A brief history of Russian culture. Humanistic ideas of the philosopher and poet G

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, scientific research. By making key values and life goals of a person, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

It is from this cultural and historical period that the history of human civilization begins, man is formed, society emerges, and such forms of human spirituality as religion, morality, and art are born.

4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture

Main features of culture: hieroglyphic writing, artistic style, religious ideas and the cult of the dead. It is characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.

Literary memos: “Pyramid Texts”, “ Book of the Dead", "Texts of the Sarcophagi", "Song of the Harper".

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

Writers, artists of various European countries began to take episodes from ancient greek mythology. Some works of outstanding artists are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities. Italian artists Renaissance -

Leonardo da Vinci (bust of the goddess Flora), Sandro Botticelli (paintings “The Birth of Venus”, “Spring”), Titian (painting “Venus in front of the Mirror”), etc. From the images of ancient Greek mythology he took the plot for his wonderful statue of Perseus, an outstanding Italian sculptor Benvenuto Cellini.

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". Names mythological heroes found in many other works

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

Greek culture entered the arena of history earlier than Roman culture and developed in the territory that occupied the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the coasts of Asia Minor, the Aegean and Ionian seas and the adjacent islands. Moreover, researchers note that civilization on Greek soil arose, as it were, twice with a fairly large time gap.

The Greeks actively adopted the scientific and technical achievements of other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era of ancient civilization itself:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the time of greatest prosperity ancient greek culture, development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Artistic culture classical Greece

At this time, Greek theater and the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished. The theater became a true educator of the people; it shaped the views and beliefs of free citizens. Greek tragedy in the images of myths reflected the struggle of the people with external enemies, for political equality and social justice.

5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. The leading place is occupied by temples of the Doric order. Heroic character The art of classics is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. The sculptors drew subjects for their sculptural works from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development of the realistic art of sculpting. Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as “The Boy Taking out a Thorn.” Rome, Palazzo Conservatori) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.

The great sculptor Myron, who worked in Athens in the mid-5th century, created a statue that had a huge influence on the development of fine art. This is his bronze “Discobolus”, known to us from several Roman copies, so damaged that only their totality made it possible to somehow recreate the lost image.

For the Greek painter, realistic depiction of nature became a top priority. The famous artist Polygnotus (who worked between 470 and 440) was responsible for an innovation in this area that now seems to us perhaps naive, but which then revolutionized painting.

8. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome

Heir Hellenic civilization becomes Rome. Unlike Athens, Rome did not create high culture during the period of its formation and prosperity as a city - a country. Roman mythology was more primitive than Greek. Only under the influence of the Greeks did images of gods begin to be made and temples were built. The Greek gods were taken as an example.

9. Interaction of Byzantine and Old Russian culture

In recent years, historians, philosophers, philologists, and art historians have been actively developing a wide range of topics on the problem of dialogue of cultures. Among them is the question of stylistic correlation ancient Russian art. The thesis that the Eastern Christian civilization that developed in Byzantium had great significance and a long period of influence on the formation and development of the cultures of the Slavic peoples is considered generally accepted today. The study of the perception and processing of this heritage - especially in the field of art - is necessary to understand many processes and phenomena that took place both in Byzantium itself and in the countries adjacent to it.

Research on Byzantine-Russian contacts in the artistic and aesthetic field has been carried out by domestic and foreign science for more than two centuries, during which a significant amount of information has been accumulated about Byzantine reminiscences in Russian medieval art. The range of opinions is quite wide. Until recently, there have been debates around the terminology to denote the cultural relations of Byzantium and Rus' (influence, transplantation, mimesis, dialogue, etc.), due to the polysemanticism of concepts typical of humanitarian knowledge. Scientists are determining the intensity of this process in specific chronological periods, the degree of Byzantine influence on ancient Russian architecture, painting, iconography, arts and crafts.

10. Fundamentals of the worldview of Byzantium and its role in the development of culture

Byzantine culture absorbed the ancient heritage and culture of the peoples who inhabited it. However, the influence of antiquity was emasculated by the church and despotism. In Byzantium there was a folk culture: epics, fables, folk songs, pagan festivals. Difference Byzantine culture from the west - weak cultural influence barbarians.

The centers of Byzantine culture are Constantinople, provincial centers, monasteries, feudal estates. Through Byzantium, which existed until the 12th century. the most cultural state Europe, Roman law and ancient literary sources that were lost in the West have reached us. Greek scientists and artists made significant contributions to the world cultural process, its development. Byzantine craft technology, architecture, painting, literature, natural science, civil canon law contributed to the formation medieval culture other peoples.

11. Basic forms of Byzantine art

1. Architecture.

2. Temple painting (mosaic, fresco).

3. Iconography

4. Book miniature.

12. Historical conditions for the formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages

Condition for the formation of culture European Middle Ages became Christianity in the form of capitalism. This was no longer the primitive Christianity characteristic of the period of the collapse of the Roman Empire.

13. Formation artistic principles medieval art

Religion is more than wary of female beauty. In Christianity, physical beauty is traditionally recognized as illusory and deceptive, and inquisitors generally saw in a beautiful female face almost as sure a sign of witchcraft as flying on a broomstick.

Meanwhile, the attitude towards female beauty in itself in Judaism is perhaps even more strict than in Christianity. Listen to women's singing, admire woman's face forbidden. And in the Talmud you can find many statements like the following: “Whoever passes money from hand to hand to a woman with the intention of looking at her will not escape hell, even if he is full of Torah and good deeds, like Mosherabeinu” (Iruvin 18).

But still, in continuation of the previously touched upon topic of “Day of Love,” I would like to talk today about an “unpopular” alternative approach. I would like to consider the question of whether there is a positive side to female beauty. religious meaning, and if so, what is it?

The cult of female beauty is essentially known only to one single culture - European. This cult, if not born, was at least formed under the skies of Provence in the work of the troubadours, who discovered the so-called “courtly love,” i.e. - selfless admiration for the Lady. This cult, of course, made sense only in the broader context of knightly service.

The chivalric ideal is perhaps the most valuable spiritual find European culture. This is what the Europeans really succeeded in doing. As Maurois wittily noted: “A gentleman, a real gentleman, is the most attractive type in the evolution of mammals.” So, it is quite appropriate to consider the ideals of chivalry as ideals not just spiritual, but also religiously meaningful. But it is worth noting that they are inextricably linked with the worship of the Lady. Huising writes in “Autumn of the Middle Ages”: “The connection of the knightly ideal with high values religious consciousness - compassion, justice, fidelity - is in no way something artificial and superficial. But it is not this connection that contributes to the transformation of chivalry primarily into some beautiful form, into a type of life. And even the rooting of chivalry in military courage could not have elevated it to such a degree if female love had not been that blazing heat that brings living warmth to this complex unity of feelings and ideas.”

So, the knightly ideal is characterized by an equally respectful attitude towards weapons and female beauty. The solution to this connection is quite simple: Strength and Beauty (i.e., inspiring Weakness) are separated in the chivalric ideal, just as legislative and executive powers are separated in democracies. They presuppose each other and exist at the expense of each other.

Strength only gains spiritual ground because it serves not itself, but another, obviously weak subject. But it is a woman who is ideally suited for the role of this subject. In chivalry, in any case, this is exactly what happened: in it, Strength became beautiful, and Beauty became strong.

15. Renaissance Realism

Renaissance is characterized by interest in man, love of nature, beauty, thirst for knowledge and discovery ( round the world travel Magellan and Columbus, discovery

America), the flourishing of natural sciences, art, literature, the formation and development of a new realist artistic method in art. Renaissance realism had many similarities with ancient realism. These are clear, calm forms, harmonious proportions, clear divisions of the whole into parts, organic relationships between the decorative and structural systems, an impeccable sense of proportion.

However, the art of the Renaissance was formed on a new, more difficult stage development human society and was a new art of its time, reflecting, first of all, faith in human reason.

16. The art of the masters of the Italian Renaissance

With classical completeness, the Renaissance was realized in Italy, in Renaissance culture which distinguishes between periods of pre-Renaissance phenomena at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. (Proto-Renaissance), Early Renaissance (15th century), High Renaissance (end of the 15th – 1st quarter of the 16th centuries), Late Renaissance (16th century). During the Early Renaissance, the Florentine school, architects (F. Brunelleschi, L.B. Alberti, B. Rossellino, etc.), sculptors (L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, A. Rossellino) became the focus of innovation in all types of art , Desiderio da Settignano, etc.), painters (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, Andrea del Castagno, Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Sandro Botticelli, etc.) who created a plastically integral concept of the world with internal unity, which gradually spread throughout Italy (creativity Piero della Francesca in Urbino, Vittore Carpaccio, F. Cossa in Ferrara, A. Mantegna in Mantua, Antonello da Messina and the brothers Gentile and Giovanni Bellini in Venice). During the High Renaissance, when the struggle for humanistic Renaissance ideals acquired an intense and heroic character, architecture and fine art were marked by the breadth of social sound, synthetic generality and the power of images full of spiritual and physical activity. In the buildings of D. Bramante, Raphael, Antonio da Sangallo, perfect harmony, monumentality and clear proportionality reached their apogee; humanistic fullness, bold flight of artistic imagination, breadth of reality are characteristic of the work of the greatest masters of fine art of this era - Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Giorgione, Titian.

18. French classical drama. Innovation by J.-B, Moliere

Classical drama is a drama that developed in European countries during the Baroque era and is based on the uniquely interpreted poetics of ancient tragedy. The first attempts at classical French tragedy appeared in the middle of the 16th century. The school of young playwrights and theorists, known as the Pleiades, planted on French soil national art in the forms of ancient tragedy and comedy. They define tragedy as a work in which there are “choruses, dreams, ghosts, gods, moral maxims, lengthy remarks, short answers, a rare historical or pathetic event, an unhappy ending, high style, poetry, a time not exceeding one day.”

Here we see such an atavism as a chorus, but in further development it quickly disappears, but two other unities are added to the unity of time. Early examples of classical French tragedy are provided by Jodelle, who, with his “Captive Cleopatra,” in Ronsard’s apt expression, “was the first to make Greek tragedy sound French,” Grevin, who opposed any reconciliation with the mystery repertoire, Garnier, Hardy de Viau, Franche-Comté , Meret, Montchretien et al.

The most prominent representatives of classical tragedy in the forms described above are the playwrights Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) and Jean Racine (1639-1699). The early Corneille in his “Cide” (1636) does not yet observe unity and builds a tragedy according to a scenario reminiscent of mystery plays. It is characteristic that in its content this tragedy still retains elements of feudal (and not just absolutist-noble) ideology.

The play was a huge success, which the French Academy, who spoke at the instigation of the all-powerful Cardinal Richelieu with a protest against her. The Academy's attack on The Cid articulated very clearly the requirements for classical tragedy. “The Cid” was followed by other tragedies by Corneille: “Horace”, “Cinna”, “Polyeuctus”, “Pompey”, “Rodogune”, which, together with the works of Racine, for a long time strengthened the glory of French tragedy.

The significance of Moliere in the history of world drama is truly enormous.

Having united in his work the best traditions of French folk theater with advanced ideas of humanism, Moliere created the new kind drama - "high comedy", a genre that for its time was a decisive step towards realism.

After the Catholic reaction destroyed the great theater of the Italian and Spanish Renaissance, and the Puritan English revolution razed London's theaters from the face of the earth and anathematized Shakespeare, Moliere again raised the banner of humanism and returned nationality and ideology to the European theater.

He boldly outlined the path for the entire subsequent development of drama and not only brought together two great cultural eras- the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment, but also anticipated many of the fundamental principles of critical realism. Moliere's strength lies in his direct appeal to his modernity, in the merciless exposure of its social deformities, in the deep revelation of dramatic conflicts the main contradictions of the time, in the creation of bright satirical types that embody the main vices of the contemporary noble-bourgeois society.

19. Becoming classical music. Great composers of the 17th and 18th centuries

Monteverdi. D. Frescobaldi`. A. Corelli. A. Vivaldi. A. Scarlatti. D. B. Pergolesi. Dynasties of violin makers.

MUSIC OF ITALY

J.B. Lully. J.F. Rameau. F. Couperin.

MUSIC OF FRANCE

G.Purcell.

MUSIC OF ENGLAND

G. Schutz. D. Buxtehude. G. F. Handel. J.S.Bach.

MUSIC OF GERMANY

M.S.Berezovsky. D.S. Bortnyansky. E.I.Fomin.

MUSIC OF RUSSIA

At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, polyphony, which dominated the music of the Renaissance, began to give way to homophony (from the Greek “homos” - “one”, “identical” and “phone” - “sound”, “voice”). Unlike polyphony, where all voices are equal, in homophonic polyphony one stands out, performing the main theme, and the rest play the role of accompaniment (accompaniment). The accompaniment is usually a system of chords (harmonies). Hence the name of the new way of composing music - homophonic-harmonic.

Works appeared that were written on religious texts or subjects, but were not intended for mandatory performance in church. (Such works are called spiritual, since the word “spiritual” has a broader meaning than “ecclesiastical.”) The main spiritual genres of the 17th-18th centuries. - cantata and oratorio. The importance of secular music increased: it was heard at court, in the salons of aristocrats, and in public theaters (the first such theaters were opened in the 17th century). A new type of musical art has emerged - opera.

Instrumental music is also marked by the emergence of new genres, most notably the instrumental concerto. The violin, harpsichord, and organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them provided an opportunity to demonstrate the talent of not only the composer, but also the performer. What was valued above all was virtuosity (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself and an artistic value for many musicians.

Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also masterfully played instruments and practiced pedagogical activity. The artist’s well-being largely depended on the specific customer. As a rule, every serious musician sought to obtain a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many members of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses) or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music with service for a secular patron.

21. Artistic movements of the 18th century and their characteristic features

An artistic direction is a fundamental commonality of artistic phenomena over a long period of time.

Baroque - direction to European architecture and art of the late 16th-18th centuries, which is characterized by:

Grandiosity, pomp and dynamics;

Pathetic elation;

Intensity of feelings;

Addiction to spectacular spectacles;

Combining the illusory and the real;

Strong contrasts of scale and rhythm, materials and textures, light and shadow.

They strived to express the idea of a harmonious structure of society based on the eternal “laws of reason”

22. “Enlightenment” absolutism in Russia. Cultural reforms of Peter 1 and Catherine 2

Domestic history - one of the main national shrines of any country - has turned into a subject of fierce disputes and conflicts in Russia, often associated with opposing assessments of past events, both long-standing and those of the last twenty years. When, in a tense atmosphere of mutual irritation of opponents (not to say - deep mutual alienation, even contempt and hatred) you resort to the terms of disease, diagnosis, syndrome, etiology, you risk receiving accusations of blasphemy, from all sides. Accounting for social stratification. Under Catherine II, the rights of the nobles regarding estates and peasants expanded, but thereby aggravated the enslavement and hardships of the peasantry. The single parameter of “freedom” is not able to capture this “subtlety”. Arithmetic addition of the values of indicators for different social strata can only obscure the picture (like the notorious “average hospital temperature of patients”).

23. Romanticism as an artistic movement

Romanticism, an ideological and artistic movement that arose in European and American culture the end of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century, as a reaction to the aesthetics of classicism. It originally developed (1790s) in philosophy and poetry in Germany, and later (1820s) spread to England, France and other countries. He predetermined the latest development of art, even those directions that opposed it.

New criteria in art were freedom of expression, increased attention to the individual, unique features of a person, naturalness, sincerity and relaxedness, which replaced the imitation of classical models of the 18th century. The Romantics rejected the rationalism and practicalism of the Enlightenment as mechanistic, impersonal and artificial. Instead, they prioritized emotional expression and inspiration. Feeling free from the decaying system of aristocratic rule, they sought to express their new views and the truth they had discovered. Their place in society has changed. They found their readership among the growing middle class, ready to emotionally support and even worship the artist - a genius and prophet. Restraint and humility were rejected. They were replaced by strong emotions, often reaching extremes. Some romantics turned to mysterious, enigmatic, even terrible, folk beliefs and fairy tales. Romanticism was partly associated with democratic, national and revolutionary movements, although "classical" culture French Revolution actually slowed down the arrival of Romanticism in France.

24. 19th century critical realism in fiction

Realism - (from Latin realis, material) - an artistic method in the art of literature. The history of realism in world literature is unusually rich. The very idea of it changed at different stages of artistic development, reflecting the persistent desire of artists to true portrayal reality.

A new type of realism emerged in the 19th century. This is critical realism. It differs significantly from the Renaissance and from the Enlightenment. Its flourishing in the West is associated with the names of Stendhal and Balzac in France, Dickens, Thackeray in England, and in Russia - A. Pushkin, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov.

Critical realism portrays the relationship between man and the environment in a new way. Human character is revealed in organic connection with social circumstances. The subject of deep social analysis has become the inner world of man; critical realism therefore simultaneously becomes psychological. Romanticism, which sought to penetrate the secrets of the human “I,” played a large role in the preparation of this quality of realism.

25. Russian theater and drama of the 18th-19th centuries

Ballet penetrates into Russia and begins to spread even under Peter I in the beginning. XVIII century In 1738, at the request of the French dance master Jean-Baptiste Lande, the first ballet dance school in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg (now the Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet).

The national identity of Russian ballet began to take shape at the beginning of the 19th century thanks to the work of the French choreographer S.-L. Didlo. Didelot strengthens the role of the corps de ballet, the connection between dance and pantomime, and asserts the priority of women's dance.

A real revolution in ballet music was made by Tchaikovsky, who introduced into it continuous symphonic development, deep figurative content, and dramatic expressiveness. The music of his ballets “Swan Lake” (1877), “Sleeping Beauty” (1890), “The Nutcracker” (1892) acquired, along with symphonic music, the ability to reveal the internal flow of the action, to embody the characters of the characters in their interaction, development, and struggle. In choreography, Tchaikovsky's innovation was embodied by choreographers Marius Petipa and L. I. Ivanov, who laid the foundation for the symphonization of dance. The tradition of symphonizing ballet music was continued by Glazunov in the ballets “Raymonda” (1898), “The Young Lady Servant” (1900), and “The Seasons” (1900).

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by innovative searches, the desire to overcome stereotypes and conventions of academic ballet of the 19th century. In his ballets, the choreographer of the Bolshoi Theater A. A. Gorsky sought to achieve consistency in the development of dramatic action, historical authenticity, and tried to strengthen the role of the corps de ballet as a mass actor, to overcome the separation of pantomime and dance. M. M. Fokin made a major contribution to Russian ballet art by significantly expanding the range of ideas and images in ballet, enriching it with new forms and styles. His productions of the ballets “Chopiniana”, “Petrushka”, “Firebird” and others for the “Russian Seasons” brought fame to Russian ballet abroad. The miniature “The Dying Swan” (1907) created by Fokin for Anna Pavlova gained worldwide fame. In 1911-13, on the basis of the Russian Seasons, a permanent troupe, Diaghilev's Russian Ballets, was formed. After Fokine left the troupe, Vaslav Nijinsky became its choreographer. His most famous production was the ballet “The Rite of Spring” to the music of Stravinsky.

26. “Itinerants” and “The Mighty Handful”

The Peredvizhniki, artists who were members of the Russian art association - “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions”. The partnership was formed in 1870 in St. Petersburg on the initiative of I.N. Kramskoy, G.G. Myasoedova, N.N. Ge and V. G. Perov in contrast official center art - St. Petersburg Academy arts I.N. Kramskoy became the ideological leader of the new association. The pictures characteristic of the Wanderers were distinguished by a great force of psychologism and social generalization, high skill typification, the ability to represent entire classes and estates through individual images and plots. The leading genres in the art of the Wanderers are the initiators) I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, V.E. Makovsky, I.M. Pryanishnikov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin, V.M. Maksimov, K.A. Savitsky, A.M. and V.M. Vasnetsov, A.I. Kuindzhi, V.D. Polenov, N.A. Yaroshenko, I.I. Levitan, V.A. Serov and others. Participants in the Partnership’s exhibitions were M.M. Antokolsky, V.V. Vereshchagin, A.P. Ryabushkin and others. A major role in the development of the art of the Wanderers was played by the democratic critic V.V. Stasov; P.M. Tretyakov, purchasing works by the Peredvizhniki for his gallery, provided them with important material and moral support.

The Peredvizhniki made a great contribution to the Russian everyday genre and portraiture. The Wanderers in different time included (besides art. But this contribution could have been much greater if their worldview had not been clouded by social bias, accusation and vulgar aesthetics, which spiritually impoverished talented Russian artists, washing away the national soil from under them. By the end of the 19th century The Wandering movement is fading away, and they themselves are gradually becoming members of the very Academy of Arts that they had previously fought against.

“The Mighty Handful” (Balakirevsky circle, New Russian music school) - creative community Russian composers, which developed in the late 1850s and early 1860s.

The name of the circle was given by its ideologist - critic V.V. Stasov. The "Mighty Handful" included:

Balakirev, Miliy Alekseevich (leader) Borodin, Alexander Porfirievich Cui, Caesar Antonovich Mussorgsky, Modest Petrovich Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Andreevich.

By the mid-1870s, the Mighty Handful ceased to exist as a cohesive group. The activities of the “Mighty Handful” became an era in the development of Russian and world musical art.

27. The role of the intelligentsia in the formation of national identity

For many decades, both those in power and the masses of the people, each of them separately, or even together, treated with undisguised contempt both the intelligentsia as a whole and individual intellectuals. In essence, the word intellectual has become a dirty word. At the same time, the people and the government cannot live without a state that unites the nation. In turn, the state cannot exist without the state idea.

Even if formulated generally, it is understood more or less equally by everyone.

So, a nation state cannot exist without national identity. National self-awareness is impossible without a national intelligentsia. This implies the need for the existence of a sound intelligentsia in a healthy state.

28. Variety of artistic movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Convention of style;

Classicism is an artistic movement in European art 17th-19th centuries. Artists of classicism:

Ancient art was recognized as the highest example;

They relied on the traditions of the High Renaissance;

They sought to express the idea of a harmonious structure of society based on the eternal “laws of reason.”

Naturalism - a movement in literature and art last third 19th century, which strived for an objectively accurate and dispassionate reproduction of observed reality. The object of naturalism is character in its conditioning by physiological nature and environment.

It is believed that naturalism reproduces reality without its ideological understanding, artistic generalization, critical assessment and selection.

Primitivism is a movement in the fine arts of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; conscious, programmatic appeal to works of primitive, medieval, folk and children's creativity.

Symbolism is an artistic movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Symbolism is characterized by:

The dualism of the ideal and the material;

Contrasting the social and the individual;

The rapprochement of the spiritual and moral with the religious.

For symbolism, the secret, hidden side of a particular phenomenon is important.

29. Culture of the Russian “Silver Age”

SILVER AGE – 1) a term which, according to the prevailing tradition in Russian criticism of the 20th century. traditions designate the art (primarily literature) of Russia at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. or the beginning of the 20th century, 2) the period in Roman literature from 18 to 133 AD, marked by notable literary achievements (Juvenal, Martial, Petronius, Tacitus, etc.), which was preceded by a “golden age”. In Russian literature difficult fate This concept was determined by the vagueness of its meaning both in terms of the time frame and in terms of the circle of specific authors. Usually, without any special reservations, the literature of Russian modernism, or even symbolism and Acmeism (including the whole range of names from Balmont, Bryusov, Blok and Bely to Gumilyov, Akhmatova, Mandelstam) is called the Silver Age. This also includes authors from the Russian diaspora, whose work is also considered in line with modernism (see LITERATURE OF THE RUSSIAN ABROAD). There is another approach that seeks to consider the entire border era as a single whole, in a complex interrelation of not only different literary trends, but also all phenomena cultural life this period (art, philosophy, religious and political movements). This idea of " silver age"has become widespread in recent decades both in Western and domestic science.

30. Diversity and complexity of movements at the end of the 20th century

Modernism is a movement in art and literature of the 20th century, characterized by:

A break with the historical experience of artistic creativity;

The desire to establish new principles of art;

Convention of style;

Continuous renewal of artistic forms.

Modernism unites many relatively independent ideological and artistic movements: expressionism, cubism, constructivism, imagism, surrealism, abstract art, pop art.

37. Adoption of Christianity in Ancient Rus'

As mentioned above, having become a prince in Kyiv, Vladimir carried out a kind of pagan reform, obviously trying to raise the ancient folk beliefs to the level of state religion. But the attempt to transform paganism into a state religion with the cult of Perun at its head, apparently, did not satisfy Vladimir, although the people of Kiev willingly supported the most extreme manifestations of the bloody cult of the warlike god.

According to legend, the first preacher of Christianity in our area was Andrew the First-Called - one of the twelve apostles, the brother of the Apostle Peter, the first called by Jesus Christ. He preached Christianity to the Balkan and Black Sea peoples and was crucified by order of the Roman magistrate on a cross shaped like the letter “X” (St. Andrew’s Cross). Already in the “Tale of Bygone Years” it is said that Andrew the First-Called of Korsun, in his missionary work, reached the places where Kyiv and Novgorod were to emerge in the future and blessed these places (and at the same time had the opportunity to marvel at the Russian custom of whipping oneself with brooms in the bathhouse). Subsequently, Kievan Rus (and Russia in the future) turned St. Andrew the First-Called into the patron of Russian statehood.

In Kyiv, Christianity had been known for a long time, as well as its basic dogmas, which were very well adapted to the needs of the feudal state. The first information about Christianity among the Rus dates back to 860-870, but by the middle of the 10th century, the gradual establishment of Christianity in the state system was already felt. If, when concluding a treaty with the Greeks in 911, Russian ambassadors swear only by the pagan Perun, then the treaty of 944 is sealed with a double oath to both Perun and Christian god. The already mentioned above Church of St. Elijah in the chronicle is called the “cathedral,” that is, the main one, which suggests the presence of other Christian churches. Christianity represented a significant political and cultural force in Europe and the Middle East at that time. Belonging to the Christian religion facilitated trade relations with Byzantium and introduced them to writing and extensive literature. For Rus' highest value had the Christianization of Bulgaria (864) and the invention of Slavic writing by Cyril and Methodius (mid-9th century). By the middle of the 10th century. In Bulgaria, significant religious literature had already been created, which facilitated the penetration of Christianity into Rus'. Prince Igor was a pagan: he did not take the oath in the Elias Church, but “he came to the hill where Perun stood and laid down his weapons and shields and gold”; and he was buried by Olga according to pagan rites under a huge mound. But among the boyars and their ambassadors to the emperors of Byzantium there were already some Christians.

Igor's widow, Princess Olga, converted to Christianity in 955, traveling to Constantinople. Perhaps she intended to make Christianity state religion, but here the contradiction generated by the Byzantine church-political concept immediately became sharply apparent: the emperor of the empire was, in the eyes of the Orthodox Greeks, the vicegerent of God and the head of both the state and the church. From this a conclusion was drawn that was very beneficial for Byzantium - any people who adopted Christianity from the hands of the Greeks became a politically dependent people or state. Kievan Rus, which calmly looked at Christian beliefs, preferred such equal relations with Byzantium that would be determined by mutual benefit, the balance of power and would not impose on Rus' any additional obligations associated with the unconvincing divinity of the emperor. In any case, Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, Olga’s successor at baptism, “named her daughter,” that is, subordinate to him, and not an equal “sister.”

38. Formation of Old Russian culture

Powerful basis of formation ancient Russian culture there was a rich heritage of the Eastern Slavs. The Eastern Slavs (a mixture of various racial lines, Indo-European Aryan, Turkic) stood out as an independent branch of the Slavs in the 6th century and even then considered themselves as part of the European world. In the 7th-8th centuries. they developed a basic complex of craft and agricultural tools, determined the main types production activities, practical knowledge about nature was accumulated. The pagan religion served to consolidate and transfer accumulated experience, labor skills and useful observations.

40. The originality of ancient Russian icon painting and architecture

Old Russian art is a precious contribution to the treasury of world culture. His masterpieces, created many centuries ago, excite and delight with the grandeur of their images, the beauty of color, and inspired poetry. The time of brilliant prosperity and power of Kievan Rus continued until the Mongol invasion. And in monumental painting, and in the icon painting there were ideas of glorifying the unity and power of the Russian land, the courage and spiritual strength of man, a feeling of the joy and beauty of life. Various museums in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Vladimir and Yaroslavl house about three dozen icons of the pre-Mongol period. At dawn this century The first cleared icons literally stunned many art connoisseurs. The famous French painter Matisse, arriving in Moscow in 1911, was also stunned by the beauty ancient Russian painting. "This is for certain folk art, he said. – Here is the primary source of artistic quests. Everywhere there is the same brightness and manifestation of great strength of feelings.”

So, global significance ancient Russian painting was discovered and recognized more than half a century ago. However, its systematic study, with the identification of various directions and schools, began after the October Revolution, when searches for monuments of ancient icon painting were organized throughout the country along with their discovery, i.e. exemption from later entries.

In the X-XI centuries. Kievan Rus was called the country of cities: there were almost three hundred of them. Defensive structures, residential buildings, princely chambers, monasteries and cathedrals were built in the cities.

The oldest stone buildings that have survived to this day are temples from the mid-11th century. Russia was then ruled by Yaroslav the Wise, the capital of the state was Kyiv. In this city, on the site of the victorious battle between the Kievites and the Pechenegs, Yaroslav the Wise ordered the foundation of the Hagia Sophia Cathedral in 1037. For that era, this was construction on an unprecedented scale. The height of the grandiose cathedral, built in the Byzantine tradition, was 55 m, and the length was 37 m. Next to the main dome, 12 more rose (thirteen domes symbolized Jesus Christ and the twelve apostles).

The inside of the cathedral is decorated with colorful mosaics and frescoes. According to chroniclers, there were no buildings in Europe at that time that could compare with the Kyiv Sofia.

For several centuries, Novgorod the Great was the “second capital” (after Kyiv). In 1045-1050 By order of Prince Vladimir, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, one of the most famous cathedrals of Ancient Rus' was erected - Sophia of Novgorod, which became a symbol of the city. It is less connected with the Byzantine tradition. We can say that in terms of expressiveness and brevity appearance and decoration is akin to the harsh northern nature.

Wooden architecture occupies a special place in the history of Russian architecture. Russian craftsmen knew how to build simple, comfortable huts (they used to say not “build”, but “cut”, because they worked with only one tool - an ax). They were decorated with beautiful carvings. Boyars' towers and royal palaces were also built from wood, for example the palace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. One of the most famous wooden buildings is the Transfiguration Church on Kizhi Island (Lake Onega). This is an octagonal tower with a whole bunch of decorative domes. It seems that this church came to us from a fairy tale.

41. Folklore in Old Russian literature. Literary monuments Kievan Rus

In particular, folklore often served as material for establishing ritual and magical concepts and ideas generated by the traditional agrarian and agricultural occupation of the population of Rus'. The nature and boundaries of such a study were revealed by ethno-folkloristic and linguo-ethnographic works carried out by a group of researchers led by Academician N. I. Tolsty1. The study of Russian folklore and the folklore of related Slavic peoples in these works forms part of a vast field of knowledge and sometimes goes into the comprehension of folk mentality as the basis ancient culture. It is significant that these studies develop the highly valued traditions of science in the second half XIX beginning XX century, when folkloristics did not yet represent an independent discipline and was part of cultural studies, ethnography, and often linguistics (especially in the field of etymological research). The direction of this study, like any other, reveals boundaries, especially noticeable when it came to solving general problems of medieval studies.

42. Origins of Ukrainian theater

The Ukrainian theater derives its roots from the buffoons of Kievan Rus, aesthetic ideas Baroque, associated with school performances of the Kiev-Mohyilny Academy and figurative and philosophical parables of Grigory Skovoroda.

45. Russian-Ukrainian printing, pioneer printers

Ivan Fedorov was born around 1510. There is no exact information about the date and place of his birth; he was from Petkovichi, on the border of modern Minsk and Brest regions.

He studied at the University of Krakow (1529-1532), received a bachelor's degree. From the 1530s, apparently, he belonged to the entourage of Metropolitan Macarius. Together with Macarius he came to Moscow, where he took the position of deacon in the Kremlin Church of St. Nicholas of Gostunsky.

In 1553, John IV ordered the construction of a special house for a printing house in Moscow, but the enterprise was opened only in 1563. The first Russian printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets began working at the printing house.

Two years later they finished printing the book “The Apostle.” Immediately after this, persecution of printers by copyists began. Fedorov and Mstislavtsev were forced to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There they were warmly received by Hetman Khodkevich, who founded a printing house on his estate Zabludov. The first book printed at the Zabludovskaya printing house by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavtsev was “The Teaching Gospel” (1568) - a collection of conversations and teachings with interpretation of the Gospel texts. In 1570, Ivan Fedorov published the “Psalter with the Book of Hours,” which was also widely used for teaching literacy.

To continue his printing business, Ivan moved to Lvov and here, in the printing house he founded, he printed the second edition of the Apostle (1574). A few years later, he was invited by Konstantin Ostrogsky to the city of Ostrog, where he printed, on behalf of the prince, the famous “Ostrog Bible,” the first complete Bible in the Slavic-Russian language. On December 5 (15), 1583, the “Drukar Moskvitin” died in poverty on the outskirts of Lvov.

He was buried in Lvov in the St. Onuphrius Monastery. In 1977, the Ivan Fedorov Museum was opened here. In 1990, the monastery fell into the hands of the Basilian monks, who liquidated the museum.

46. The role of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy in the development of science and education in Ukraine in the 16th – 18th centuries

The Kiev-Mohyla Academy not only contributed to the expansion of the broad faiths of the people scientific knowledge, but also the formation of spiritual values. Among the academy's students and students were scientists, poets, and philosophers. The Academy was the center of development of Russian socio-political and philosophical thought.

47. Development of Ukrainian architectural baroque. The role of Ivan Mazepa as a patron of Ukrainian culture

Characterized by moderate ornamentation and simplified forms, it is sometimes seen as a precursor to constructivism. Many examples of Ukrainian Baroque have been preserved, including the ensemble of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, St. Sophia Cathedral, Vydubetsky and St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv.

The best examples of Baroque painting are the church paintings in the Trinity Cathedral of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. During the Ukrainian Baroque period there was a rapid development of engraving art. A complex system of symbolism, allegories, heraldic signs and magnificent decorations were used. Certain elements of Ukrainian Baroque were borrowed from the related Naryshkin Baroque in Russia.

48. Development of Ukrainian musical art

The most noticeable phenomenon of the musical life of Galicia in the 19th century. there was a diaco-teacher school in Przemysl, opened in 1818 on the initiative of the Greek Catholic Bishop I. Snigursky and which became the basis for the formation of the so-called Przemysl (composer - E.T.) school, to which Ukrainian musicology classifies composer-priests M. Verbitsky, I. Lavrivsky, V. Matyuk.

The eldest on this list and the most significant for the musical culture of the mid-19th century. there was M. Verbitsky (1815-1870). Being a priest, he at the same time became the founder of the Przemysl school and the founder of secular professional musical creativity. The intensification of the activities of the composing school is also associated with the emergence of the cathedral choir in Przemysl (1829), thanks to which a tradition of church-artistic (professional) singing was formed as opposed to the church-folk (elementary, non-professional) performing tradition. Verbitsky's church (professional) music is only part of his heritage, along with musical and theatrical plays, secular choral works, instrumental opuses, and romances. Folk song motifs begin to sound in his work, and works of civil, patriotic content appear. For example, the choir “Ukraine Isn’t Dead Yet” became a national spiritual choir, and since 2003 - national anthem Ukraine.

49. Humanistic ideas of the philosopher and poet G. Skovoroda

"Kind labor"

Deals with the problem of the struggle of good against evil, which dominates in society. The only way to fight good against evil is to confront it with the good principles that are inherent in human nature. The idea of transforming labor from a way of life into the first need and the highest pleasure.

50. Ukrainian portrait painting of the 18th century

Realistic tendencies were characteristic of portraiture, which was marked by the presence of different styles. It was the stylistic differences in portraiture that became its specific feature. Among the masters of painting, it is worth noting Iova Kondzelevich and Ivan Rutkovich.

52. Ukrainian icon painting

“King to King”, wood, tempera (late 18th century) – the composition is based on the idea of the Deesis. Here the characteristic features of Ukrainian icon painting and its departure from the Byzantine tradition are clearly visible. This is the approximation of the faces of saints to the features of ordinary people, three-dimensionality of the image, warm color, floral ornament as one of the main decorative elements. These common features were manifested differently by local folk artists. In the Hutsul region, icons were painted on glass with opaque bright colors, the background was decorated with foil - hence the special festivity.

54. Foundation of the 1st Ukrainian professional theater. Leading figures of the Ukrainian theater

At the beginning of the 19th century, Ukrainian professional theater was born. In 1819, in Poltava, “Natalka Poltavka” was written and staged and performed with the participation of Mikhail Shchepkin by Ivan Kotlyarevsky. The repertoire included plays by Kotlyarevsky, Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, and Shevchenko.

In 1882, in Elizavetgrad, Marko Lukich Kropivnitsky created a professional Ukrainian theater.

55. Revival of national cultural life in Galicia and Bukovina in the 19th century

The Ukrainian clergy paid great attention to cultural and educational issues, whose representatives, led by Canon Ivan Mogilnitsky, founded the “Clerical Society” in 1813. for the purpose of translation, publication and distribution among believers religious literature in Ukrainian. Active activity This first cultural and educational society in Galicia was directed against the expansion of the Greek Catholic Church, despite the resistance of the Polish clergy, and was of great importance for the preservation of the Ukrainian language.

A huge role in the life of Ukrainians in Galicia was played by the Lviv University, which operated a Russian Institute with a three-year Ukrainian-language course of study. Lectures and works of famous scientists: A. Giltenbrandt, P. Lodia, I. Martynovich and others contributed to the awakening of Ukrainian national consciousness. students.

In the 30s of the 19th century. at the Lviv Seminary, students Markiyan Shashkevich (the first national poet of Galicia - according to M.S. Grushevsky), Ivan Vagilevich (ethnographer and writer) and Yakov Golovatsky (the first patented professor of the Ukrainian language at Lviv University) created a circle of democratic Ukrainian youth, which was called “ Ruska triytsa” (that was the name of the entire group, which, in addition to three seminarians, included A. Mogiletsky, M. Ustyanovich and others of their same age). His educational activities, members of the circle contributed to the awakening of the national consciousness of Ukrainians in Galicia, the spread and development of Ukrainian. language. They were influenced by the revival of Ukrainian literature in Russia and Polish revolutionary ideas in the 30s. They wrote articles on history, collected Ukrainian songs and thoughts, and published them. When censorship prohibited the publication of the collection “Zorya” in 1834. (“Dawn” - Russian), a new almanac “Rusalka Dnistrov” was compiled, published in 1837. in Pest (Hungary), but immediately after publication the circulation was seized by Galician censorship and only in 1848. he was released from arrest. This was the first serious challenge of a forced Ukrainian. people of Austria's colonial policy. “Rusalka Dnistrova” sowed the first seeds of Ukrainian national revival in Galicia.

European revolutions awakened Galicia. The Poles began to prepare an uprising with the goal of reviving Poland. The Austrian government tried to bring part of the Ukrainian intelligentsia of Galicia closer and use it in the fight against the Polish revolution. movement. The ideas of dividing Galicia into Polish and Ukrainian parts are spreading, introducing in the highest and primary school Ukrainian language, the liberation of Ukrainian peasants from the power of Polish landowners.

56. Romanticism of Ukrainian culture

A characteristic feature was the discrepancy between the artist’s subjective dreams and objective reality. Social essence creativity of this period was indicated by their attitude to the feudal-serf system and to bourgeois relations. Shevchenko (Prichinna, Topolya), representatives of the Russian trinity - Shashkevich, Vagilevich, Golovatsky, Kulish - belonged to the direction of romanticism.

60. Development of Ukrainian culture in the era of socialism

Sovetskaya U. l. developed under the beneficial influence of the liberating ideas of the great Russian literature, in particular - socialist ideas Russian proletarian literature, its greatest representative, founder, brilliant writer A. M. Gorky. This influence was combined with a critical development of the Ukrainian revolutionary-democratic literary heritage. Sovetskaya U. l. grew stronger and stronger in close cooperation with the literary world fraternal peoples our great Union, making extensive use of the wealth of Soviet folklore in the process of its development. The work of Ukrainian writers - T. Shevchenko, M. Kotsyubinsky, Lesya Ukrainka, I. Franko, and on the other hand, Russian writers - A. Pushkin, N. Nekrasov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, - the live communication of writers with A. M. Gorky and the participation of Ukrainian Soviet writers in the practice of building socialism - all this taken together had a great impact influence on the process of formation of young Ukrainian Soviet literature, on the development of its language, genres and style.

The poetic activity of the largest Ukrainian poet Pavlo Tychyna followed the line of overcoming symbolist poetics. Already in 1917-1919, Pavlo Tychina spoke with revolutionary realistic poems (“There are poplars near the fields in the wild”, “The thought of the three winds”, “On the Maidan there is a church”, “How a man fell from a horse”), which took a prominent place in Ukrainian Soviet poetry. Somewhat later, Vladimir Sosyura appeared in print with poems (“Chervona Winter”) and verses (“Vіdplata”, “Before Us”, “Oh Not without Reason”, etc.), written in the style of revolutionary romanticism (collections “Poetry”, 1921, and "Chervona Winter", 1922).

The period of transition to peaceful work to restore the national economy expanded and deepened the growth process Soviet literature generally; at this time a number of new poets appeared (M. Bazhan, P. Usenko, L. Pervomaisky), prose writers (Yu. Yanovsky, Yu. Smolich, A. Golovko, A. Kopylenko, P. Panch, A. Lyubchenko, I. Senchenko ), S. Vasilchenko continued his work, began literary activity A. Korneychuk, who later rose to the forefront of the Union’s playwrights.

62. Ukrainian cinema

The first steps of cinema in Ukraine are associated with the names of mechanic-designer Timchenko and physicist Lyubimov, who back in 1893 created an apparatus for recreating on the screen the continuous movement of people and objects. Fedetsky filmed and demonstrated newsreels. Since 1907, regular film production began in Ukraine. During this period, newsreel documentaries were created, filmed theatrical performances. Famous actors M. Sadovsky, M. Zankovetskaya, I. Maryanenko take part in them.

63. Connection between Ukrainian and Russian dissidence

Is history united? dissident movement in USSR? Or does it represent a collection of histories of national, religious and other movements? This is not an idle question, since the answer to it largely determines the way we study the history of dissent.

The first answer, lying on the surface, is yes, one. Firstly, many dissidents had the same underlying feeling - unwillingness to come to terms with violence and lies; often these people are similar in many ways, although they belong to different nationalities and religions.

Secondly, the forms of dissident activity were the same everywhere - dissemination of samizdat, collection and dissemination of information about repressions, petitions to authorities and international organizations etc.

Thirdly, the dissidents were opposed by the same structures - the CPSU, the KGB, the prosecutor's office, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the courts, whose activities were regulated vertically, and decisions were often made in Moscow at the very top level.

66. National and cultural revival in Ukraine in the 2nd half of the 80-90s of the 20th century

Started in the mid-80s new stage in the development of Ukrainian culture. Along with the strategy of renewal, a new revival of spiritual life begins, which manifested itself in the search for “truths.”

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, and scientific research. By making key values and life goals of a person, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture

The main features of the culture: hieroglyphic writing, artistic style, religious beliefs and the cult of the dead. It is characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.

Literary memos: “Texts of the Pyramids”, “Book of the Dead”, “Texts of the Sarcophagi”, “Song of the Harper”.

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

Writers and artists from various European countries began to take episodes from ancient Greek mythology as the plots of their works. Some works of outstanding Italian artists of the Renaissance are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities -

Leonardo da Vinci (bust of the goddess Flora), Sandro Botticelli (paintings “The Birth of Venus”, “Spring”), Titian (painting “Venus in front of the Mirror”), etc. The outstanding Italian sculptor Benvenuto took the plot from the images of ancient Greek mythology for his wonderful statue of Perseus Cellini.

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". The names of mythological heroes are found in many other works.

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

The Greeks actively adopted the scientific and technical achievements of other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era of ancient civilization itself:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek culture and the development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Artistic culture of classical Greece

At this time, Greek theater and the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished. The theater became a true educator of the people; it shaped the views and beliefs of free citizens. Greek tragedy in the images of myths reflected the struggle of the people against external enemies, for political equality and social justice.

5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. The leading place is occupied by temples of the Doric order. The heroic character of classical art is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. The sculptors drew subjects for their sculptural works from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development of the realistic art of sculpting. Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as “The Boy Taking out a Thorn.” Rome, Palazzo Conservatori) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.

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Federal Agency for Education State educational institution of higher professional education Tula State University Department of "DESIGN" Lecture notes of the discipline "History of Culture and Arts" (Federal component of the cycle of general professional disciplines) Discipline code according to the curriculum: ZF.01 TULA 2006 2 Lecture notes of the discipline "History of Culture and Arts" Introduction Art criticism as a complex of sciences about all types of artistic creativity, their place in the general system human culture and as a science with the plastic arts (in a more special sense). Main sections of art history and specific areas. Theory, history and criticism of art. Iconology, structuralism, connoisseurship, formal method, sociology, psychology and ecology of art. The problem of style as one of the most important subjects of art criticism. Stylistic analysis and its purpose. Schools of contemporary art. Classification of types of arts. Specificity and essence various types arts Plastic arts: tectonic and visual. Architecture, decorative and applied arts and design Architecture: the relationship between functional-technical and spiritual-aesthetic principles. Specific artistic media architecture: composition, tectonics, scale, proportions, rhythm.; plasticity of volumes and surfaces, texture and color of building and finishing materials, synthesis of arts, architectonics as an expression of the main figurative idea of a work of art, construction, as the basic principle of construction, design, texture. Architecture as one of the main (along with fine and decorative arts) types of spatial arts; 1) an artistically organized space for human activity; 2) a set of objects that determine the artistic organization of space by their presence, location and functioning; 3) totality creative processes , aimed at creating an artistic image of an organized space and the objects that organize it, which are buildings (religious, residential, administrative, industrial, public, etc.), open 3 urban spaces (squares, streets, parks), as well as complexes of buildings and open spaces (city areas, etc.), which are designed as ensembles. Functional properties of buildings: inaccessibility, openness, capacity, comfort. Decorative and applied arts as a form of art. Bifunctionality: decorative, utilitarian. Ornament is the structural basis of a product, like a pattern. Classification of decorative and applied arts. Functionality and material (metal, ceramics, glass, silver, gold, porcelain, bronze, earthenware, etc.). Decorative and applied arts, along with architecture and design, are a constantly operating factor in the aesthetic organization of the environment and aesthetic impact. Design is a new type of aesthetic activity in the field of industrial production; its tasks, its significance in the life of society. Painting, sculpture, graphics, photography. Painting as a form of fine art. Genres: portrait, landscape, still life; historical, everyday, mythological, battle, animalistic genre. The main types of painting are easel and monumental (stone, ceramic, smalt mosaic, stained glass, fresco and other types of painting). Special types of painting: icon painting, miniature, decorative painting (theater set and film set), diorama and panorama. Means of expression: composition, drawing, color; tone, color gradations, local color, colorful range, values, reflexes, texture, linear and aerial perspective, light and shadow modeling. The main technical types of painting. Basic tools: brushes, palette knife, airbrushes. Sculpture as a form of fine art. Genres, Varieties - round sculpture and relief. Easel, monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture. Sculpture of small forms. Technology and materials. 4 Graphics as a form of fine art. Genres: landscape (including travel sketches), portrait (including sketch from life); caricature, (satirical drawing, cartoon), poster, newspaper graphics, etc.. Unique, printed, computer graphics. Letter graphics (font, epigraphy, calligraphy). Graphic design. Technical types of graphics (monotype, collage, aquatype, watercolor, gouache, pastel, ink, photomontage, woodcut, linocut, zincography, lithography, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, drypoint, etc. ). Artistic and expressive means. Photography as a form of plastic arts; using visual and expressive possibilities photos; Genres. Ethnographic, geographical, battle, reportage photography. Art photography and hyperrealism. Theory of art Artistic method as a historically established set of principles of artistic and imaginative thinking in art. Artistic method and artistic direction in art. The concept of style. History of big artistic styles, the era of their origin, flourishing and decline from antiquity to the beginning of the 20th century. Romanticism, classicism and realism, Art Nouveau, Art Nouveau, Art Nouveau, Secession, etc. symbolism, critical realism, verism, regionalism and naturalism, modernism (surrealism, hyperrealism, avant-garde, abstract art, cubism, favism, expressionism, constructivism, non-objective art, abstract expressionism, tachisme, actionism, informal art, pop art), impressionism and neo-impressionism , Baroque and Neo-Baroque, Gothic and Neo-Gothic, Neo-Russian style, Neo-Renaissance, Neorealism, etc. Art criticism as a branch of art criticism 5 Criticism is one of the types of scientific creative activity, operational analysis of works of art in context modern culture . P. Aretino - the “father” of art criticism; 16th century. "Salons" by Denis Diderot in France - a genre of critical review of exhibitions; 18 century. C. Baudelaire, T. Gautier, E. Zola in France, D. Ruskin in England, V. V. Stasov in Russia; 19th century. A.N. Benois in Russia - early 20th century. The meaning of criticism; its influence on the art movement, tastes, assessments, and worldview of viewers. Iconology, iconography and formal method Iconology as a direction in art criticism. E. Cassirer (German neo-Kantian philosopher). Iconography (a branch of art criticism that studies themes, symbols and subjects of art) and iconology. Principles of iconology and formal method. K. Fiedler. A. Hildebrand. Hans von Marais. G. Wölfflin. The concept of structuralism; interaction of iconology and structuralism. Sociology of art Theories of socio-economic development, developed in line with the historical and cultural concepts of G. Hegel. The founder of the sociology of art is the French philosopher I. Taine. Lines of development of the sociology of art: general philosophical, theory and history of art, practical sociology of art. Psychology of art Psychology of art as a section of art criticism and as an art criticism direction. Psychoanalysis (3. Freud); ideas of the “collective unconscious” (C.G. Jung); patterns of visual perception - (V. Arnheim). The importance of the psychology of art at the end of the 20th century. Artistic activity and artistic culture The origin of artistic activity. Artistic and religious 6 consciousness in a mythological context. Dialectics of stable and changeable in the history of art. Art in artistic culture. The spiritual content of art: epistemological and axiological aspects. A system of images as the internal form of a work of art. Material-constructive facet of artistic form. The structure of the artistic and creative process. A work of art as an organic integrity. Psychological structure of perception of a work of art. The functions of art in its relationship to man, society, nature, culture. The artistic development of humanity in the context of artistic culture. General laws of the artistic-historical process: 1. The artist as a subject of creativity; 2. Dialectics of the transitory and enduring in the history of art; 3. Dialectics of progress and regression in artistic development. Sociocultural determinants of artistic development: social consciousness and artistic creativity, art and the class-class structure of society, the national structure of society and art. History of art. The relationship between world history and art history. History and development of art from antiquity to the present day. Historical, artistic, social and national properties of art that are common and unique to each region and country. The level of development of artistic life in various regions of the world, the relationship and coincidence of individual eras of art history with eras of world history. Features of the development of art in different regions of the world. Culture of primitive society Features of mythological thinking. 7 Analogy as a principle for explaining the world (according to E.B. Tylor). Animism is the oldest worldview of man. Kinship relations among members of a primitive tribal society as the reason for the emergence of the idea of universal animation (A.F. Losev). The world as a universal tribal community. A thing as a unity of essence and appearance. Primitive image of the world. Magical ideas of primitive man. Two basic principles of magic (J. Frazer). L. Lévy-Bruhl about primitive mythology as a principle of expression of primitive thinking and vision of the world. The unsystematic nature of primitive mythology. Prelogicality of primitive thinking. Myth as a secret and sacred property of the tribe. Myth as a complex of ideas about the supernatural. Mythological time and its properties. Participation and its role in the functioning of primitive society. Art in the perception of primitive man. Periodization of the art of primitive society. Paleolithic art. General characteristics of the period. The formation of the clan organization, the emergence of the first religious views. Tools of various shapes. The basis of economic existence is driven hunting. The appearance of the first objects of art - images of animals. Aurignac-Solutre period. Distribution area of art objects. Drawings from the beginning of the period are “pasta”, handprints circled. The evolution of images from the first imperfect drawings of animals to images with correct proportions and clear outlines. Statics as the basis of the style of images of the period. Features of small plastics. “Paleolithic Venuses”, their purpose, main artistic task and style (combination of conventional forms and exaggerations with naturalistic details). Madeleine period. The highest flowering of Paleolithic art. Distribution area of paintings. The location of paintings in a cave: the mystery of the primitive worldview. Painting technique and color specifics. Artistic features of images: poses and movements, scale of images, desire to convey volume, expression and persuasiveness, naturalism. Lack of compositional relationships between individual characters (the scene from the Lascaux cave as a unique attempt to create a coherent narrative composition). Mesolithic art. General characteristics of the period. The beginning of the modern geological era. Small groups of relatives as the basis social organization. Ancestral burial grounds as evidence of its strengthening. The appearance of bows and arrows, boats, weaving fabrics, and wooden utensils. Location of rock paintings. Increasing the overall image scale. Artistic features of images: the emergence of a plot compositional structure, the main character of which is a man. Schematics of the human figure. The main artistic task is to convey the expression of a person, the perception of the latter as an action, and not an object (“Deer Hunting” in the Valttorta Gorge). Neolithic art. General characteristics of the period. “Neolithic metamorphosis” (P. Teilhard de Chardin). The spread of humanity over a vast territory. Transition to cattle breeding and agriculture. Transition to a sedentary existence. Patriarchy as the basis of social organization. The emergence of pottery production, weaving, and the beginnings of metallurgy. Complicating ideas about the world and its functioning. Artistic practice of the Neolithic era. Disappearance of monumental rock paintings (with the exception of the Neolithic culture of the Sahara). The most common types of art are decoration of ceramic vessels and petroglyphs. The appearance of conventionally ornamental forms in art, the basis of the image becomes a symbol, a sign, and not an image (the development of abstract thinking). The widespread distribution of the same signs is the commonality of Neolithic culture with the simultaneous appearance of local features and differences. Study by the Neolithic 9 artist of the rhythmic patterns of ornament. Organic connection of the ornament with the shape of the vessel. Stylistic analysis of ceramics of the Trypillian culture. Art of the Bronze Age. General characteristics of the period. The emergence of foundry. Development of tools and improvement of land cultivation. The emergence of the cult of military leaders. Strengthening the patriarchal organization. Megalithic architecture, its connection with increasingly complex religious and cult ideas and needs. Distribution of megaliths. Forms and methods of decorating a menhir. The dolmen is the result of using a post-and-beam architectural structure. Types and purpose of dolmens. Cromlech, its structure and connection with solar and lunar cults. Cromlech as a primitive observatory. Cromlech at Stonehenge, its composition and history. Artistic practice of the Bronze Age. Deepening local differentiation of individual cultural traditions. Development of toreutics. The technical level of execution of products made of bronze and other metals and their artistic features. The appearance of the potter's wheel and the complication of the shapes of ceramic vessels. Art products from metals in the mounds of the Maykop and Koban cultures. Art of the Iron Age. General characteristics of the period. Improvement of land cultivation with iron tools. Increased wealth stratification. Complication of spiritual culture. Specialization of representatives of artistic creativity. The emergence of local variants within the same archaeological culture, differences in stylistic devices between them. Artistic practice of the Iron Age. Decorativeness and ornamentation, the desire for pomp and luxury, complexity and overload of the composition are the stylistic features of artistic products of the period. Development of pottery production, emergence of 10 improved forms of ceramics. The complication of the ornamental decor of ceramic dishes, the appearance of images of animals and people - characters from myths. Culture of the Hallstatt period. Features of artistic products. The art of Scythian culture. Art and object culture of Ancient Egypt Periodization. general characteristics ancient egyptian culture. Relative geographical isolation. Irrigation farming system requiring centralized management. Widespread occurrence of various types of stone, gold deposits in Nubia, almost complete absence of wood, imported silver. The early emergence of a culture based on the worldview of primitive man of the Neolithic era. Slow development of ancient Egyptian society, long-term preservation of magical primitive ideas. Art of the predynastic period (late 5-4 thousand BC). Forms of burials determined by the specifics of belief in an afterlife. Small plastic from burials. Wall paintings in burials: the search for expressiveness in conveying the most essential. Selection of visual techniques. Paintings from the tomb of the leader in Hierakonpolis. Reliefs on tiles for rubbing paint. Tile of Pharaoh Narmer. Theme of the plots. The abundance of hieroglyphs, the connection of the image with the techniques of pictographic and later hieroglyphic writing. Design of the characteristic features of the pictorial canon: line-by-line composition, different scales of the figures of the pharaoh and subjects, drawing of the image (using the method of orthogonal projections to increase the information content of the image - according to B.V. Rauschenbach). Art Ancient kingdom(XXX - XXIII centuries BC) Art of the I - II dynasties. Development of the funeral cult, development and complication of the tomb. The emergence and spread of mastaba. Construction and design of the mastaba. Necropolises in Saqqara and Abydos: features of architecture and