Definition of allegory. What is an allegory using examples from literature

Lyric genres help us classify this special type of literature, which, first of all, appeals to the personal feelings of the poet and reader, their mood. The lyrics reflect sensitive experiences, emotions; often works of this type of literature are characterized by sincerity and emotion.

Poem

The poem is the main genre of lyrics, which is familiar to everyone without exception. This is a relatively small work, written in verse.

In a broad sense, a poem is understood as works of different genres and even types; these often include elegies, sonnets and ballads, but in the 19th-20th centuries there was a clearer definition. During this period, a poem was understood exclusively as a work that reflected the inner world of the author, the multifaceted manifestations of his soul; it was supposed to be associated with lyricism.

With the development of the classical poem, its purpose for the lyrical exploration of the world became clearer. It was separately emphasized that in the poem the author always strives to connect life in one moment, focusing on the state of the world around him. In this fundamental function, the genre of lyric poetry is contrasted with short stories and stories written in verse, as well as lyric poems, which describe a large number of interrelated experiences.

You can find many examples of poems in Pushkin's works. The genre of lyricism, to which this section of our article is devoted, was one of the main ones in his work. As an illustration, the poem “Winter Road” can be cited.

The moon makes its way through the wavy fogs, It pours a sad light on the sad glades. Along the winter, boring road, Three greyhounds are running, The monotonous bell is rattling tiresomely. Something familiar is heard in the long songs of the coachman: That daring revelry, That heartfelt melancholy... Neither fire, nor black hut, Wilderness and snow... Towards me Only striped miles Come across one... Boring, sad... Tomorrow, Nina, Tomorrow, returning to my dear, I will forget myself by the fireplace, I will look at it without looking at it. The clock hand will make its measured circle, And, removing the annoying, Midnight will not separate us. It’s sad, Nina: my path is boring, My driver has fallen silent from his slumber, The bell is monotonous, The moon’s face is foggy.

Sonnet

Having studied the main genres of epic, lyricism and drama, you will be able to easily navigate world and domestic literature. Another popular genre that must be discussed in this article is the sonnet.

Unlike most other genres of lyric poetry, the sonnet has a strictly defined structure. It necessarily consists of 14 lines, which form two quatrains and two tercets. This is what a classic sonnet looks like, but the so-called Shakespearean sonnet, which consists of three quatrains and one final concluding couplet, is also popular in literature. The sonnet gained particular popularity in this form thanks to English poet and playwright William Shakespeare.

It is believed that a sonnet must contain an emotional and plot turning point. Often their theme is about love.

In Russia, sonnets also had a certain popularity. As a rule, they were written in iambic 5-foot with minor deviations. The best known are the Russian sonnets of Genrikh Sapgir, Timur Kibirov, and Sergei Kalugin.

An example is the sonnets of William Shakespeare, which are well known in Russian in translations by Boris Pasternak.

Exhausted by everything, I want to die. Melancholy to watch how the poor man suffers, And how the rich man lives in jest, And to trust, and to get into trouble, And to watch how impudence creeps into the world, And a girl’s honor goes to the bottom, And to know that there is no way for perfection , And to see power in weakness in captivity, And to remember that thoughts are closed, And the mind endures blasphemy of nonsense, And straightforwardness is reputed to be simplicity, And kindness serves evil. Exhausted by everything, I would not live even a day, But it would be difficult for a friend without me.

Oh yeah

Among the genres of epic, lyricism, and drama, there are similar ones that are aimed at achieving one or another goal. For example, odes are required to praise a specific person, event or state. There are similar analogues in other types of literature.

In Russia, the ode was extremely popular at one time. At the same time, the ode originated in Ancient Greece; this genre of lyric poetry was widespread in Roman literature thanks to Horace. In Russia it was used in the 18th century. The most prominent representatives are Gavriil Derzhavin and Mikhail Lomonosov. As an example, let us cite Derzhavin’s work.

GOD You, infinite in space, Alive in the movement of matter, Eternal in the flow of time, Without faces, in three faces of the Divine, Spirit existing everywhere and one, Who has no place and reason, Whom no one could comprehend, Who fills everything with Yourself, Encompasses, builds, preserves, Whom we call - God! Measure the deep ocean, Count the sands, the rays of the planets, Although a high mind could, You have no number and measure! Enlightened Spirits, born from Your light, cannot explore Your destinies: Only a thought can ascend to You dares, In Your greatness disappears, Like a moment past in eternity. Chaos pre-temporal existence From the abysses of eternity You called out; And eternity, born before the age, You founded in Yourself. Comprising Yourself with Yourself, Shining from Yourself, You are the light from where the light flowed. Having created everything with one word, In the creation extending to the new, You were, You are, You will be forever. You contain a chain of beings in Yourself, You contain it and live; You connect the end with the beginning And you give life to death. As sparks rain down, strive, So the suns come from You will be born. As on a foul, clear day in winter, specks of frost sparkle, Rotate, ripple, shine, So the stars in the abyss beneath You. Millions of illuminated luminaries Flow into immeasurability; Yours they create laws, Life-giving rays shed; But these lamps are fiery, Or huge amounts of red crystals, Or a boiling host of golden waves, Or burning ethers, Or together all the luminous worlds, Before You - like night before day. Like a drop dropped into the sea, This whole firmament is before You; But what is the visible universe to me, And what am I before You? -In this ocean of air, Multiplying the Worlds by a million A hundred times other worlds, and then, When I dare to compare with You, It will only be one point; And I am nothing before You. Nothing! - but You shine in me with the Majesty of Your kindness; You depict Yourself in me, Like the sun in a small drop of water. Nothing! - but I feel life, I fly unsatisfied, Always a guy in the heights. My soul desires to be you, It delves into, thinks, reasons: I am - of course, you are too. You are! - The order of nature speaks, My heart speaks to me, My mind assures me; You are - and I am no longer nothing! I am a part of the whole universe, Placed, it seems to me, in the venerable Middle of nature, I am the one where You ended the bodily creatures, Where You began Heavenly spirits And a chain of beings has bound everyone with me. I am the connection of worlds existing everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter, I am the focus of the living, the initial feature of the Divinity. I decay with my body in dust, I command thunder with my mind; I am a king, - I am a slave, - I am a worm, - I am God! - But being so wonderful, Where did I come from? - Unknown; But I couldn’t be myself. I am your creation, the Creator, I am a creature of your wisdom, the Source of life, the good Giver, the Soul of my soul and the King! Your truth needed it, So that My immortal existence would pass into the abyss of death; So that my spirit would clothe itself in mortality And so that through death I would return, Father! into Thy immortality. Inexplicable, incomprehensible! I know that the souls of my Imagination are powerless to draw Thy shadows. But if we must glorify, It is impossible for weak mortals to honor You with anything else, How can they only rise to You, Get lost in the immeasurable difference, And gratefully shed tears.

Romance

In the genre of lyrics, works written in the form of romances occupy a special place. After all, this is a special genre that is at the intersection of literature and music. Typically this is small poetic work, set to music.

Domestic romance was mainly formed at the beginning of the 19th century. Romanticism, popular at that time, had a great influence on him. The most famous representatives of this genre were Varlamov, Alyabyev, Gurilev. In many Russian romances you can find gypsy motifs, and even several subgenres have been formed. For example, cruel or salon romance.

The beginning of the 20th century marked the so-called golden age of Russian romance, when Vertinsky, Vyaltsev, and Plevitskaya set the tone. During Soviet times, this genre did not lose its popularity.

An example is the classic novel by Vertinsky.

I started having little angels, They started in broad daylight. Everything that I once laughed at, Everything now delights me! I lived noisily and cheerfully - I repent, But my wife took everything into her hands, Completely disregarding me, She gave me two daughters gave birth. I was against it. The diapers will begin... Why complicate your life? But the girls climbed into my heart, Like kittens into someone else's bed! And now with a new meaning and purpose I, like a bird, make my nest And sometimes over their cradle I sing to myself in surprise: - Daughters, daughters , My daughters! Where are you, my nightingales, Where are you nightingales?.. There will be a lot of Russian sun and light in the life of my daughters, And what is most important is that they will have a homeland! There will be a home. There will be a lot of toys. We'll hang a star on the Christmas tree. I'll get some kind old ladies especially for them. So that Russians can sing songs to them, So that they can weave fairy tales at night, So that the years rustle quietly, So that they can't forget childhood! True, I'll age a little, But I'll be a soul young, like them! And I will ask the good God to prolong my sinful days. My daughters will grow up, my little daughters... They will have nightingales, there will be nightingales!

Poem

We will not be able to find a novel in the lyric genre, but a poem can be considered its full-fledged analogue. This is a fairly large work, which is lyrical-epic in nature, which allows it to stand out among other similar works.

As a rule, it belongs to a specific author and has not only a poetic, but also a narrative form. Literary critics distinguish romantic, heroic, satirical, and critical poems.

Throughout the history of literature, this genre has undergone many changes. For example, if many centuries ago a poem was an exclusively epic work, for example Homer’s Iliad, then already in the 20th century examples of exclusively lyrical examples of this genre appeared, which include Anna Akhmatova’s “Poem without a Hero.”

It’s interesting that prose works are also sometimes called this way. For example, “Moscow - Cockerels” by Venedikt Erofeev, “Dead Souls” by Nikolai Gogol, “Pedagogical Poem” by Anton Makarenko.

An example is an excerpt from “Poem without a Hero” by Anna Akhmatova.

I lit the cherished candles And together with those who did not come to me I celebrate the forty-first year, But the Lord's power is with us, The flame has drowned in the crystal And the wine burns like poison... These are bursts of a terrible conversation, When everyone's delirium is resurrected, And the clock still does not strike... .There is no measure of my anxiety, I, like a shadow, stand on the threshold, guarding the last comfort. And I hear a lingering bell, And I feel the wet cold. I get cold, I freeze, I burn And, as if remembering something, Turning around halfway, I say in a quiet voice: You made a mistake: Venice of the Doges This is nearby. But the masks in the hallway And cloaks, and wands, and crowns You will have to leave today. I decided to glorify you today, New Year's tomboys. This one is Faust, that one is Don Juan...

Elegy

When describing which genres of lyric poetry deserve the most attention, it is necessary to talk about elegy. This is a kind of emotional result of deep philosophical reflection, which is enclosed in a poetic form. As a rule, in an elegy the author tries to understand complex life problems.

Elegy originated in ancient Greek poetry. At that time, this was the name for a poem written in a stanza of a certain size, without putting any more meaning into this concept.

For Greek poets, elegy could be accusatory, philosophical, sad, political, and militant. Among the Romans, elegies were mainly dedicated to love, while the works became more free-form.

The first successful attempts to write elegies in Russian literature were made by Zhukovsky. Before this, there were attempts at writing in this genre by Fonvizin, Ablesimov, Bogdanovich, Naryshkin.

A new era in Russian poetry was marked by Zhukovsky’s translation of Gray’s elegy entitled “Rural Cemetery.” After this, the genre finally went beyond rhetorical boundaries, indicating that the main thing is to appeal to intimacy, sincerity and depth. This change is clearly visible in the new techniques of versification used by Zhukovsky and the poets of subsequent generations.

By the 19th century, it became fashionable to call their works elegies, as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, and Yazykov often do. Over time, this tradition faded away, but the elegiac tone remained in the works of many poets not only of the 19th, but also of the 20th centuries.

As a classic example, it would be correct to consider an excerpt from “Rural Cemetery” in Zhukovsky’s translation.

The day is already turning pale, hiding behind the mountain; Noisy herds crowd over the river; A tired villager walks with slow steps, lost in thought, into the hut calm, B in the foggy twilight the surroundings disappear... There is silence everywhere; Everywhere there is a dead sleep; Only occasionally, buzzing, the evening beetle flickers, Only the sad ringing of horns is heard in the distance. Only the wild owl, hiding under the ancient arch of That tower, laments, listened to by the moon, For the peace that disturbed the peace of Her silent dominion with the midnight arrival.

Ballad

The ballad is a well-known lyrical genre, which was often addressed by romantic poets in the 18th and 18th centuries. 19th centuries. It came to Russia in parallel with the popularity of romanticism in literature.

The first Russian ballad, which was also original in both content and form, was a work by Gabriel Kamenev called “Gromval”. But most well-known representative This genre is rightfully considered to be Vasily Zhukovsky, who even received the nickname “balladeer” from his contemporaries.

In 1808, Zhukovsky wrote “Lyudmila,” which made a strong impression on those around him, then translated the best ballads of European romantic poets, under whose influence the genre penetrated into Russia. These are, first of all, Goethe, Schiller, Scott. In 1813, Zhukovsky’s famous ballad “Svetlana” was published, which many literary critics It is still considered his best work.

Pushkin also wrote ballads, in particular, many researchers attribute his “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” to this genre. To get a complete picture of this original genre, we will give as an example an excerpt from “Svetlana” by Zhukovsky.

Once on Epiphany evening the girls wondered: They took a shoe out of the gate, took it off their foot, and threw it; They shoveled snow; under the window they listened; They fed the hen with counting grain; They drowned hot wax; They put a gold ring and emerald earrings in a bowl of clean water; They spread a white cloth over the bowl and sang in harmony with the songs of the dishes.

Novel in verse

A novel in verse is a genre that is frozen at the intersection of poetry and prose. It organically combines composition, a system of characters, chronotopes; in the author's variations, analogies are possible between the poetic epic and the novel in verse itself.

The formation of this genre occurs when the genre of the poem has already taken final shape. A novel in verse is, as a rule, a more voluminous work that sets itself more global goals. At the same time, the boundaries between these genres remain to a certain extent arbitrary.

In Russia the most famous novel in verse is Pushkin's work "Eugene Onegin", an excerpt from it is given as an example. Many critics believe that it is through the example of this “encyclopedia of Russian life” that one can clearly see how a novel in verse differs from a poem. In particular, in the first one one can observe the development of characters and an analytical attitude, which is not found in most poems.

My uncle had the most honest rules, When he seriously fell ill, He forced himself to be respected And could not have come up with a better idea. His example to others is science; But, my God, what a bore it is to sit with a sick person day and night, Without leaving a single step! What low deceit to amuse a half-dead person , Adjust his pillows, It’s sad to offer medicine, Sigh and think to yourself: When will the devil take you!

Epigram

The epigram is a lyrical genre that was extremely popular at one time, although many no longer associate it with literature, but with journalism and journalism. After all, this is a very small work in which some kind of social phenomenon or a specific person.

In Russian poetry, famous epigrams began to be written by Antioch Cantemir. This genre was popular among poets of the 18th century (Lomonosov, Trediakovsky). During the times of Pushkin and Zhukovsky, the genre itself was somewhat transformed, becoming more of a salon satire, similar to album poetry.

An example of an epigram would be one of Zhukovsky’s works.

NEWLY AWARDED “Dude, why did you sit down?” - “The villain put the crown on me!” - “Well! I don’t see the evil in this!” - “Oh, it’s heavy!” Vasily Zhukovsky

Limerick

Let's finish our review of the main lyrical genres with a somewhat frivolous limerick. It appeared in England, has a clear form and specific content.

This is a satirical five-line poem that is absurdist in nature. The main thing is that his composition is subject to strict rules. The first line names the character and also mentions where he is from. The second tells what he did, or some peculiarity of it. The remaining lines are devoted to the consequences of these actions or properties of the hero.

Once upon a time there lived an old man from Hong Kong, who danced to the music of the gong. But they told him: “Stop it - or get out of Hong Kong completely!” Edward Lear

Lyrics are characterized by subjectivity, self-disclosure of the author, a sincere representation of his inner world, his impulses and desires.

The main character of a lyrical work - the bearer of experience - is usually called the lyrical hero.

Most lyrical works are written in poetic form, although lyrics can also be prosaic. Lyrics in to a greater extent characterized by small forms.

The following lyrical types are usually distinguished:

- hymn,

- Oh yeah,

- message,

- epitaph,

– sonnet,

- lyric poem,

– elegy,

- epigram,

- song,

– romance,

- madrigal.

Hymn

An anthem (from the Greek ὕμνος - praise) is a solemn, glorifying song in honor of gods, winners, heroes, and important events. Initially, the elements of the hymn were: epiclesis (sacred name), request, aretalogy (epic part).

One of the most famous hymns is “Gaudeamus” (Latin gaudeamus - let us rejoice) - the student anthem.

"So let's have fun,

While we are young!

After a joyful youth,

After a sad old age

The earth will take us...

Long live the Academy!

Long live the professors!

Long live all its members!

Long live every member!

May they prosper forever!..”

(From the hymn “Gaudeamus”, translated by S.I. Sobolevsky)

Oh yeah

An ode is a poetic, as well as musical and poetic work, which is characterized by solemnity of style and sublimity of content. Ode is also spoken of as glorification in verse.

The odes of Horace, M. Lomonosov, A. Pushkin, etc. are widely known.

“The Autocratic Villain!

I hate you, your throne,

Your death, the death of children

With cruel joy I see..."

(From the ode “Liberty”, A. Pushkin)

Message

An epistle is a poetic letter addressed to a person or group of persons. According to the content of the message, there are: friendly, lyrical, satirical, etc.

“You, who loved me with falsehood

Truths - and the truth of lies,

Nowhere! - Abroad!

You, who loved me longer

Time. - Hands swing! -

You don't love me anymore:

The truth in five words."

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Epitaph

Epitaph (from the Greek epitaphios - “gravestone”) is a saying written in the event of someone’s death and used as a gravestone inscription. Usually the epitaph is presented in poetic form.

“Put here a crown of laurels and roses:

Hidden under this stone is the favorite of the Muses and Graces,

Felitsa is a glorious singer,

Derzhavin, our Pindar, Anacreon, Horace.

(A. E. Izmailov, “Epitaph to G. R. Derzhavin”)”

Sonnet

A sonnet is a poetic work that has a certain system rhyming and strict stylistic laws. The Italian sonnet consists of 14 verses (lines): 2 quatrains (with 2 rhymes) and 2 tercet tercet. English - from 3 quatrains and a final couplet.

As a rule, the content of a sonnet exactly corresponds to the distribution of thoughts: in the first quatrain there is a thesis, in the second there is an antithesis, in two tercets there is a conclusion.

The wreath of sonnets is fifteen sonnets that are connected to each other in a special order. Moreover, the last sonnet of the wreath consists of the first lines of all sonnets.

“I sigh, as if the leaves are rustling

A sad wind, tears flow like hail,

When I look at you with sad eyes,

Because of which I am a stranger in the world.

Seeing the good light of your smile,

I don't yearn for other pleasures,

And life no longer seems like hell to me,

When I admire your beauty.

But the blood runs cold as soon as you leave

When they are abandoned by your rays,

I don’t see the fatal smile.

And, opening my chest with love keys,

The soul is freed from the lash,

To follow you, my life.”

(“On the Life of Madonna Laura (XVII)”, F. Petrarch)

Lyric poem

A lyric poem is a short poetic work written on behalf of the author or a fictional lyrical character. A lyric poem describes the inner world, feelings, emotions of the author or hero of the work.

“The golden cloud spent the night

On the chest of a giant rock;

In the morning she rushed off early,

Playing merrily across the azure;

But there was a wet trace in the wrinkle

Old cliff. Alone

He stands, deep in thought,

And he cries quietly in the desert.”

(“Cliff”, M. Lermontov)

Elegy

Elegy is a poetic work dedicated to sad thoughts, imbued with sadness. The content of elegies is usually philosophical reflections, sad thoughts, grief, disappointment, doom, etc.

“Hello, my mountain with a reddish shining height,

Hello, sun, whose light softly illuminated her!

I greet you, fields, you, rustling linden tree,

And on the elastic branches there is a sonorous and joyful choir;

Hello you too, azure, who declared immeasurably

Brown mountain slopes, dark green forests

And - at the same time - me, who escaped from the prison of my home

And from hackneyed speeches he seeks salvation in you..."

(“Walk”, F. Schiller)

Epigram

An epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα - inscription) is a small satirical poetic work in which a specific person is ridiculed. The characteristic features of an epigram are wit and brevity.

“There are much fewer Armenians on earth,

Than the films where Dzhigarkhanyan played.”

(V. Gaft)

Song

A song is a small poetic work that is the basis for subsequent musical arrangements. Usually consists of several verses and a chorus.

"Shouldn't I sing a love song?

And shouldn't you invent new genre

Pop-pop motif and poems

And receive a fee for the rest of your life..."

(“About Love”, O. Tarasov)

Romance

Romance is a small melodious poetic work that can be set to music. Usually the romance reflects the experiences, moods, and feelings of the lyrical hero.

"And in the end I will tell:

goodbye, don't oblige to love.

I'm going crazy. Or I rise

to a high degree of insanity.

How did you love? - you took a sip

destruction. Not in this case.

How did you love? - you ruined

but he ruined it so clumsily..."

(“And finally, I’ll say”, B. Akhmadulina)

Madrigal

Madrigal (Italian madrigale, from Latin matricale - a song in the native language - is a small musical and poetic work. Usually it has a loving-lyrical or playfully complimentary content.

“And as in the Mohammedan paradise

A host of houris in roses and silk,

So you are a Life Guard in the Uhlan

Her Majesty's regiment.

(“Madrigal to the Regimental Lady”, N. S. Gumilyov)

More detailed information on this topic can be found in the books of A. Nazaikin

In lyric poetry, two types of genres are particularly clearly distinguished: one represents a rigid unity of genre content and genre form, the other is a rather free combination of artistic content and form.

Genres of the first type developed in the early eras of artistic development. These are lyrical genres such as elegy, iambic, epinikia in ancient Greek lyrics; canzone, pastoral, Alba - in the Middle Ages; Sonnet in Renaissance lyrics.

The lyric poetry of centuries is dominated by genres with a free unity of form and content. Most often, just lyrical poems or lyrical songs with very different artistic content. The general essence of the lyrical content is the artistic and creative exploration of the inner world of a person, from the most complex thoughts to the subtlest overflows of feelings. Therefore, in terms of their content, lyrical genres absorb, in their own lyrical refraction, the most diverse types of artistic content with all the diversity of their internal varieties.

- Epic as a type of literature.

“Epic” translated from Greek means “word, speech, story.” Epic is one of the most ancient genres, associated with the formation of national identity. There were many hoaxes in the 17th and 18th centuries. Successful - songs of Ossian, Scotland, an attempt to raise national consciousness. They influenced the development of European literature.

Epic - the original form is a heroic poem. Occurs when patriarchal society breaks down. In Russian literature there are epics that form cycles.

The epic reproduces life not as personal, but as an objective reality - from the outside. The purpose of any epic is to tell about an event. The dominant content is the event. Earlier - wars, later - a private event, facts of inner life. The cognitive orientation of the epic is an objective beginning. A story about events without evaluation. “The Tale of Bygone Years” - all the bloody events are told dispassionately and matter-of-factly. Epic distance.

The subject of the image in the epic is the world as an objective reality. Human life in its organic connection with the world, fate is also the subject of the image. Bunin's story. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man". Understanding fate through the prism of culture is important.

Forms of verbal expression in the epic (type of speech organization) - narrative. Functions of the word - the word depicts the objective world. Narration is a way/type of speaking. Description in the epic. Speech of heroes, characters. Narration is the speech of the author’s image. The speech of the characters is polylogues, monologues, dialogues. IN romantic works Confession of the main character is required. Internal monologues are a direct inclusion of the characters’ words. Indirect forms - indirect speech, improper direct speech. It is not isolated from the author’s speech.

The important role of the system of reflections in the novel. The hero may be endowed with a quality that the author does not like. Example: Silvio. Pushkin's favorite heroes are verbose. Very often it is unclear to us how the author relates to the hero.

A) Narrator

1) The character has his own destiny. "The Captain's Daughter", "Belkin's Tales".

2) Conventional narrator, faceless in speech terms. Very often – us. Speech mask.

3) Tale. Speech color - says society.

1) Objective. “History of the Russian State” Karamzin, “War and Peace”.

2) Subjective - orientation towards the reader, appeal.

A tale is a special speech manner that reproduces a person’s speech, as if not literary processed. Leskov "Lefty".

Descriptions and lists. Important for the epic. Epic is perhaps the most popular genus.

- Drama as a type of literature.

Merging of subjective and objective. The event is shown as being formed, not ready. In the epic the author gives a lot of comments and details, but in the drama this is not the case. Subjective – what is happening is given through perception characters. Many eras in the development of theater tried to destroy the barrier between the audience and the actors. The idea of ​​“theater within a theater” - romanticism, developed rapidly at the beginning of the 20th century. “Princess Turandot” - the actors ask the audience. Gogol has the same principle in The Inspector General. The desire to destroy convention. Drama comes out of rituals. The dramatic text is largely devoid of authorial presence. The speech activity of the characters is shown, the monologue and dialogue are relevant. Author's presence: title (Ostrovsky loved proverbs), epigraph (Gogol's "The Inspector General" - the theme of the mirror), genre (Chekhov's comedies - a peculiarity of perception), list of characters (often determined by traditions), speaking names, comments, stage directions - description of the scene. Characteristics of the characters’ speech, actions, internal action in the drama. “Boris Godunov” by Pushkin, “Masquerade” by Lermontov. Chekhov is different. Early theater - exercises in monologues. Dialogue was more often an auxiliary means of communication between monologues. This changes Griboyedov - a dialogue of the deaf, a comic dialogue. Chekhov too. Gorky: “But the threads are rotten.”

Thomas Mann: “Drama is the art of silhouette.” Herzen: “The stage is always contemporary with the viewer. She always reflects the side of life that the partner wants to see.” Echoes of modernity are always visible.

- Lyrics as a type of literature.

Cognitive orientation of the lyrics. The subject of the image in the lyrics is the inner world of man. Content dominant: experiences (of some feeling, thought, mood). The form of verbal expression (type of speech organization) is a monologue. Functions of a word - expresses the state of the speaker. The emotional sphere of human emotions, the inner world, the path of influence - suggestibility (suggestion). In epic and drama they try to identify general patterns, in lyric poetry - individual states of human consciousness.

Emotionally colored thinking - sometimes external emotionlessness. This is a lyrical meditation. Lermontov “Both boring and sad...” Strong-willed impulses, oratorical intonations in the lyrics of the Decembrists. Impressions can also be the subject of a lyrical text.

Irrational feelings and aspirations. Uniqueness, although there is an element of generalization for conveying one’s thoughts to contemporaries. Consonance with the era, age, emotional experiences. As a form of literature, lyrics are always important.

The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century is very important - the period of destruction of the idea of ​​lyricism, the destruction of genre thinking in lyrics, new thinking - stylistic. Associated with Goethe. In the 70s of the 18th century, Goethe created a new feature of lyrical work, which broke with tradition. There was a strict hierarchy of genres: it was clearly defined which forms of lyrics were used when. The poetic forms are very branched.

Oda is an idealization of a superior person, therefore definite shape. Decimal, ceremonial introduction, descriptive part, part about the prosperity of the country.

Goethe destroys the connection between theme and form. His poems begin as a cast of a momentary experience—an image. Natural phenomena could also be included, but not conditional ones. The process of style individualization. In the 19th century it is often impossible to define a genre.

Each poet is associated with a certain range of emotions, special treatment to the world. Zhukovsky, Mayakovsky, Gumilev.

Experiences are at the core. The lyrical plot is the development and shades of the author's emotions. It is often said that lyrics have no plot, but this is not true.

The poet defends the right to write in a light, small genre. Small genres have been elevated to absolute status. Imitating other genres, playing with rhythms. Sometimes cycles of poems appear due to the background of life.

Lyrical hero - this concept is introduced by Yu. Tynyanov and L.Ya. Ginzburg "On Lyrics". There are synonyms “lyrical consciousness”, “lyrical subject” and “lyrical self”. Most often, this definition is the image of the poet in the lyrics, the artistic double of the poet, growing out of the text lyrical compositions. This is a carrier of experience, expression in lyrics. The term arose due to the fact that it is impossible to equate the poet with the bearer of consciousness. This gap appears at the beginning of the 20th century in Batyushkov’s lyrics.

There can be different media, so there are two types of lyrics: autopsychological and role-playing. Example: Blok “I am Hamlet...” and Pasternak “The hum has died down...”. The image is the same, but the lyrics are different. Blok plays in the play, this is the experience of interpersonal relationships - autopsychological lyrics. Pasternak has a role-playing one, even included in the cycle of Yuri Zhivago. Most of it is in poetic form. Setting for an awkward verse - Nekrasov.

- Division of literature into genera and types. The concept of literary genre.

Epic, lyric and drama. Socrates (as presented by Plato): the poet can speak on his own behalf, mainly dithyramb. A poet can construct a work in the form of an exchange of remarks, which may include the words of the author. The poet can combine his words with the words of others, which belong to other characters. "Poetics" of Aristotle. Art is an imitation of nature. “You can imitate the same thing in different ways.” 1) Talking about an event as something separate from oneself, as Homer does. 2) Tell the story in such a way that the imitator remains himself, but changes his face - lyricism. 3) The writer presents all characters as acting and active.

Science ontology. IN different eras a person needs different literary genera. Freedom and necessity. Psychology is important. Expressiveness, appeal.

Drama is something that develops before our eyes. Lyrics are an amazing fusion of time. At one time they wanted to declare the novel a separate genus. Many transitional phenomena.

Intergeneric and non-generic works. Intergeneric – characteristics of different genera. "Eugene Onegin", "Dead Souls", "Faust". Extrageneric: Essays, Essays, and Stream-of-Consciousness Literature. Dialectics of the soul. "Anna Karenina". Joyce "Ulysses". Types are not exactly genres. A species is a specific historical embodiment of a genus. A genre is a group of works that have a complex of stable characteristics. Important: subject matter, theme is a genre object. Artistic time is definite. Special composition. Speaker of speech. Elegy – different understandings. Tale.

Some genres are universal: comedy, tragedy, ode. And some are local - petitions, circulation. There are dead genres - the sonnet. Canonical and non-canonical – established and unformed.