind is included as an integral part in the immediate meaning of the closest analogues of the Russian word “friend” in other languages, including the meaning of the English word friend. However, such an expectation, apparently, really forms part of the direct meaning of the Russian word “friend” (Vezhbitskaya A. Understanding cultures through keywords. M., 2001. P. 111─112).

Thus, the periphery is the space itself cultural development the content that comes from the center. In addition to these expectations, the semantic periphery of the named concept in Russian culture will include the following: deep emotional relationships, intensive contacts, financial support, etc. Therefore, in particular, the distinction between the words “friend”, “buddy” and “acquaintance” is carefully drawn not only in Russian literature, but also in everyday usage.

It is needless to emphasize that the transfer of stereotypical behavior and stereotypical expectations to another culture threatens culture shock. Conflicts within a linguistic culture can also be generated by a discrepancy between the periphery in the meaning of concepts expressing existential values. Russians still tend to argue about the question of what “ real love", "true friendship", "man's duties", "filial duty", etc.

Finally, the third structural element - associative context - is even more individualized. These are precedent images or widespread symbols created by culture, the selection of which, however, is random and determined by the biographical circumstances of the bearer of the stereotype. So, for example, a nurse might call positive emotions(memories of care) and negative (associated with fear), and associations may not be directly related to the experience of personal communication, but be inspired by images of literature, cinema, stories of friends, anecdotes, etc. In the case of stereotypes, one cannot, however, overestimate the personal nature of this associative context. After all, it is the tendency to accept someone else’s attitude, the subject’s lack of independence and inability to perform a spontaneous mental act, and infantile forms of behavior that create the ground for the formation of a complex network of collective ideas.

An appeal to a habitual associative series is often used for the purpose of deliberate manipulation. Language here appears in its instrumental function. The word as a tool is a signal, an indication of a stereotypical position and at the same time an order to perform a certain action. In stereotypical thinking and behavior, language again returns to its archaic forms, when it was a way of behavior, an element of connecting human efforts.

Literature:

Vasilkova V.V. Archetypes in individual and public consciousness // Socio-political journal. 1996. No. 6.

Gudkov V. P. Stereotype of Russia and Russians in Serbian literature // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Ser. 9. Philology. 2001. No. 2.

Zdravomyslov A. G. Russia and Russians in modern German identity // ONS: Social Sciences and Modernity. 2001. No. 4.

Zdravomyslov A. Images of Russians in German self-awareness // Free Thought - XXI. 2001. No. 1.

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A cultural stereotype is a certain canon of thoughts and perceptions, a stable reproduction of leisure activities and forms of behavior. On the one hand, a cultural stereotype helps an individual navigate situations; an entrenched form of prejudice plays a role negative role, prevents us from objectively assessing the contradictions that arise during the development of social relations and the ambiguity of people’s actions.

IN in a broad sense a cultural stereotype as part of a worldview can be considered as a carrier of collective ideas, as an imprint of power relations, as a manifestation of implicit knowledge, as a component of motivation for social practice. Its diverse study is relevant, first of all, from the position of the anthropological version of cultural studies, which, by studying the specifics of the subject of cultural activity, is aimed at providing him with pragmatic, adaptation-appropriate knowledge.

The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is connected with the needs of modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, is often very far from reality , has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself. It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities.

Despite the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in each new historical era is an important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional attitude and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and the rethinking of already known ones. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself is still a problem.

Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, a prejudice, a cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences.

Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, a stereotype is generally understood as a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, which develops in conditions of a lack of information as a result of a generalization of an individual’s personal experience and often preconceived ideas accepted in society.

At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ significantly from them in their psychological basis.

The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, consolidated by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means , in which society is interested (or not interested).

In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance and openness to others, while stereotypes are a product of hidden subjective attitudes.

By their nature, stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and interactions of individuals. Having this nature, stereotypes have a number of qualities: integrity, value, stability, conservatism, emotionality, rationality, etc. Thanks to these qualities, stereotypes perform their various functions and tasks, of which for the process of intercultural communication special meaning have the following:

explanation of human actions by providing ready and simple information about their specific sociocultural characteristics;

anticipating various forms of behavior from communication partners;

formation of the foundations of one’s own behavior in relation to interlocutors and partners;

protection of traditions, customs, habits, one’s culture, apology for one’s own co-cultural group;

providing members of society with appropriate standards, models, and standards of behavior;

stabilization and integration of relations between sociocultural groups in society.

Stereotypes are rigidly “built-in” into our value system; they are its integral part and provide a kind of protection of our positions in society. For this reason, stereotypes are used in every intercultural situation. The mechanisms of intercultural perception activate the selective application of the norms and values ​​of the native culture. Without using these extremely common cultural specific ways assessments, both of one's own group and of other cultural groups, cannot be dispensed with. Representatives of another group are identified by such characteristics as gender, ethnicity, speech characteristics, appearance, skin color, marriage customs, religious beliefs, etc. cultural stereotype tradition

The relationship between the cultural background of a person and the character traits attributed to him is usually not adequate. People belonging different cultures, have different understandings of the world, which makes communication from a “single” position impossible. Guided by the norms and values ​​of his culture, a person himself determines which facts and in what light to evaluate, which significantly affects the nature of our communication with representatives of other cultures.

For example, when communicating with Italians who are animatedly gesturing during a conversation, Germans, accustomed to a different style of communication, may develop a stereotype about the “eccentricity” and “disorganization” of Italians. In turn, Italians may have a stereotype about Germans as “cold” and “restrained”, etc.

Depending on the methods and forms of use, stereotypes can be useful or harmful for communication. Stereotyping helps people understand a situation and act in accordance with new circumstances in the following cases:

if it is consciously adhered to: the individual must understand that the stereotype reflects group norms and values, group traits and characteristics, and not specific qualities characteristic of an individual from a given group;

if the stereotype is descriptive and not evaluative: this involves the reflection in the stereotypes of real and objective qualities and properties of people of a given group, but not their assessment as good or bad;

if the stereotype is accurate: this means that the stereotype must adequately express the characteristics and traits of the group to which the person belongs;

if the stereotype is only a guess about the group, but not direct information about it: this means that the first impression of the group does not always provide reliable knowledge about all individuals of this group;

if the stereotype is modified, i.e. based on further observations and experience with real people or comes from experience of a real situation.

In situations of intercultural contacts, stereotypes are effective only when they are used as a first and positive guess about a person or situation, and are not considered as the only correct information about them.

Stereotypes become ineffective and impede communication when, based on them, they mistakenly assign people to the wrong groups, incorrectly describe group norms, when they confuse stereotypes with a description of a particular individual, and when it is not possible to modify stereotypes based on real observations and experience. In such cases, stereotypes can become a serious obstacle to intercultural contacts.

In general, the following reasons are distinguished, because of which? stereotypes can hinder intercultural communication:

if stereotypes cannot be revealed individual characteristics people: Stereotyping assumes that all members of a group have the same traits. This approach applies to the whole group and to the individual over a period of time, despite individual variations;

if stereotypes repeat and reinforce certain erroneous beliefs and beliefs until people begin to accept them as true;

if stereotypes are based on half-truths and distortions. While retaining the real characteristics of the stereotyped group, stereotypes distort reality and give inaccurate ideas about the people with whom intercultural contacts are made.

People retain their stereotypes, even if reality and their life experience they are contradicted. In this regard, in a situation of intercultural contacts, it is important to be able to effectively deal with stereotypes, i.e. be aware of and use them, and also be able to refuse them if they do not correspond to reality.

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The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is connected with the needs of modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, is often very far from reality , has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself. It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities. Artificially created images and representations begin to play an active role in shaping the mentality of contemporaries and possibly subsequent generations.

Despite the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in each new historical era is an important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional attitude and its erosion, between the enrichment of new historical facts and the rethinking of already known ones. Despite sufficient attention from researchers to this phenomenon, explaining the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term “stereotype” itself is still a problem.

Currently, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term “stereotype” can be found in various contexts where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or person, prejudice, cliche, “sensitivity” to cultural differences, etc. Initially, the term stereotype served to designate a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, a stereotype is generally understood as a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, etc., which develops in conditions of a lack of information as a result of a generalization of an individual’s personal experience and often preconceived ideas accepted in society.

At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ significantly from them in their psychological basis. The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, consolidated by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means , in which society is interested (or not interested).

In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance and openness to others, while stereotypes are a product of the hidden subjective state of mind of the individual. Myth, as an eternal way of ordering reality, is a product of collective belief and acts as an extremely successful mechanism for the emotional consolidation of society.

The author of the term, Walter Lippmann, understood stereotypes as: “...preconceived opinions that decisively control all processes of perception. They mark certain objects, both familiar and unfamiliar, so that the barely familiar seems well known and the unfamiliar seems deeply alien.” W. Lippman explained the functioning of stereotypes through an analysis of the socio-psychological aspects of people’s activities and considered stereotypes to be the mental material on which social consciousness as a whole is based. Stereotypes, according to the scientist, organize the world and facilitate people’s thinking process, thanks to them a person feels confident. The scientist identified two main reasons that influence the emergence of stereotypes.

The first reason is the use of the principle of saving effort, which is characteristic of everyday human thinking and is expressed in the fact that people do not strive to react each time in a new way to new facts and phenomena, but try to bring them under existing categories. Abandoning the economy of attention in favor of a purely experiential approach would undermine human existence. Thus, the process of stereotyping is always preceded by the process of categorization, as one of the ways a person understands the surrounding reality.

The second reason for the formation of stereotypes is the protection of existing group values. Lippman called stereotypes a fortress that protects our traditions and pointed out that any attack on our stereotypes is regarded by us as an attack on the foundations of our worldview. Stability, rigidity, conservatism - these are the main characteristics of stereotypes according to W. Lippman. He studied the stereotype in the system of those factors that cause its occurrence and determine its functioning.

The formation of stereotypes is based on the peculiarities of human thinking and psyche. Firstly, this is concretization - the desire to clarify abstract, and, therefore, difficult to understand concepts with the help of any real images that are accessible and understandable to the individual and all members of a given community. Secondly, this is a simplification, which comes down to identifying one or more features as fundamental for the disclosure of complex phenomena. The social factor in the emergence of stereotypes is, as a rule, the presence of limited, one-sided experience.

At the end of the forties of the 20th century, the definition proposed by the American psychosociologist Kimball Jung gained the greatest popularity in Western scientific thought. A stereotype was understood by the scientist as “a false classification concept, which, as a rule, is associated with some social sensory-emotional tones of similarity and difference, approval or condemnation of another group.” In his definition, K. Jung emphasized the distorted nature of the assessment of phenomena and objects by stereotypes and thereby laid the foundation for the understanding of a stereotype as an erroneous assessment or preconceived opinion about phenomena or groups of people.

Subsequently, a stereotype began to be perceived as an image or idea, obviously false, about a person or group. In Western science, the concept of a stereotype has increasingly become identified with ethnic or racial prejudice. As a result, the content of the concept of “stereotype” was narrowed even in comparison with the original one, which was proposed by W. Lippmann - these are images of any object or phenomenon that exist in a person’s mind and are manifested in his behavior. Now stereotypes are interpreted as a set of distorted ideas. Falsehood became so strongly associated with the concept of “stereotype” that the term “sociotype” was proposed to denote standard but true knowledge about a sociocultural group.

Only at the end of the 1950s. O. Kleinberg's hypothesis about the presence of a “grain of truth” in this phenomenon became widespread. According to this hypothesis, stable simplified representations can be either true or false. The American researcher argued that “partially incorrect, superficial, limited stereotypes, however, generalize the real features of a culture.” Under the influence of Kleinberg's hypothesis, discussions arose again about the correspondence of stereotypes to true knowledge about objects and objects of the surrounding world. There has been a tendency to identify stereotypes with generalizations of phenomena that actually exist, although perhaps not in the form in which they are reflected.

However, it should be noted that some Western scientists who have studied the stereotype as a phenomenon of human psychology and culture do not consider the problem of containing a “grain of truth” in a stereotype to be worthy of attention at all. From their point of view, any generalization regarding the assessment of human behavior is already a stereotype.

In fact, the problem of the relationship between true and false in stereotypes is very important. The main difficulty in resolving this issue is the lack of a reliable criterion for identifying the degree of truth of a judgment. Let us note that truth, in this case, is understood as an adequate reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The evolution of views on the problem of the truth-falsity of stereotypes can be presented in the form of three stages. In the beginning, stereotypes were considered to be predominantly false formations. It was assumed that stereotypes, functioning both at the personal and collective levels, cannot act as an absolutely true reproduction of reality. Later, social stereotypes began to be understood primarily as a simplification, a schematization of real objects. The simplification itself can be either false or true. The process of stereotyping is neither good nor bad; it performs the function of categorizing the social world that is objectively necessary for a person. American psychosociologist E. Bogardus defined stereotyping as the lower stage of the evaluation process, but at the same time vital. Stereotyped perceptions arise from the enormous diversity of groups and individuals and the inability for most busy people to weigh every reaction to every individual. In this way, individuals and groups are typified. Stereotyping plays an evaluative role and makes life easier in society.

A negative attitude towards stereotypes can be seen in the definition of another American researcher J. Wishman. The scientist identified the following main characteristics of the concept that underlies the stereotype:

1. the concept is simple rather than differentiated;

2. more erroneous than true;

3. it is learned from others rather than obtained through direct experience with reality;

4. it is resistant to the influence of new experience.

Stereotypes are effective but unreliable. Thus, scientists are pointed out the conditions for the emergence of stereotypes, namely inadequacy of perception and lack of contact with reality. At the same time, the stability of this phenomenon is especially emphasized.

Today, the most common opinion is that a stereotype is simultaneously true and false. This is possible when a person’s actions, conditioned by “false” stereotypes, influence the further course of events in such a way that even false ideas and expectations come true and are validated in the eyes of the bearer of this stereotype. IN this issue one can agree with the opinion of P.N. Shikhirev, who argues that in a stereotype it is not the truth itself that is important, but the conviction in it.

The concept of a stereotype was first used by W. Lippmann back in 1922, who believed that these are ordered, schematic “pictures of the world” determined by culture in a person’s head, which save his efforts when perceiving complex objects of the world. With this understanding of the stereotype, two of its important features stand out - being determined by culture and being a means of saving labor effort, and, accordingly, linguistic means. If algorithms for solving mathematical problems save a person’s thinking, then stereotypes “save” the personality itself.

In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with a “naive picture of the world.” We find such an understanding of the stereotype in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated in him as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a specific object of the extra-linguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any stable expression consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, cliche, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray-haired as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the energy of communicants.

Yu. A. Sorokin defines a stereotype as a certain process and result of communication (behavior) according to certain semiotic models, the list of which is closed due to certain semiotic-technological principles accepted in a certain society. At the same time, the semiotic model is implemented on the social, social psychological levels(standard) or at the linguistic, psychological levels (norm). The standard and norm exist in two forms: as a stamp (an overly explicit complex sign) or as a cliche (an insufficiently explicit complex sign).

V.V. Krasnykh divides stereotypes into two types - stereotypes-images and stereotypes-situations. Examples of image stereotypes: a bee is a hard worker, a ram is stubborn, and situation stereotypes: a ticket is a composter, a stork is a cabbage.

Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances and details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and situation of queuing are different in different cultures, and therefore, stereotypical behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is last?” or just stand in line, in a row European countries They tear off the receipt in a special machine and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.

So, a stereotype is a certain fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It represents some culturally determined idea of ​​an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell. Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge, which is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered pre-precious (important, representative) names in a culture. A stereotype is a phenomenon of language and speech, a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and on the other, to express oneself among “one’s own” and at the same time identify one’s “one.”

The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.

We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The set of mental stereotypes of an ethnos is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will talk about light moonlit night: it’s so light that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it’s so light that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, almost any feature, not just the logically main one, can become dominant in a stereotype.

The stability of a culture and its viability are determined by the extent to which the structures that determine its unity and integrity are developed. The integrity of culture presupposes the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes of the general picture of the world. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects and phenomena in people’s lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects compared to others, which leads to stereotyping of such objects.

A behavior stereotype is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. And in general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mentalities that exist among “our own people.”

So, a stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of a culture, it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.