Fedosyuk, what is unclear from the classics. YU
This manual contains theoretical and practical materials that help enrich and activate the vocabulary of children in the preparatory group kindergarten not only in special classes, but also in everyday situations, on a walk, in classes on fiction, musical festivals.
The author presents lesson notes, a variety of verbal tricks, helping to increase the level speech development child, improving the culture of communication.
Particular attention in the work is paid to the correct pronunciation of sounds, mastering the basic forms of the language system, the lexical side of speech.
The manual is addressed to preschool teachers educational institutions, parents.
Vocabulary enrichment
Each word names a specific idea, image or concept. In the normal development of a child, reflected in language, the word he has acquired corresponds to the concept he previously acquired. In the first years of a child’s life, this strict correspondence between a word and its content is not violated, but this is only in the first years. Unfortunately, very early on children acquire words that are destined to remain empty sounds without real content. He must fight evil, and the best means for this fight are those observation lessons discussed above.
Observations and study of living reality contribute to the creation of images and ideas that, with proper guidance, must certainly be intertwined with the corresponding word.
When teaching young children, there is no other way to expand their vocabulary other than experience and observation. The child visually becomes familiar with the object itself and its properties and, at the same time, remembers words that name both the object and its qualities and characteristics. The sequence of assimilation is as follows: acquaintance with the subject, formation of the idea, reflection of the latter in the word.
External perceptions, experiences, and personal experiences of a child play a primary role in his development, while the meaning of the word is secondary and auxiliary. The most important and most perfect method of teaching in the early stages of childhood is a culture of observation.
Content
Explanatory note.
I. Formation of vocabulary in preschoolers
- tasks of speech and vocabulary development
- learning features
- vocabulary enrichment
- activation of the dictionary
- work on the semantic side of the word
II Methods and techniques for working on a dictionary.
III. Examination of the state of speech development of children of senior preschool age.
Application
Literature
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- Working with text in the Russian language lesson, Teacher's Manual, grades 5-11, Aleksandrova O.M., Dobrotina I.N., Gosteva Yu.N., Vasiliev I.P., Uskova I.V., 2019
Report.
Prepared by teacher of the first qualification category Vasilyeva Svetlana Yurievna
Topic: “Methods and techniques for enriching the vocabulary of preschool children.”
Content vocabulary work becomes more difficult from one age group to another.
The increase in complexity in the content of the vocabulary work program can be traced in the following three directions:
1) Expanding the child’s vocabulary based on familiarization with a gradually increasing range of objects and phenomena.
2) The introduction of words denoting qualities, properties, relationships, based on deepening knowledge about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
3) The introduction of words denoting elementary concepts, based on the distinction and generalization of objects according to essential characteristics.
These three areas of vocabulary work take place in all age groups and can be traced in different content.
Second group early age(from 2 to 3 years).
Based on expanding children's orientation in their immediate environment, develop understanding of speech and activate vocabulary. Learn to understand adult speech without visual support. To develop children’s ability, following the teacher’s verbal instructions, to find objects by name, color, size (“Bring Mashenka a bowl of jam”, “Take a red pencil”, “Sing a song to the little bear”); name their location (“Mushroom on the top shelf, high up”, “Standing nearby”); imitate the actions of people and the movements of animals (“Show how to water from a watering can”, “Walk like a bear cub”). Enrich children's vocabulary with: nouns denoting the names of toys, personal hygiene items (towel, Toothbrush, comb, handkerchief), clothes, shoes, dishes, furniture, bedding (blanket, pillow, sheet, pajamas), vehicles (car, bus), vegetables, fruits, domestic animals and their babies; verbs denoting labor actions (wash, treat, water), actions with opposite meanings (open - close, take off - put on, take - put), actions characterizing relationships between people (help, pity, give, hug) , their emotional state (cry, laugh, rejoice, be offended); adjectives denoting the color, size, taste, temperature of objects (red, blue, sweet, sour, big, small, cold, hot); adverbs (close, far, high, fast, dark, quiet, cold, hot, slippery). Promote the use of learned words in independent speech children.
Junior group(from 3 to 4 years).
Based on enriching ideas about the immediate environment, continue to expand and activate children’s vocabulary. Clarify the names and purposes of items of clothing, shoes, hats, dishes, furniture, and types of transport. Teach children to distinguish and name essential details and parts of objects (for a dress - sleeves, collar, pockets, buttons), qualities (color and its shades, shape, size), surface features (smooth, fluffy, rough), some materials and their properties (paper easily tears and gets wet, glass objects they break, rubber toys, after being compressed, restore their original shape), location (outside the window, high, far away, under the closet). Draw the children's attention to some objects that are similar in purpose (plate - saucer, chair - stool - bench, fur coat - coat - oak - 94 flax). Learn to understand general words (clothing, dishes, furniture, vegetables, fruits, birds, etc.); name the parts of the day (morning, afternoon, evening, night); name domestic animals and their babies, vegetables and fruits.
Middle group(from 4 to 5 years).
Replenish and activate children's vocabulary based on deepening knowledge about their immediate environment. Expand ideas about objects, phenomena, events that did not take place in their own experience. Intensify the use in speech of the names of objects, their parts, and the materials from which they are made. Learn to use the most common adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions in speech. Introduce nouns denoting professions into the children's dictionary; verbs characterizing labor actions. Continue to teach children to identify and name the location of an object (left, right, next to, near, between), time of day. Help replace demonstrative pronouns and adverbs (there, there, such, that) often used by children with more accurate ones expressive words; use antonym words (clean - dirty, light - dark). Learn to use nouns with a general meaning (furniture, vegetables, animals, etc.).
Senior group (from 5 to 6 years old).
Enrich children's speech with nouns denoting objects in their everyday environment; adjectives characterizing the properties and qualities of objects; adverbs denoting relationships between people, their attitude to work. Practice selecting nouns for the adjective (white - snow, sugar, chalk), words with a similar meaning (naughty - mischievous - prankster), with the opposite meaning (weak - strong, cloudy - sunny). Help children use words in speech in strict accordance with their meaning
Preparatory group(from 6 to 7 years).
Continue work to enrich children’s everyday, natural history, and social science vocabulary. Encourage children to be interested in the meaning of words. Improve the ability to use different parts of speech in strict accordance with their meaning and purpose of the statement. Help children learn means of expression language.
Methods and techniques for enriching the vocabulary of preschool children
There are two groups of methods:
- methods of accumulating the content of children's speech;
Methods aimed at consolidating and activating the vocabulary, developing its semantic side.
The first group includes methods:
* direct acquaintance with the environment and enrichment of vocabulary: examination and examination of objects, observation, inspections of the kindergarten premises, targeted walks and excursions;
* indirect acquaintance with the environment and enrichment of vocabulary: viewing paintings with unfamiliar content, reading works of art, showing films and videos, watching television programs.
The second group of methods is used to consolidate and activate the dictionary: looking at toys, looking at paintings with familiar content, didactic games and exercises.
Didactic games are educational, cognitive games designed to expand, deepen and systematize children’s ideas about the environment, to cultivate cognitive interests and develop cognitive abilities.
Didactic games are a widespread method of vocabulary work. Play is one of the means of mental education. In it, the child reflects the surrounding reality, reveals his knowledge, and shares it with friends. Selected species games have different effects on children's development. A particularly important place in mental education is occupied by didactic games, the obligatory elements of which are cognitive content and a mental task. By repeatedly participating in the game, the child firmly assimilates the knowledge with which he operates. Solving a mental problem in a game, the child practices voluntary memorization and reproduction, classifying objects or phenomena according to general characteristics, identifying the properties and qualities of objects, and identifying them according to individual characteristics.
In didactic games, children are given certain tasks, the solution of which requires concentration, attention, mental effort, the ability to comprehend the rules, sequence of actions, and overcome difficulties. They promote the development of sensations and perceptions in children, the formation of ideas, and the acquisition of knowledge. These games make it possible to teach children a variety of economical and rational ways to solve certain mental and practical problems. This is their developing role.
It is necessary to ensure that the didactic game is not only a form of assimilation of individual knowledge and skills, but also contributes to general development child, served to develop his abilities.
Each didactic game has its own program content, which includes a certain group of words that children must learn.
In preschool pedagogy, all didactic games can be divided into three main types:
Games with objects (toys, natural materials),
Desktop-printed;
Word games.
Games with objects:
Playing with objects uses toys and real objects. By playing with them, children learn to compare, establish similarities and differences between objects. The value of these games is that with their help children become familiar with the properties of objects and their characteristics: color, size, shape, quality. The games solve problems involving comparison, classification, and establishing sequence in solving problems. As children master new knowledge, the tasks in games become more complex: preschoolers practice identifying an object by any one quality, combining objects according to this characteristic (color, shape, quality, purpose, etc.), which is very important for the development of abstract, logical thinking .
While playing, children acquire the ability to put together a whole from parts, string objects (balls, beads), and lay out patterns from various shapes.
In playing with dolls, children develop cultural and hygienic skills and moral qualities. Widely used in educational games various toys. They clearly express color, shape, purpose, size, and the material from which they are made.
In games, knowledge is improved about the material from which toys are made, about the objects that people need in various types of their activities, which children reflect in their games.
The teacher uses games with natural materials (plant seeds, leaves, various flowers, pebbles, shells) when conducting such didactic games as “Whose children are these?”, “Which tree is the leaf from?”, “Who is most likely to lay out a pattern from different leaves? " The teacher organizes them during a walk, directly in contact with nature: trees, shrubs, flowers, seeds, leaves. In such games, children’s knowledge about the natural environment around them is consolidated, mental processes are formed (analysis, synthesis, classification) and a love for nature and a caring attitude toward it are fostered.
Board-printed games:
Board-printed games - interesting activity for children. They are varied in type: paired pictures, lotto, dominoes. The developmental tasks that are solved when using them are also different.
Selection of pictures in pairs. The simplest task in such a game is to find among different pictures two completely identical: two hats, identical in color and style, or two dolls, outwardly no different.
Selection of pictures by common feature(classification). Some generalization is required here, establishing connections between objects. For example, in the game “What grows in the garden (in the forest, in the vegetable garden)?”
Memorizing the composition, quantity and location of pictures. Games are played in the same way as with objects. For example, in the game “Guess which picture was hidden,” children must remember the contents of the pictures and then determine which of them was turned upside down. This game is aimed at developing memory, memorization and recall.
The gaming didactic objectives of this type of games are also to consolidate children’s knowledge about quantitative and ordinal counting, the spatial arrangement of pictures on the table (right, left, top, bottom, side, front, etc.), the ability to talk coherently about the changes that have occurred with pictures and their contents.
Making cut pictures and cubes. The purpose of this type of game is to teach children logical thinking, develop their ability to form a whole object from individual parts.
Description, story about the picture showing actions, movements. In such games, the teacher sets a teaching task: to develop not only children’s speech, but also imagination and creativity. Often, in order for the players to guess what is drawn in the picture, a child resorts to imitating movements and imitating his voice. For example, in the game “Guess who it is?” In these games such valuable qualities the child’s personality, as the ability to transform, to creative search in creating the necessary image.
Word games:
Word games are built on the words and actions of the players. In such games, children learn, based on existing ideas about objects, to deepen their knowledge about them, since in these games it is necessary to use previously acquired knowledge in new connections, in new circumstances. Children independently solve various mental problems; describe objects, highlighting their characteristic features; guess from the description; find signs of similarities and differences; group objects according to various properties and characteristics; find illogicalities in judgments, etc.
With the help of verbal games, children develop a desire to engage in mental work. In play, the thinking process itself is more active; the child easily overcomes the difficulties of mental work, without noticing that he is being taught.
To replenish and activate vocabulary can be effective word games, which are a type of didactic games aimed at developing a child’s speech. Games develop attention, intelligence, speed of reaction, and coherent speech. In any such game, a certain mental problem is solved, that is, correction of both speech and cognitive activity. To solve these problems, various descriptions of objects, their images, descriptions from memory, stories from imagination, etc. are recommended. Good results are obtained from tasks involving inventing and guessing riddles.
These didactic games are carried out in all age groups, but they are especially important in the upbringing and teaching of children of senior preschool age, as they help prepare children for school: they develop the ability to listen carefully to the teacher, quickly find an answer to the question posed, accurately and clearly formulate their thoughts, apply knowledge in accordance with the task.
There are a number of special methodical exercises speeches, the purpose of which is to expand the vocabulary and speech skills of children. They are useful to conduct with children of senior preschool age, provided they are conducted lively, at ease, taking into account age interests and capabilities. Here are some of the types of such exercises.
Selection of epithets for the subject. An object is called, say a dog. What types of dogs are there? Answer of children 5-6 years old: big, small, furry, smart, biting, angry, kind, old, young, funny, hunting. Additions of the teacher: shepherds, firefighters.
Recognition by epithets of an object. The teacher invites the children to guess what it is: green, which grew near the house, curly, slender, white-trunked, fragrant. Children guess - birch. Children themselves should participate in composing such riddles. Such exercises require proper guidance. They should not result in a formal string of words. Words should be associated with concepts familiar to children.
Matching actions (verbs) to the subject: What does the wind do? It howls, raises dust, tears off leaves, inflates a sail, turns mill wheels, refreshes, drives clouds. What is the horse doing? Dog? Chicken? and so on.
Selection of an object for actions: It sparkles in the sky, warms the earth, disperses darkness, illuminates. What is this? - Sun.
Selection of objects for action: Who and what floats? Who and what is heating? Who and what flies? and so on. Statements from children 6-7 years old: “An airplane is flying, a bird, a butterfly, a pilot on an airplane, a beetle, a fly, a bee, a dragonfly, a fluff from the wind, balloon, yellow leaves are flying from the tree.”
Selection of circumstances: How can you study? - well, lazy, diligently, successfully, for a long time, a lot, etc.
Nuances of the meaning of the word house, house, house: tiny little, small; big, huge, huge. Children are asked to make up phrases with these words. Statements from children aged 6-7 years: “I found a tiny fungus, I barely noticed it. Olya is still a small and stupid girl. This house is not big, but not small either.
Children's insertion of missing words. The teacher reads the sentences, the children insert the subject, predicate, explanatory words, etc. For example: “She sat on the threshold and meowed pitifully... (who?). The cat sat in front of a cup of milk and greedily... (what was it doing?). The cat caught... (who?) in the garden. The cat has fur... (what?), claws... (what?). The cat was lying with kittens... (where?). The kittens were playing with a ball... (how?). Or: The janitor took a broom; he will.... The postman came: he brought... . We need to cut wood; where is our...? I want to drive a nail; bring it to me..." Then the children themselves made up the sentences, and the teacher finished them. “We’re going to sculpt now, we need to bring it... I’m on duty; I need to wipe off the dust; where is our...? The woodcutters went to the forest and took with them...”
When giving children such sentences, you need to think carefully about their content; it should not be too elementary and not make it difficult for children. If you think carefully about the content of each phrase, put forward objects and phenomena that are well known and interesting to children, young children can also take part in such activities.
Distribution of proposals. The teacher says: “The gardener is watering... (what? where? when? why?). Children go... (where? Why?), etc. We must pay attention to the correct construction of sentences.
Components of a whole. The object is named, its components are determined, for example: locomotive train, tender, platforms, cars; tree - trunk, branches, twigs, leaves, buds, etc. Or the task is given: to determine the whole in parts, for example: a dial, arrows, a pendulum. What is this? Or: 3 floors, roof, walls, foundation, entrances, doors, windows. What is this?
Exercise on the accuracy of nomenclature. Mainly in relation to words, the shades of meaning of which are especially often not caught and cause common mistakes: put on a dress instead of put on, etc. Children are offered similar words, and they must insert them into phrases.
Verbs are offered that characterize the voices of animals: moos, neighs, barks, meows, cackles, sings, quacks, cackles, etc. Children must name the corresponding animal for each of them. Or animals are called; children must choose the appropriate verbs - voices.
Compose a sentence with several given words. Exercise recommended by L.N. Tolstoy and what he used in the Yasnaya Polyana school: three or four words are given, for example, dog, old man, get scared. Children must insert them into a sentence. The children's answers take approximately the following form: “The dog barked, the old man was scared”; “The old man swung his stick, the dog got scared and ran away.”
You should ensure that children do not repeat themselves in their examples, and, if possible, diversify and complicate them. L.N. Tolstoy made this exercise even more interesting, turning it into a game.
Let's consider a number of tasks that can be given in the form of lexical exercises (lasting 7-10 minutes) for children of older and preparatory groups for school.
Selection of synonyms for phrases. Children are told phrases, for example: spring is coming, snow is coming, man walking. They draw their attention to how uninteresting it is to listen when the same word is repeated, and offer to replace it. “Spring is coming, how can you say it differently?” By choosing words that are close in meaning (steps, moves, steps), children come to the conclusion that the same word appears in the proposed phrases different meaning.
When performing a task to select synonyms, the child, of course, does not always give the actual synonym that corresponds to dictionary norms, but still selects words that correctly convey the meaning of the phrase. For example, for the phrase: the river runs - children select the following words: flows, floats, noises, seethes, pours, rolls, murmurs, etc. Among these answers, the actual synonym is the word flows, and the rest can be called “equivalent replacements.”
Tasks for composing sentences with individual words (nouns, adjectives, etc.) and with words of a synonymous series (for example, big-huge-huge). These tasks are aimed at developing the ability to use a given word in combination with others, since it is known that this often causes difficulties for children even with a correct understanding of the meaning of the word.
Composing sentences with given words presents a certain difficulty for a child: he must retain the proposed words in memory and be able to connect them correctly in meaning and according to the laws of grammar. However, such exercises are necessary. After all, an indicator that a word is understood and has actually entered the active dictionary is the ability to use it correctly. And the meanings of words are revealed with the greatest completeness and clarity in combination with other words.
IN preschool age the child must master a vocabulary that would allow him to communicate with peers and adults, study successfully at school, understand literature, television and radio programs, etc. Therefore, preschool pedagogy considers the development of vocabulary in children as one of important tasks speech development.
Vocabulary development is understood as Long procces mastery vocabulary accumulated by the people in the course of their history.
Development of children's speech and vocabulary, mastery of wealth native language constitutes one of the main elements of personality formation, development of developed values national culture, is closely related to mental, moral, aesthetic development, is a priority in language education and training of preschoolers.
Church calendar
We measure time beyond a day and within a year by months and days. Ours don't have it at all distant ancestors there was a different calculation - according to church holidays and posts. A simple, illiterate peasant, and even a city dweller, had a poor understanding of dates and months; for them, events took place “on Candlemas”, “on Egoriy”, “on Petrovka”, “on Kazanskaya”, etc., that is, according to memorable days church calendar, which was closely intertwined with ancient, pre-Christian beliefs and signs, which is why we have the right to call it folk.
The popular name of certain dates is widely reflected in classical fiction, placing the modern reader in difficult situation: we have little idea at what time the named event occurs. Here is an indicative excerpt from the poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'”: a simple peasant woman, Matryona Timofeevna, tells seven wandering men about her difficult life, occasionally illuminated by bright memories of childhood, marriage, and motherhood. Her husband works in St. Petersburg as a stove maker.
The couple spent the winter in the village, and then
In winter Philippus came,
Brought a silk handkerchief
Yes, I went for a ride on a sled
On Catherine's day.
Apart from indications of winter, the mentioned holidays tell us nothing. To the peasant listeners, as well as to the readers - Nekrasov's contemporaries, everything was extremely clear. Let us explain: St. Catherine's Day was celebrated on November 24 of the old style (December 7 of the new style), ANNOUNCEMENT - on March 25 (April 7), the autumn feast of the icon of THE KAZAN MOTHER OF GOD - on October 22 (November 4).
Philip at the Annunciation
He left and went to Kazanskaya
I gave birth to a son.
There was not a day in the year that was not marked by the commemoration of one, or more often several, saints or another event in Christian mythology. Therefore, the people managed well without the dates that are familiar to us: the date and month.
The provincial nobility also had little understanding of the official calendar. This is what I.A. writes about his hero’s entourage. Goncharov in the novel “Oblomov”: “They kept track of time by holidays, by seasons, by various family and home occasions, never referring to months or numbers. Perhaps this was partly due to the fact that, in addition to Oblomov himself (meaning the father of little Ilya. - Yu.F.), the others all confused the names of the months and the order of the numbers.”
Old and new style
You have already noticed: the modern dates of the holidays mentioned by Nekrasov’s Matryona Timofeevna are given according to the old and new styles, that is, the calendar. What is their difference?
In the Julian calendar, introduced by the Roman emperor Julius Caesar in 45 AD, the year (that is, the time of the Earth's complete revolution around the Sun) was not calculated quite accurately, with an excess of 11 minutes 14 seconds. For one and a half thousand years, despite the amendment of three days made in the 13th century, this difference amounted to ten days. Therefore, in 1582, Pope Gregory XIII ordered these ten days to be thrown out of the calendar; Gregorian calendar("new style") was introduced in most countries Western Europe, and then America. However, Russia did not agree with the amendment made by the head catholic church, and continued to adhere to the Julian calendar. A new style in Russia, the Soviet government introduced it in February 1918, when the difference in calendars had already reached 13 days. Thus, the country's chronology was added to the pan-European and American calendar. Russian Orthodox Church did not recognize the reforms and still continues to live by Julian calendar.
So, the difference between the calendars in XX and XXI centuries is 13 days, in the 19th century it was 12 days, in the 18th century it was 11. From March 1, 2100, the difference between the old and new styles will reach 14 days.
When reading old Russian literature, the difference between what is officially accepted in Russia Gregorian calendar and the old, Julian, it is useful to take into account. Otherwise, we will not accurately perceive the time when the events described by our classics occur. Here are examples.
Today, often when people hear the sound of thunder in the first days of May, they quote the beginning famous poem F.I. Tyutchev " Spring thunderstorm»: "I love the storm in early May…" At the same time, few people think that the poem was written in the 19th century, when May in Russia began on May 13 according to the current calendar (a 12-day difference) and thunderstorms in the central part of the country were not at all uncommon. Therefore, Tyutchev, describing the first thunderstorm at the beginning (or, in our opinion, in the middle) of May, is not at all surprised by it, but only rejoices.
In the story by I.S. Turgenev “Knocking!” we read: “...it was the tenth of July and the heat was terrible...” Now it is clear to us that today we are talking about the twentieth of July. Another of Turgenev’s works, the novel “Fathers and Sons,” says: "We have arrived better days in the year - the first days of June." By adding 12 days, the reader will easily understand which time of the year according to the modern calendar Turgenev considered the best.
In the further presentation of the dates of the old and new styles, we will give them as a fraction.
Holidays and fasts
Total main Christian holidays there are twelve in a year, in Church Slavonic - twelve or twelve. Hence each of them was called Twelve (twelve).
The twelve holidays include: Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem, or Palm Sunday, Ascension, Trinity (transitionable); Baptism (Epiphany), Presentation, Annunciation, Transfiguration, Dormition, Nativity of the Virgin Mary, Exaltation, Introduction and Nativity of Christ (non-transitionable). Main Orthodox holiday- Easter of Christ stands apart, it is not included in the number of twelve holidays.
In Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus',” the landowner Obolt-Obolduev recalls with emotion his rich and free life under serfdom:
Indeed, not every landowner could afford to organize an expensive, multi-hour service in his house - an ALL-NIGHT VIRGIN, which lasted from the evening until midnight, or even later.
Before every revered
Twelfth holiday
In my front rooms
The priest served the all-night vigil.
Let us explain (in calendar order) the main holidays and fasts that were widely celebrated and observed in pre-revolutionary Russia and reflected in Russian classical literature.
The main multi-day winter holiday was HOLY TIMES, which lasted from the Nativity of Christ (December 25/January 7) to Epiphany (January 6/19). This time was a short respite from rural work, a short period of relative prosperity in most families and was accompanied by massive public entertainment. “Christmas time has come! What a joy!- Pushkin wrote in “Eugene Onegin”.
For the ancient pagan Slavs, it was a time of cleansing from filth, days of cleaning and washing, and then festive feasts with sacrifices to the gods.
On the eve of CHRISTMAS, that is, the birthday of Jesus Christ, on CHRISTMAS EVE, young people walked the streets, sang special songs - CAROLS, danced in front of the huts, begging the owners for treats and small money. This custom is colorfully described in Gogol’s story “The Night Before Christmas.”
At Christmas time, young people dressed in the skins of various animals and put on masks, posing as ridiculous monsters and freaks. The visiting of mummers from house to house is shown in the comedy “Poverty is not a Vice” by A.N. Ostrovsky. Yuletide fun with mummers on the estate of the Rostovs and then the Melyukovs was colorfully depicted by L. Tolstoy in “War and Peace” (Vol. 2. Part 4. Chapter X).
The holiday of BAPTISM, or THEOPHANY, commemorates the rite of baptism of Jesus Christ, that is, his immersion in the sacred Jordan River; at the same time, according to the Gospel of Matthew, the Spirit of God appeared to Jesus in the form of a dove - hence the Epiphany.
At Epiphany, the girls gathered separately from the boys to guess about the future, first of all about the betrothed - the still unknown groom. There was a whole ritual here, largely inherited from ancient times, various magical actions with clues to one or another sign: “windy youth guesses”(Pushkin). For example, the first passerby was asked his name - that was exactly what the future groom should be called. These naive and touching Epiphany fortune-telling, which the “Russian soul” Tatyana was also keen on, are described in the fifth chapter of “Eugene Onegin”.
Even more variety Epiphany fortune telling listed in the romantic ballad V.A. Zhukovsky “Svetlana”, the first stanza of which is widely known: “Once on Epiphany evening / The girls wondered...”
Epiphany is usually associated with severe cold, popularly nicknamed “Epiphany frost.” Having met the former district young lady a few years later at a capital ball as an important lady, the wife of a general, Onegin remarks: “Ugh! how she is now surrounded / by Epiphany cold!”
In the old days, they celebrated not a person’s birthday, but his NAME Day, that is, a day dedicated to the saint whose name he was christened. Thus, the climactic scene of the novel “Eugene Onegin” takes place on the heroine’s name day - TATYAN’S DAY, January 12 according to the old style, January 25 according to the new style. The next morning, Onegin and Lensky meet in a fatal duel.
The most joyful holiday early spring There was Maslenitsa, which lasted a whole week.
The origins of Maslenitsa are in ancient times. For the pagans, this was the time of saying goodbye to winter and welcoming spring. It is impossible to time Maslenitsa to a specific time; it changes every year. Why? Pancake Week is associated with the main Orthodox holiday of EASTER, which does not have a fixed date. This is a mobile holiday, it depends not only on the position of the Sun, but also on the location of the Moon. Easter is certainly celebrated on Sunday, the first after spring equinox and full moon. Therefore, the date of Easter annually wanders within 35 days - from March 22 to April 25 according to the old style (April 5 - May 8 according to the new style).
Maslenitsa begins eight weeks before Easter, that is, in February - March of the new style. During this week it was forbidden to eat meat, but the rest of the food was allowed to be eaten as much as possible, since Maslenitsa fun was immediately followed by a long and strict Lent, which lasted almost seven weeks. “It’s not all Maslenitsa, Lent will come,” warns the proverb, the first part of which Ostrovsky took as the title of one of his comedies. WIDE, that is, the most riotous, Maslenitsa is the last four days of Maslenitsa week, from Thursday to Sunday.
The last day of Maslenitsa week is called FORGIVEN SUNDAY or FORGIVEN DAY. On this day - the eve of Lent - household members bowed to each other, mutually asking to forgive all insults and grief inflicted voluntarily or unwittingly.
“In our house, late in the evening, everyone suddenly became meek, humbly bowed to each other, asking each other for forgiveness.”, writes I.A. Bunin in the autobiographical novel “The Life of Arsenyev.”
On Forgiveness Sunday, a completely pagan ritual was sometimes performed - seeing off Maslenitsa and burning it itself in the form of a straw effigy dressed in women's dress which was accompanied by songs and dances. This ritual is shown in the fairy tale play “The Snow Maiden” by A. Ostrovsky and in the opera of the same name by N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov.
The next day came PURE MONDAY - the beginning of Lent. Bunin has a story " Clean Monday", the main event of which takes place on this very day.
It should be noted that in church calendar many weeks have their own names. So, Maslenitsa is called MEAT-FAST WEEK (empty of meat), the week before it is MOTIFIED (it alternates fast and non-fast days), the week before is CONTINUOUS (all days), etc.
In Ostrovsky’s comedy “Sin and Misfortune Doesn’t Live on Anyone,” Zhmigulina, an “older girl,” says to the young landowner Babaev: “I remember very well: it’s been three years since Motley Week since you left.” Motley Week is an unremarkable February or March time, not a holiday at all; Zhmigulina’s memorability reveals her undying interest in the young man.
Before moving on to Lent, we should talk about fasting in general.
Every fast imposes many difficult demands on the believer: frequent prayers, abstinence from various types food, complete renunciation of worldly hobbies and carnal pleasures - in a word, renunciation of all the joys of life. In total there are four multi-day fasts in the year and three one-day fasts - on minor holidays, not counting two fast days per week - Wednesdays and Fridays. The total number of fasting days in a year is 178-199.
GREAT LENT on the eve of Easter is the most important and strict of all. He was distinguished by particularly severe fasting, that is, abstinence from FAST foods - meat and dairy foods. Eating was sometimes limited to the extreme. “At home, on the occasion of fasting, we didn’t cook anything or put on a samovar.”, says Chekhov’s story “Murder.” Theater and circus performances, all kinds of public entertainment were completely prohibited.
As with other fasts, marriages were not allowed. “Now it’s Lent and they won’t do weddings”, says Alyosha in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Humiliated and Insulted".
the last week Great Lent, before Easter, is called PASSIONATE, in memory of the passion, that is, the suffering of Jesus Christ crucified on the cross. Each day of this week, filled with frequent services and especially strict fasting, was called PASSIONATE or GREAT.
In the Lyceum poem “Town” Pushkin wrote:
This same Thursday, that is, Thursday, was sometimes called PURE.
I didn't know peace
Alas! not for an hour
As if from a leash
On Maundy Thursday
Exhausted sexton.
“All this happened on Good Friday.”, - wrote Dostoevsky in “The Humiliated and Insulted.” It's about about the last Friday before Easter.
God-fearing mother Aduev, accompanying her son to service in St. Petersburg (“ An ordinary story" Goncharova), edifies the young man: “Keep your fasts, my friend: this is a great thing! On Wednesday and Friday - God will forgive, and on Lent - God will protect. Mikhailo Mikhailych is considered an intelligent person, but what’s wrong with him? What a meat eater, what Holy Week- he still eats. It even makes your hair stand on end!”
Easter night with matins is repeatedly reflected in fiction. Most strong description- in L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “Resurrection”, when this celebration is colored by Nekhlyudov’s strong and deep feeling for Katyusha.
The main Orthodox holiday of the year is EASTER, or BRIGHT RESURRECTION OF CHRIST. It was taken by Christians from the Jews, who established it in memory of the deliverance of the Jewish people from Egyptian slavery. For Christians, the holiday took on a completely different meaning. It celebrates the miraculous resurrection of Jesus Christ after his execution and removal from the cross.
The Easter holiday itself was often called by the people HOLY WEEK or simply HOLY. The word "week" here should be understood in outdated meaning- Sunday; week - from not doing, not working. Subsequently, this word began to mean the entire seven-day period, or week in Church Slavonic, and the non-working day was called Sunday - in honor of the Resurrection of Christ.
In the epilogue of Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” it is said that Raskolnikov “I spent the entire end of Lent and Holy Week in the hospital”, that is, Easter holiday.
Arriving home from church, believers break their fast, celebrate the holiday and the end of Lent with abundant and delicious food and drinking. These festive feasts are vividly described in humorous stories young Chekhov.
The week after Easter is called LIGHT.
Bright Week is followed by FOMIN'S MONDAY and FOMIN'S WEEK, or, popularly, RED HILL - the time of long-awaited weddings, prohibited during Lent. Therefore, weddings on Fomina week were especially numerous.
The maid Tanya in L. Tolstoy’s comedy “The Fruits of Enlightenment” asks the bar to let her go to the village, since she and her fiancé Semyon “things are now settled... And there’s a wedding on Krasnaya Gorka”.
In the story by A.I. Kuprin “Bonza” we read: “...her fiancé, a naval officer, was visiting Moscow in anticipation of Fomina’s week, when the wedding day was set.”.
In L. Tolstoy's story “The Devil”: “Eugene got married on Krasnaya Gorka in the city and immediately left for the village with his young wife.”.
In Chekhov's story “My Life,” Mikhail and Masha got married "shortly after St. Thomas' week."
No matter how the time of Easter and Red Hill fluctuates due to the lunar cycle, it is always spring. It is no coincidence that Anna Karenina says: “...on the second holy day, a warm wind blew... and right up to Red Hill... real spring opened up.”
Without exaggeration, we can say that the presented book by Yu.A. Fedosyuk (1920-1993) is a unique phenomenon. Over the course of decades of ascetic research, the author has collected colossal material that reflects the material and spiritual culture of the Russian people in words that are forgotten or incomprehensible to the modern reader. Examples taken from widely famous works Russian classic writers, cover the literature of the 18th-20th centuries.
The book is addressed to schoolchildren, students, teachers, and everyone who loves Russian literature and strives to educate themselves more deeply.
Yuri Fedosyuk
What is unclear from the classics, or Encyclopedia of Russian life of the 19th century
A few words about this book
The story of this book is not entirely ordinary. It began back in 1959 with a letter that 39-year-old philologist and journalist Yuri Fedosyuk wrote to the editors of the journal Voprosy Literatury. "Hundreds of expressions found in the works of Russian classics and reflecting social relations and everyday features of pre-revolutionary Russia are becoming available to an ever wider circle modern readers“a stumbling block” - either completely incomprehensible or misunderstood “...” - this letter said. - To me, who is only familiar with metric system, it is unclear whether the landowner who owns two hundred dessiatines of land is rich or poor, whether the merchant who drank “half a glass” of vodka is very drunk, whether the official who gives a tip “blue”, “red” or “semitic” is generous. Which of the heroes is higher in position when one is titled “Your Honor,” the second is called “Your Excellency,” and the third is called “Your Excellency”? Certain events of this or that novel take place on “Assumption Day” or “on Fomina Week,” but if a description of nature is not given here, I do not understand either the time of year or the chronology of events." Concluding the letter, Yu. Fedosyuk called on scientists - philologists and historians to begin work on a special reference book on the history of Russian life, which would help a wide range of readers, and above all literature teachers, students and schoolchildren, “to more deeply comprehend the works of the classics, reviving many lines that have become dull due to the fact that the concepts contained in them have been handed over to archive of our era."
The letter was received sympathetically by specialists: the journal Voprosy Literatury published it in No. 6 of 1959 under the title “Such a manual is necessary,” but the call to scientists it contained did not seem to have been heeded by them. Years passed, and, according to Yu. Fedosyuk, it was extremely necessary for all readers of Russian classical literature the benefit did not appear. And then, after a quarter of a more than a century after his publication in "Questions of Literature", Yuri Aleksandrovich Fedosyuk, by that time already well known among philologists and historians for his books on the etymology of Russian surnames (What does your surname mean? - M., 1969; Russian surnames: Popular etymological dictionary. - M ., 1972; republished in 1981 and 1996) and on the history of Moscow (Boulevard Ring. - M., 1972; Rays from the Kremlin. - M., 1978; Moscow in the Garden Ring. - M., 1982; republished in 1991 g., etc.), decides to implement his old idea himself.
In 1989, work on the new book was completed, but its fate, unfortunately, unexpectedly turned out to be very difficult. The manuscript was transferred to one reputable state publishing house, which, first due to financial difficulties, and then, alas, due to the dishonesty and incompetence of the employee responsible for publishing the book, was never able to publish it. Meanwhile, the agreement concluded with the publishing house, as well as numerous assurances that the book was about to be released, for a long time did not give the opportunity, first to the author himself (he died in 1993, without waiting for the book’s release), and then to his the heirs try to publish it elsewhere.
In the years since the book was written, interest in national history and culture in Russia has grown noticeably, and the ideological barriers that once prevented authors and publishing houses from satisfying this interest of readers have disappeared. Books such as “Conversations about Russian Culture” by Yu. M. Lotman (St. Petersburg, 1994), “Costume in Russian artistic culture 18 - first half of the 20th centuries." R. M. Kirsanova (M., 1995), "Dictionary of rare and forgotten words"V. P. Somova (M., 1996), dictionary-reference book "Rare words in works authors XIX century" edited by R. P. Rogozhnikova (M., 1997), etc. However, the book you are now holding in your hands does not coincide in form and content with any of them. In front of you at the same time fascinating story about how our ancestors lived in the old days, which the author provided with numerous examples from well-known works of Russian classical literature, and an extremely necessary historical commentary on these works, thanks to which the reader will be able to understand their content much more deeply.
Concluding this little introduction, I would like to express my gratitude to Marina Ivanovna Labzina and Tatyana Mikhailovna Tumurova for their work in editing the book during the first, unfortunately, unsuccessful attempt to publish it. I am deeply grateful to the Flint publishing house, which, having received the manuscript from me, kindly agreed to promptly publish my father’s book, which had been waiting for its reader for so long. In addition, I consider it my pleasant duty to sincerely thank Sergei Ivanovich Kormilov, Eric Iosifovich Khan-Pira, Igor Georgievich Dobrodomov, Lev Iosifovich Sobolev and Gennady Yuryevich Skvortsov: having carefully familiarized themselves with the first editions of this book, they expressed their comments, which made it possible to include them in the text whole line clarifications and corrections.
M.Yu. Fedosyuk
Instead of a preface
Plunging into the rich and diverse world of Russian classical literature, a young man, often unnoticed by himself, encounters difficulties. Its pages, like a time machine, take us to ancient times, when social order, both life and the people themselves were noticeably different from today. Therefore, the works of the classics are not perceived by us as easily and simply as by the author’s contemporaries - those readers for whom they were written. It is difficult to understand both the features of the era being described, its laws and signs, and individual words and concepts that have disappeared from everyday life or have changed their meaning.
Russian literature and national history are sisters. In our minds they go hand in hand. The reader will not be able to fully understand" Dead Souls"N.V. Gogol or Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, having no idea about the time of their action, knowing nothing about serfdom or the post-reform era. Therefore, without knowledge of Russian history it is difficult to understand Russian literature, but knowledge of literature makes it easier to understand history, bringing it to life with images, dialogues and colors.
Comprehension of a work is impossible without words turning in our minds into a visual image or an abstract concept. Here Eugene Onegin hurries to his dying uncle, “flying in the dust on postal mail.” And what does the line mean: “…Riding headlong through the mail…”? (Is it possible to “jump by mail” these days?) What kind of manager informed the hero that “his uncle was dying in his bed”? What does your uncle's estate look like, the damask wallpaper in his living room? Finally - and this is especially important - what do the words “...He replaced the ancient corvée with a yoke / With an easy quitrent ...”? In short: every stanza contains riddles, large and small, and yet very significant for understanding the meaning of the story, the time of action, and the psychology of the characters.
It is from these details that a unique picture is formed that allows us to enjoy a work of art, clearly see and understand the action.
Yes, people have always been people, they were friends and enemies, worked and had fun, gave in or fought, defending their life ideals- without these common features with us, there would be no need to read and reread works about the distant past. But here historical conditions, the whole environment of their life was very different from modern ones.
Now it is clear to the reader why this book was written. In order to facilitate the perception of Russian classical literature, removing the haze of time that has slightly obscured it, making it difficult to understand. Who is this book written for? For those entering life young man, whose growing interest in native literature, as with Russian history, is natural and logical, especially in our time.
The story of this book is not entirely ordinary. It began back in 1959 with a letter that 39-year-old philologist and journalist Yuri Fedosyuk wrote to the editors of the journal Voprosy Literatury. “Hundreds of expressions found in the works of Russian classics and reflecting social relations and everyday features of pre-revolutionary Russia are becoming a “stumbling block” for an increasingly wider circle of modern readers - either completely incomprehensible or misunderstood “...” - this letter said. “To me, who is only familiar with the metric system, it is unclear whether a landowner who owns two hundred dessiatines of land is rich or poor, whether a merchant who drinks “half a glass” of vodka is very drunk, whether an official who gives a “blue”, “red” or “Semitic” tip is generous. . Which of the heroes is higher in position when one is called “your honor,” the second is called “your excellency,” and the third is called “your excellency”? Certain events of this or that novel take place on “Assumption Day” or “Fomina Week,” but if there is no description of nature, I do not understand either the time of year or the chronology of events.” Concluding the letter, Yu. Fedosyuk called on scientists - philologists and historians to begin work on a special reference book on the history of Russian life, which would help a wide range of readers, and above all literature teachers, students and schoolchildren, “to comprehend the works of the classics more deeply, reviving many lines that have faded due to the fact that the concepts they contain have been archived by our era.”
The letter was received sympathetically by specialists: the journal Voprosy Literatury published it in No. 6 of 1959 under the title “Such a manual is necessary,” but the call to scientists it contained did not seem to have been heeded by them. Years passed, and, according to Yu. Fedosyuk, the extremely necessary manual for all readers of Russian classical literature did not appear. And then, more than a quarter of a century after his publication in “Questions of Literature,” Yuri Aleksandrovich Fedosyuk, by that time already well known among philologists and historians for his books on the etymology of Russian surnames (What does your surname mean? - M., 1969; Russian surnames: Popular etymological dictionary. - M., 1972; republished in 1981 and 1996) and on the history of Moscow (Boulevard Ring. - M., 1972; Rays from the Kremlin. - M., 1978; Moscow in the Garden Ring. - M., 1982; republished in 1991, etc.), decides to realize his old idea himself.
In 1989, work on the new book was completed, but its fate, unfortunately, unexpectedly turned out to be very difficult. The manuscript was transferred to one reputable state publishing house, which, first due to financial difficulties, and then, alas, due to the dishonesty and incompetence of the employee responsible for publishing the book, was never able to publish it. Meanwhile, the agreement concluded with the publishing house, as well as numerous assurances that the book was about to be released, for a long time did not give the opportunity, first to the author himself (he died in 1993, without waiting for the book’s release), and then to his the heirs try to publish it elsewhere.
Over the years since the book was written, interest in Russian history and culture in Russia has grown noticeably, and the ideological barriers that once prevented authors and publishing houses from satisfying this interest of readers have disappeared. Books such as “Conversations about Russian Culture” by Yu. M. Lotman (St. Petersburg, 1994), “Costume in Russian artistic culture of the 18th - first half of the 20th centuries” were published. R. M. Kirsanova (M., 1995), “Dictionary of rare and forgotten words” by V. P. Somov (M., 1996), dictionary-reference book “Rare words in the works of authors of the 19th century” edited by R. P. Rogozhnikova (M., 1997), etc. However, the book you are now holding in your hands does not coincide in form and content with any of them. Here is both a fascinating story about how our ancestors lived in the old days, which the author has provided with numerous examples from well-known works of Russian classical literature, and an extremely necessary historical commentary on these works, thanks to which the reader will be able to understand their content much more deeply.
Concluding this short introductory word, I would like to express my gratitude to Marina Ivanovna Labzina and Tatyana Mikhailovna Tumurova for their work in editing the book during the first, unfortunately unsuccessful attempt to publish it. I am deeply grateful to the Flint publishing house, which, having received the manuscript from me, kindly agreed to promptly publish my father’s book, which had been waiting for its reader for so long. In addition, I consider it my pleasant duty to sincerely thank Sergei Ivanovich Kormilov, Eric Iosifovich Khan-Pira, Igor Georgievich Dobrodomov, Lev Iosifovich Sobolev and Gennady Yuryevich Skvortsov: having carefully familiarized themselves with the first editions of this book, they expressed their comments, which made it possible to include them in the text a number of clarifications and corrections.
M.Yu. Fedosyuk
Instead of a preface
Plunging into the rich and diverse world of Russian classical literature, a young man, often unnoticed by himself, encounters difficulties. Its pages, like a time machine, take us to ancient times, when the social structure, way of life, and the people themselves were noticeably different from today. Therefore, the works of the classics are not perceived by us as easily and simply as by the author’s contemporaries - those readers for whom they were written. It is difficult to understand both the features of the era being described, its laws and signs, and individual words and concepts that have disappeared from everyday life or have changed their meaning.
Russian literature and national history are sisters. In our minds they go hand in hand. The reader will not be able to fully understand “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol or “Anna Karenina” by Leo Tolstoy, having no idea about the time of their action, knowing nothing about serfdom or the post-reform era. Therefore, without knowledge of Russian history it is difficult to understand Russian literature, but knowledge of literature makes it easier to understand history, enlivening it with images, dialogues and colors.
Comprehension of a work is impossible without words turning in our minds into a visual image or an abstract concept. Here Eugene Onegin hurries to his dying uncle, “flying in the dust on a post office.” What does the line mean: “...Riding headlong through the mail...”? (Is it possible to “jump by mail” these days?) What kind of manager informed the hero that “his uncle was dying in his bed”? What does your uncle's estate look like, the damask wallpaper in his living room? Finally - and this is especially important - what do the words “...He replaced the ancient corvee with a yoke / With an easy quitrent ...”? In short: every stanza contains riddles, large and small, and yet very significant for understanding the meaning of the story, the time of action, and the psychology of the characters.
From these details a unique picture is formed that allows us to enjoy a work of art, clearly see and understand the action.
Yes, people have always been people, they were friends and enemies, worked and had fun, gave in or fought, defending their life ideals - without these common traits with us, there would be no need to read and re-read works about the distant past. But the historical conditions, the whole environment of their life, differed in many respects from modern ones.
Now it is clear to the reader why this book was written. In order to facilitate the perception of Russian classical literature, removing the haze of time that has slightly obscured it, making it difficult to understand. Who is this book written for? For a young man entering life, whose growing interest in his native literature, as well as in Russian history, is natural and logical, especially in our time.
The book is divided into thematic chapters, which will allow you to obtain information about certain facts of the past not in fragments, but in their historical totality, interconnectedly. Thus, it can serve not only as a textbook on literature, but also as a simple reference book on the history of social relations and life in Russia from late XVIII century to the beginning of the 20th century. At the same time, it relies almost entirely on the material of Russian classical literature.
