Multiplication tables and metric system of measures to print. Measures of length in ancient Rus'

Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.
The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” meant the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other major measures determining lengths, distances(fathom, verst). The root “AR” in the word a r sh i n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring ones) means “EARTH”, “surface of the earth”, and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult (“small fathoms”; one-two – one, one-two – two, one-two – three...), or in threes (“official fathoms”; one-two-three – one , one-two-three - two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length the basic value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - “quarter arshin”, “quarter”, “chet”), from which, by eye, it was easy to get smaller shares - two vershok (1/2 span) or vershok (1/4 span).

Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring ‘from the shoulder’. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “government arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

STEP- average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.
SPAN(pyatnitsa) - an ancient Russian measure of length. SMALL SPAND (they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
BIG SPAN- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
FUCKING FLIP(“span with somersault”, according to Dahl - ‘span with somersault’) - span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
“Verstoy” was also called a milestone on the road.

The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.

Mezhevaya Versta- Old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. the “travel” mileage remains, equal to 500 fathoms.

SAZHEN- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Fly fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathoms” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has oblique fathoms in his shoulders” (in the meaning - hero, giant)
This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as one could reach with one’s hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured ... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds”, which were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.

Makhovaya fathom- the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of arms outstretched to the sides is 1.76 m.
OBLIQUE FATHOUS(originally “splait”) - 2.48 m.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

Elbow is a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, and linen, the elbow was the main measure. In large wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., were supplied in the form of large pieces - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific, well-defined meaning)

PALM= 1/6 cubit (six-palmed cubit)
VERSHOK equaled 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name “Vershok” comes from the word “top”. In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:
1 - combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans”
2 - combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks”
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"

For small domestic animals they used - “height *** inches”

For trees - “height *** arshins”

Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers
1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters
Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.
1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)
1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)
1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

1 quarter (span, small pip, pyadnitsa, pyada, pyaden, pyadyka) = 4 vershka = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)
The name p i d comes from the Old Russian word “metacarpus”, i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, “span” was replaced by “quarter arshin”)
Synonym for “quarter” is “chet”

Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.

A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.

1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
- an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).

1 finger ~ 2 cm.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
The name comes from Dutch - “thumb”. Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.

1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.)
The line is the width of a wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.

1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm

1 point = 0.2540 millimeters

1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
(from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))
1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km
1 English mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 91.44 centimeters

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the “Description Books” of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershoks (10.5 vershoks) ... Large cast-iron arcal, iron Lion , with belts, length three arshins, three quarters and a half inch.” The ancient Russian measure “elbow” continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equivalent to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure of length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed due to agreement with a quarter of the arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use. The span was replaced by a quarter arshin.

From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used.

The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

Volume measures

Bucket

The basic Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is a bucket = 1/40 of a barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 l - according to other sources, rarely) V. - iron, wooden or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on the rocker should be in a “woman’s lift.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups. The oldest “international” measure of volume is “handful”.

Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs; in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and a mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel

The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine in small quantities. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l)

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:
oak - for beer and vegetable oils
spruce - under water
linden - for milk and honey

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the 15th century The ancient measures were still common - golvazhnya, lukno and harvesting. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobya and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk).

Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.

Wine measures

The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber.”

Bucket– Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters

Quarter = 3 liters (it used to be a narrow neck glass bottle)

The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a shtof = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (the half-liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the count was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The production of glass vessels also dates back to this time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists.

Overseas, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - in different countries this ranges from 0.63 to 0.76 liters

A flat bottle is called a flask.

Shtof (from German Stof) = 1/10 of a bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Mug (the word means ‘for drinking in a circle’) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.

Modern faceted glass was previously called “doskan” (“planed boards”), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.
Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.
Shkalik (popular name - ‘kosushka’, from the word ‘mow’, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.
Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.

Endova
Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Leather bag(skin) – up to 60 l

Korchaga- 12 l
Nozzle- 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century)
Ladle
Zhban
Tub– vessel height – 30-35 centimeters, diameter – 40 centimeters, volume – 2 buckets or 22-25 liters
Krynki
Sudenci, misa
Tuesa
Box- from solid pieces of bast, sewn together with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers
Balakir- a dugout wooden vessel, 1/4-1/5 in volume, buckets.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pans, lids, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, containers, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 buckets (about 3-5 l). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia.

Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In Old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Ancient volume measures:

1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters
1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters=
1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm
1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)
1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm
1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm
1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:

flipper- 12 quarters
quarter(chet) – 1/4 part of kadi
octopus(eighth - eighth part)

Kad(tub, shackle) = 20 buckets or more
Big tub - bigger tub

Tsybik- box (of tea) = 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).
Details: Tea was compacted tightly into wooden boxes, “tsibiki” - leather-covered frames in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesta (‘Place’ is a possible option).

half an octagon
quadruple

Liquid measures (“wine measures”):

barrel(40 buckets)
boiler(from half a bucket to 20 buckets)
bucket
half a bucket
quarter bucket
osmuha (1/8)
crush(1/16 bucket)

Measures of volume of liquid and granular bodies:

1 quarter= 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 l
1 quadruple(“measure”) = 2.624 deciliters = 26.24 l
1 garnets= 3.280 liters

Weights

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:
Berkovets = 10 poods
pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
spool = 4.27 g
fraction = 0.044 g
…

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word “hryvnia” was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

GOLDEN equaled 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

LB(from the Latin word ‘pondus’ - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: “not a pound of raisins”, “find out how much a pound of raisins is”.
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.

Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound)

LOT- an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE– the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD equaled 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup).

The pud as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in the 18th century:

Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century) are highlighted

Area measures

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then, in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Surface area measures:

1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers
1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares
1 kopn = 0.1 tithe
1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters
1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters
1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm
1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m
1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter
1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeters

Units of measurement in Rus' in the 18th century

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 units of measures of different sizes used in different countries. The variety of measures made trading operations difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, uniform systems of measures were defined for the entire country. In the 18th century In connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, the question of measurement accuracy and the creation of standards on the basis of which verification work (“metrology”) could be organized in Russia arose.

The question of choosing standards from the many existing ones (both domestic and overseas) turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon arrival, and then reweighed repeatedly at the mints; At the same time, the weight turned out to be different.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. There was an opinion that, more precisely, the scales at the St. Petersburg customs office. It was decided to make model scales from the customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.

A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as an example of a measure of length when determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. Using this half-arshin measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.

The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.

In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, and developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the Russian monetary account system was built on the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units of measurement using measures of length. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-piece was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”

According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736–1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce arshins “in the entire Russian state.” In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797 on the “Establishment of correct scales, drinking and grain measures throughout the Russian Empire,” a lot of work began on streamlining measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshins - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It’s interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). It was ordered to introduce state-branded yardsticks priced at 1 silver ruble in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of old yardstick templates.

Stage
Stage [Greek. stadion - stages (measure of length)] - this ancient measure of distances is more than two thousand years old (from it - Stadium in other Greece; Greek stadion - place for competitions). The size of the stage is about two hundred meters. “...directly opposite the city lay the island of Pharos, on the northern tip of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (7 stages)” (F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Ancient measures in modern language

In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings

Sayings:
“You write in big letters” - large
“Kolomenskaya Versta” is a humorous name for a very tall person.
“Oblique fathom in the shoulders” - broad-shouldered

in poetry:
You can’t understand Russia with your mind, you can’t measure it with a common (official) yardstick. Tyutchev

Dictionary
Currency units

Quarter = 25 rubles
Ruble = 2 half
Tselkovy - the colloquial name for the metal ruble
Poltina = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Five-altyn = 15 kopecks
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half a coin) = 1 kopeck.
Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

Foreign names:
Pint is an old French measure of liquids, about 0.9 liters; in England and the USA - a measure of the volume of liquids and bread, approximately 0.57 l
Eighth of a pound = 1/8 pound
Gallon English - 4.546 l
Barrel - 159 l
Carat - 0.2 g, weight of wheat grain
Ounce - 28.35 g
English pound - 0.45359 kg
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 small handweight = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg.
Yard -91.44 cm.
Nautical mile - 1852 m
1 cable - tenth of a mile
Rhumb - 11 1/4° = 1/32 fraction of a circle - unit of angular measure
Sea knot (speed) = 1 mph

Ancient Russian quantities:
Quarter - quarter, quarter
‘a quarter of wine’ = a fourth of a bucket.
‘four quarter grains’ = 1/4 cadi
kad - an old Russian measure of bulk solids (usually four pounds)
Osmina, osmukha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called osmushka (“osmushka tea”).
‘a quarter to eight’ – time = 7:45 am or pm
Five - five units of weight or length
A ream is a measure of paper, formerly equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
‘one hundred and eighty osmago November day osmago’ – 188 November eighth
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half a point = 4.5
Half elevenths = 10.5
Half a hundred - two hundred and fifty
Field - ‘arena, lists’ (115 steps - a variant of magnitude), later - the first name and synonym for ‘verst’ (field - million - mile), Dahl has a variant meaning of this word: “daily march, about 20 versts”
“Printed fathom” - official (standard, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
A cut is an amount of material in a single piece of fabric sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)
“No estimate” - no number
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match

Additional reading:
New domestic research

29.01.2017

In order to obtain objective information about an object or phenomenon, its properties and parameters, we need to describe it: measure, count, disassemble it into its component elements and reassemble it into a whole. All this, of course, concerns external characteristics and does not reveal the essence of things, which is known in a completely different way.

In everyday life, we constantly use measuring instruments such as watches, electric meters, scales, thermometer, ruler and many others. To measure a quantity means to find out how many times it contains another quantity of the same kind, taken as a unit of measurement.

Today, 95% of the world's population uses the metric system of measurements, but this was not always the case.

Reference

The international decimal system of measurements, which is based on the use of units such as the kilogram and meter, is called Metric. Currently, the Metric system of measures is used in most countries of the world. There are, however, several large states that still use the English system of measures based on units such as pounds, feet and seconds. These include the UK, USA and Canada. However, these countries have also already adopted several legislative measures aimed at moving to the Metric system.

In Rus', the Russian system of measures was traditionally used, the main measuring element of which was the person. On the one hand, this is very convenient in everyday business affairs (the measuring device is always with you), on the other hand, it caused difficulties in trade transactions, when collecting taxes and in the development of industry (after all, such measuring units are different for different people).

In Russia, in different places, almost all measures had different meanings, so detailed tables of measures were placed in arithmetic textbooks before the revolution. In one common pre-revolutionary reference book one could find up to 100 different feet, 46 different miles, 120 different pounds, etc. After all, people’s steps are different, their foot lengths are not the same, and everyone’s toes are different widths...

Therefore, there was a need to look for new unified units of measurement in the surrounding nature.

So our original system was replaced by the metric system of measures, which originated in France in the mid-18th century. It was approved for use in Russia (optional) according to the law of June 4, 1899. The use of the metric system of measures in the RSFSR became mandatory by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR dated September 14, 1918, and in the USSR by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 21, 1925.

So, modern units of measurement:

Weights

• 1 ton (t) = 1000 kilograms (kg)
• 1 quintal (c) = 100 kilograms (kg)
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
• 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)

Length measures

• 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
• 1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm) = 100 centimeters (cm)
• 1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters (cm)
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)

Area measures

• 1 sq. kilometer (km2) = 1,000,000 sq. meters (m2)
• 1 sq. meter (m2) = 100 sq. decimeters (dm2) = 10,000 sq. centimeters (cm2)
• 1 hectare (ha) = 100 aram (a) = 10,000 sq. meters (m2)
• 1 ar (a) = 100 sq. meters (m2)

Volume measures

• 1 cu. meter (m3) = 1000 cubic meters decimeters (dm3) = 1,000,000 cubic meters. centimeters (cm3)
• 1 cu. decimeter (dm3) = 1000 cubic meters centimeters (cm3)
• 1 liter (l) = 1 cu. decimeter (dm3)
• 1 hectoliter (hl) = 100 liters (l)

Ancient Russian measures

Since ancient times, the measure of length and weight has always been a person: how far he can stretch his arm, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc. The system of ancient Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

Proverbs and sayings using ancient measures of length and their translations into modern units of measurement:

1. An arshin and a caftan, and two for patches - 0.71 m and a caftan, and 1.42 m for patches.

2. A beard is the size of an inch, and words are the size of a bag - a beard is 44 cm, and words are the size of a bag.

3. He lies seven miles to heaven, and all through forest - he lies 7,469 km to heaven, and all through forest.

4. For seven miles they were looking for a mosquito, but the mosquito was on the nose - 7.469 km away they were looking for the mosquito, and the mosquito was on the nose.

5. He sees three arshins into the ground - he sees 2.13 m into the ground.

6. A hunter walks seven miles away to sip jelly - a hunter walks 7.469 km away to sip jelly.

7. You are a span from the truth, and she is a fathom from you - You are 19 cm from the truth, and she is 2.13 m from you.

8. Stretch a mile, but don’t be easy - stretch 1.067 km, but don’t be easy.

9. You can light a pound candle for this, but you can light a 16.4 kg candle for this.

10. A grain saves a pound - a grain of 16.4 kg protects

11. Two inches (or half an inch) from the pot, and already a pointer - 0.888 m (or 0.222 m) from the pot, and already a pointer.

12. Her Saturday went up two inches after Friday - her Saturday went up 0.888 m after Friday.

13. If you don’t give in an inch, you don’t give in 27 cm.

14. If you give in a span, you lose a fathom - you give in 27 cm, you lose 2.13 m.

15. Seven spans in the forehead - 189 cm in the forehead.

16. He is as tall as a fingernail, and his beard is as long as his elbow. He is as tall as his elbow, and his beard is 38-46 cm.

17. He stepped and conquered the kingdom - he stepped 71 cm and conquered the kingdom.

18. Not a step back! - not 71 cm back.

19. Each merchant measures with his own arshin - each merchant measures with his own 71 cm.

20. The beard is an arshin long, but the mind is an inch long - the beard is 71 cm long, and the mind is 27 cm long.

21. Oblique fathom at the shoulders - 2.13 m at the shoulders.

22. Moscow is miles away, but close to the heart - Moscow is 1.067 km away, but close to the heart.

23. Love is not measured by miles - love is not measured by 1.067 km.

24. From word to deed - a whole mile - from word to deed - 1.067 km.

25. A mile closer, a nickel cheaper - 1.067 km closer, a nickel cheaper.

26. Seven miles is not a detour for a fellow - 7.469 km is not a detour for a fellow.

27. You can see it from a mile away - it can be seen from 1.067 km away.

28. From thought to thought five thousand miles - from thought to thought - 5335 km.

29. Write about other people's sins in arshins, and about your own - in lowercase letters - write about other people's sins 71 cm, and about your own in lowercase letters.

30. Stretch a mile, but don’t be easy - stretch 1.067 km, but don’t be easy.

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Completed by students - 5th grade MBOU "Pochaevskaya Secondary School" Vorobyov Yaroslav Andreevich Nikulin Dmitry Yuryevich Scientific supervisor - Nikulina Natalya Ivanovna

THIS WORK PRESENTS RESEARCH RELATED TO ANCIENT RUSSIAN LENGTH MEASURES

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Research

Ancient Russian measures of length

Completed by students -

5th grade MBOU "Pochaev Secondary School"

Vorobyov Yaroslav Andreevich

Nikulin Dmitry Yurievich

Scientific director -

Nikulina Natalya Ivanovna

Grayvoron, 2012

Introduction

"Science begins where they begin to measure."
D.I.Mendeleev

In distant historical times, a person had to gradually comprehend not only the art of counting, but also measurement. When our ancestor - ancient, but already thinking, tried to find a cave for himself, he was forced to measure the length, width and height of his future shelter with his own height. But this is what measurement is. When making the simplest tools, building houses, getting food, the need arises to measure distances. Many of the units of length that our ancestors used represent measurements of different parts of the human body. A person always carries them with him and can use them in any conditions.

We became interested in what measures of length existed in Rus', and why now Russia uses such a measure of length as a meter.How and where these measures are found in Russian folklore and in life. That's why we chose this topic.

Relevance: The question of the significance of units of measurement is always relevant, since metrology is always the focus of human activity.

Subject: "Ancient Russian measures of length."

Object of study:History of the development of ancient Russian measures of length.

Subject of study:Ancient Russian measures of length

Target: trace the history of the emergence of measures of length in Rus', their improvement from the time of the formation of Rus' to the present day.

Tasks:

1) Get acquainted with the measuring system that existed previously.

2) Establish the relationship between the old measuring system and the new one.

3) Trace the reflection of old measures in Russian folklore.

4) Invite students in my class to solve problems with ancient Russian measures of length.

5) Find out whether the residents of the village of Pochaevo currently know and use ancient measures of length?

Measures of length in Ancient Rus' (XI-first half of the XV century)

The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, elbow, span.

Span - one of the oldest measures of length: from the Old Russian word metacarpus - fist or five - hand. It is convenient because everyone always carries it with them. After all, a span is the distance between the outstretched fingers of the hand. A span was one quarter of an arshin. Therefore, its second name is quarter.

Small span - the distance between the ends of the outstretched thumb and index fingers. The length of the small span is approximately 19 cm.

Great span - the distance from the end of the extended little finger to the end of the thumb, its length is 22-23 cm.

Elbow - the oldest measure of length, which was used by many peoples of the world. This is the distance from the end of the extended middle finger or clenched fist to the bend of the elbow. This length ranged from 38 to 46 cm. It has been used as a measure of length in Rus' since the 11th century.For the first time, the cubit as a measure of length is mentioned in the “Russian Truth” of Yaroslav the Wise: “the bridge worker, having laid the bridge, take from the work, from ten Lakota Nogat.” In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, and linen, the cubit was the main measure.

Fathom - found in chronicles from the 11th century, compiled by the Kyiv monk Nester. Fathom- Russian measure of length. According to the documents of medieval Rus', there were fathoms: oblique, straight, simple, courtyard and shop, makhovaya, large, or great, printed, “scribe, with which to measure the earth.” In the 18th century, the measures were refined; Peter I, by decree, established the equality of a three-arshine fathom to seven English feet: fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet (= 2.13 m).

Verst - from the word twirl. Initially, the distance from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The length of the verst is 1060 m. The verst, as a measure of length, has been found in Rus' since the 11th century.

Boundary mile - existed in Rus' until the 18th century to determine the distance between settlements and for land surveying. The length of such a mile is 1000 fathoms, or 2.13 km.

Later, under Peter I, a verst measuring 500 fathoms in length was introduced; it was at this distance from each other that pillars were placed along the roads. At the beginning of the 19th century. Black and white striped poles appeared along the main roads of Russia. Hence the name - high road. From the second half of the 19th century, on all poles placed along the railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow, distances began to be indicated in versts. The verst, 500 fathoms long, as a measure of length, was preserved in Russia until the introduction of the metric system.

Measures of length in the Moscow state (XV-XVII centuries)

In the XV-XVII centuries. new measures of length appeared - arshin , which over time replaced the elbow, and inch . Two meanings of verst were officially legalized.

A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, also to measure distances between populated areas. The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia.

During the era of the Moscow State fathom , equal to 152 cm, gradually disappears and plays a dominant role fly fathom , equal to 2.5 arshins, i.e. 180 cm, and breech fathom - 3 arshins, i.e. 216 cm. Was finally legalized by the Council Code of 16493-yard fathomas official.

Vershok - an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle). The length of the top is approximately 4.4 cm.

Arshin - one of the main Russian measures of length has been used since the 16th century. Arshin came to Rus' along with merchants from distant eastern countries.

Merchants brought unprecedented fabrics. The finest Chinese silks. Heavy Indian brocade made from real gold and silver threads. Velvet and taffeta woven with flowers and dragons are from Persia. Merchants brought fabrics, and they had to be measured. Eastern merchants did without any meters: they stretched the fabric over their own arm, up to the shoulder. This was called measuring with arshins. The name arshin comes from the Persian word "arsh" - elbow. This is the length of the entire outstretched arm from the shoulder joint to the end of the phalanx of the middle finger. An arshin is 71 cm.

The measure was very convenient - you always have your hands with you - but it had a significant drawback: unfortunately, everyone’s hands are different. Some are long, others are shorter. Cunning merchants began to look for clerks with shorter arms. But one day this came to an end. Selling “at your own yard” was strictly prohibited by the authorities. Only “official arshin” was allowed to be consumed. This arshin standard, which is a metal ruler, was made in Moscow. Wooden claws of this line were sent throughout Russia. To prevent the wooden arshin from being shortened, the ends were bound with iron and marked with the state mark.

Measures of length in Russia (XVIII-XIX centuries)

The system of length units that had developed by the end of the 17th century was expanded in the 18th century with the introduction of English measures - feet, inches. The change in the system of length measures carried out by Peter I was caused by the need to link Russian and the most common English measures in the world at that time and to simplify the relationships between them in the interests of not only trade, but also in order to create a Russian fleet.

Foot - This is the length of the average Englishman's foot. 16 Englishmen lined up in a chain in such a way that each next one touched the heels of the previous one with the ends of his toes. One sixteenth of such a chain was one foot.

Inch - The name comes from the Dutch word for "thumb". Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.

It was legalized to divide the inch not only into 10 lines, but also into 100 points

Line - width of wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.

Ancient Russian measures

Metric system

The use of a wide variety of length measures hampered the development of science and trade between countries. Therefore, there is a need to introduce a unified system of measures convenient for all countries. The first to talk about the need to establish a simple, convenient and, most importantly, unified system of measures were not merchants, but scientists, who also “suffered” from difficulties in comparing the results of experiments.

Scientists of the French Academy of Sciences in the second half of the 18th century proposed taking one ten-millionth of a quarter of the arc of the Paris meridian as the basic unit of length. Subsequently, this part of the arc was called the meter. This system was called the metric system of measures.

The basic unit of length in the metric system is 1 meter (from the Greek word "metron" - measure). The first prototype of the meter standard was made of brass in 1795. In 1889 a more accurate international standard meter was produced. This standard is also made of an alloy of platinum and iridium and has an “X” shaped cross section. Copies of it were deposited in countries where the meter was accepted as the standard unit of length. This standard is still kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, although it is no longer used for its original purpose.

In September 1918, the international metric system was introduced by special decree. This decree was implemented gradually. Along with the new system, they also used old measures, that is, they wrote the old Russian measure and at the same time indicated its relationship to the metric one, or together with the new measure they designated the old one. Only in January 1927, when the transition of the national economy was prepared, did the metric system finally become the only acceptable measurement system.

The system of weights and measures was further developed in the second half of the twentieth century. In 1960, the international system of units - SI - was approved. In Russia, it began to be introduced in January 1963, and it was finally approved in 1981. The rapid development of science and technology, trade relations between states after the end of the Second World War required finding a simpler and more reliable definition of the meter using constant physical quantities. Since 1983, a meter has been defined as the length of path that light travels in a vacuum in a given fraction of a second.

Ancient measures in proverbs and sayings

One like a finger - a person who has no relatives, no relatives, no friends.

Don't point your finger at people! They wouldn't point you out with a pole!- If you accuse someone (point your finger at him), then you may be accused of something much worse or done it in an even more rude manner.

Two inches from the pot, and already the pointer- a young man who has no life experience, but arrogantly teaches everyone.

Her Saturday got two inches after Friday- about a sloppy woman whose undershirt is longer than her skirt.

Don't give up an inch- not to give even the smallest amount.

Seven spans in the forehead- about a very smart person,

Himself as long as a fingernail, and a beard as long as an elbow- about a person of unenviable appearance, but enjoying authority due to his intelligence, social status or life experience. Before Peter I, a beard was considered an honorable attribute of a man. A long, well-groomed beard served as a sign of wealth and nobility.

Each merchant measures with his own arshin -everyone judges any matter one-sidedly, based on their own interests.

Sits and walks as if he had swallowed an arshin- about an unnaturally straight person.

A beard a yard long, but an inch smart- about an adult, but stupid person.

Oblique fathoms in the shoulders- broad-shouldered, tall man.

He sees three arshins into the ground- about an attentive, perspicacious person from whom nothing can be hidden.

Log to log - fathom - about the accumulation of reserves, wealth through savings.

Kolomenskaya verst- a humorous nickname for a tall person. This expression appeared during the time of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (reigned 1645 - 1676). He ordered that pillars be placed along the road from Moscow (more precisely, from its Kaluga outpost) to his summer palace in the village of Kolomenskoye at a distance of 700 fathoms from each other. Tall, about two fathoms, these pillars made such a great impression on ordinary people that they remained in popular speech forever.

Moscow is miles away, but close to the heart- this is how Russian people characterized their attitude towards the capital.

Love is not measured by miles. A hundred miles is not a detour for a young man- distance cannot be an obstacle to love.

From word to deed - a whole mile.

A mile closer - a nickel cheaper.

If you fall behind by a mile, you'll catch up by ten- even a small lag is very difficult to overcome.

leaps and bounds- rapid growth, good development of something.

You are away from work for a week, but it is away from you for a fathom.

Seeing a fathom through the ground.

A riddle, a solution, and seven miles of truth.

A hundred miles is not a detour for a young man.

We lived as long as an elbow, but only a fingernail is left.

In someone else's hands, a fingernail the size of an elbow.

Give from the nail, he will ask from the elbow.

Seven yards of beef and three pounds of ribbons (about nonsense).

Arshin for a caftan, two for patches.

The nose is as big as an elbow, and the mind is as big as a fingernail.

We don’t need an inch of someone else’s land, but we won’t give up even an inch of our own.

For a friend, seven miles is not a suburb.

Problems with ancient length measures

1. When will they meet?One person goes to another city and walks 40 versts a day, and another person comes to meet him from another city and walks 30 versts a day. The distance between the cities is 700 versts. In how many days will the travelers meet?

2. Long beard.A person's beard grows, lengthening by 1/5 of an inch per week. Let's assume that a beard grows at a constant rate throughout a person's life. How long would a man's beard be if he hadn't shaved for 30 years?

3. Buying cloth. Bought one and a half times an arshin of cloth. Paid half a quarter, half a fifth of a ruble. The question is, how much should one pay for half a ninety arshin of the same cloth?

4. Apple picking. 100 apples lie in a row at a distance of an arshin from one another. There is a basket in front of the first apple, also at a distance of 1 arshin from it. The question is: what path will the one take who undertakes to collect all these apples in such a way as to take them sequentially one after another and carry each one separately into a basket that always stands in the same place?

Results of a survey to identify interest in ancient Russian measures

We conducted a survey to determine the continued interest in ancient Russian measures. 60 people were interviewed, among them 20 students of the Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution "Pochaevskaya Secondary School", 20 people aged from 18 to 40 years and 20 people over 40 years old. Each of them was asked a question, and then a comparison chart was made in percentage terms between the responses of students and the older generation.

Question: Are you familiar with ancient units of length?

Based on the survey, it was revealed that the current generation has lost interest in ancient measures and is forgetting their national roots.

Conclusions:

The work carried out is interesting from a cognitive point of view. We became more familiar with ancient Russian units of measurement. The connection between ancient units and oral folk art was revealed. Questionnaire data shows that the younger generation is not very familiar with ancient units of measurement, so we want to introduce our work to the students of our school by speaking at a scientific conference at the end of the school year.

Most of the old measures have been forgotten and fallen out of use. Ancient measures are rarely used, but are still used in our modern life. For example, fathom is still used in agriculture.

The history of measures is the history of trade, crafts, agriculture and construction, and ultimately it is part of the history of mankind. Summing up the work, we come to the conclusion about the significance of my work: how did the measures appear, how did they change, what did they bring to the people and how did they influence their lives? This is still interesting today.

Having finished the work, we experienced great pleasure from the fact that we ourselves wrote a research paper for the first time under the guidance of a teacher and we think that we succeeded.

Literature

1. Amenitsky, N.N. Funny arithmetic [Text]/ N.N. Amenitsky - Moscow “Science”, 1991. - 123 p.
2. Vilenkin, N.Ya., Depman, I.Ya. Behind the pages of a mathematics textbook[Text]/ N.Ya. Vilenkin, I.Ya. Depman - M., 1981. - 217 p.
3. History of the development of metrology [Electronic resource]/ Access mode: http://www.metrologie.ru, free. Closed from the screen. - Yaz. rus.
4. Kamenskaya, E.N. Russian metrology [Text]/ E.N. Kamenskaya - M., 1975. - 157 p.
5. Karpushina, N.M. Man-made measurements[Text]/ N.M. Karpushina // Mathematics at school. - 2008.- No. 7. -P.49-61.
6. Measures of length [Electronic resource]/ Access mode: http://www.iro.yar.ru, free. Closed from the screen. - Yaz. rus.
7. Comparative table of Russian and metric measures [Electronic resource]/ Access mode: http://trust.narod.ru, free. Closed from the screen. - Yaz. rus.

Improved: website

Units of measurement in Rus'. From the chronicle of the system of measures.

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 units of measures of different sizes used in different countries. The variety of measures made trading operations difficult. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, uniform systems of measures were defined for the entire country. In the 18th century In connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, the question of measurement accuracy and the creation of standards on the basis of which verification work ("metrology") could be organized in Russia arose.

The question of choosing standards from the many existing ones (both domestic and overseas) turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the 18th century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon arrival, and then reweighed repeatedly at the mints; At the same time, the weight turned out to be different.

By the mid-30s of the 18th century. There was an opinion that, more precisely, the scales at the St. Petersburg customs office. It was decided to make model scales from those customs scales, place them under the Senate and carry out verification using them.

A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as an example of a measure of length when determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. The ruler was marked with a half-arshin. Using this half-arshin measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden fathom.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, the quadrangle of the Moscow Big Customs was selected, according to which the measurements of bulk solids in other cities were verified.

The basis for liquid measurements was a bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow.

In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, and developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the Russian monetary account system was built on the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission began to establish connections between different units of measurement using measures of length. Determine the volume of the bucket and quadrangle. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic vershok, and the volume of the four-bucket was 286.421 cubic vershok. The result of the work of the Commission was the “Regulations...”

According to the arshin, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736–1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce arshins “in the entire Russian state.” In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. Quadruples, half-octagons and octagons were made.

From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the vershok, in connection with the reduction of the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: inch, line and point, but only the inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-line glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the sizes of gold and silver coins. In mechanics and mechanical engineering, the inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, dividing fathoms into 100 parts was widely used. The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797 on the “Establishment of correct scales, drinking and grain measures throughout the Russian Empire,” a lot of work began on streamlining measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree concerned four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, weight measures, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both the weighing instruments and all the measures had to be replaced, for which it was planned to cast cast iron measures.

By 1807, three arshin standards were made (stored in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their value was the reduction of arshin and fathom to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in fathoms 7 English feet, in arshins - 28 English. inches. The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred for storage to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made to be sent to each province. It’s interesting that before this, the saying: “Measure by your own yardstick” literally corresponded to reality. Sellers measured the length of the fabric with a yardstick - using a drawbar from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershok arshin (71.12 cm). The state-branded yardstick, priced at 1 silver ruble, was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous withdrawal of old yardstick templates.

The decree of 1835 determined the relationship between Russian measures and English ones:

• Fathom = 7 feet.
• Arshin = 28 inches.

A number of units of measurement (verst divisions) were abolished, and new measures of length came into use: inch, line, point, borrowed from English measures.

Old Russian Measures of Length.

The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following basic measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

Measures of length (used in Russia after the Decree of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

• 1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm (divisions in vershok were usually applied to the arshin).
• 1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers.
• 1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters.
• Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
• Mach fathom = 1.76 m.
• 1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm).
• 1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm.
• 1 quarter<четверть аршина>(span, small span, span, span, span, span, span) = 4 inches = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov). A synonym for “quarter” is “chet”.
• Large span = 1/2 cubit = 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little) finger.
• A “span with somersault” is equal to a small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.
• 1 vershok = 4 nails (width - 1.1 cm) = 1/4 span = 1/16 arshin = 4.445 centimeters
  - an ancient Russian measure of length equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).
• 1 finger ~ 2 cm.

An ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

There are different versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, “arshin” denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on the plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures of determining length, distances (fathom, verst). The root "AR" in the word arshin - in Old Russian (and in other neighboring languages) means "EARTH", the surface of the earth, and indicates that this measure could be used in determining the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - Step. In practice, counting could be done in pairs of steps of an adult ("small fathoms"; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three...), or in threes ("official fathoms"; one-two-three - one, one-two-three - two...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. Subsequently, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length, the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - " span"(since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - "a quarter of an arshin", "a quarter", "a quarter"), from which, by eye, it was easy to obtain smaller shares - two vershok (1/2 span) or an inch (1/4 span).

Merchants, when selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring “from the shoulder”. To exclude measurements, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the “government arshin,” which is a wooden ruler with metal tips with a state mark riveted at the ends.

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various branches of production. In the “Description Books” of the Armory Chamber of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow made, length three arshins and a half-eleven vershok (10.5 vershok) ... Large cast iron archina, Iron lion, with belts, length three arshins, three cubits and a half inch. The ancient Russian measure "elbow" continued to be used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equal to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure length still continued to exist, but since its meaning changed, due to agreement with a quarter of an arshin, this name (span) gradually fell out of use.The span was replaced by a quarter of an arshin.

Step - the average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

Pyad (pyatnitsa) is an ancient Russian measure of length. The name span comes from the Old Russian word “past”, i.e. wrist.

• Small span(they said - “span”; since the 17th century it was called “quarter”) - the distance between the ends of the spread thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.
• Large span- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).
• Somersault span("span with a somersault", according to Dahl - "span with a somersault") - a span with the addition of two joints of the index club = 27-31 cm.

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons - seven spans (1 3/4 arshins). The Most Pure Tikhvin on gold - pyadnitsa (4 vershoks). Icon of St. George the Great deeds of four spans (1 arshin)"

Versta is an old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known mentions in written sources of the 11th century. In manuscripts of the 15th century. there is an entry: “field of 7 hundred and 50 fathoms” (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1 verst was considered 1000 fathoms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m. “Verstoy” was also called a milepost on the road.

Rostov region, Aksai. Milestone at the former postal station. 2004. (photo from the site: vladsc.narod.ru)

The size of the verst changed repeatedly depending on the number of fathoms included in it and the size of the fathom. The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, " waypoint"500 fathoms ("five hundredth verst").

The boundary verst is an old Russian unit of measurement equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 fathoms (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, and to measure distances between populated areas.

The 500-fathom verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distances in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in days of travel. In the 18th century boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel ones, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a “travel” mileage equal to 500 fathoms.

- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size).

"Machaya fathom" - the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man's widely spaced hands." Oblique fathoms" - the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: "he has oblique fathoms in his shoulders" (meaning - hero, giant) This ancient measure of length was mentioned by Nestor in 1017.

Name fathom comes from the verb to reach (reach) - as far as you could reach with your hand. To determine the meaning of the ancient Russian fathom, a major role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: “In the summer of 6576 (1068) of the 6th day of indictment, Prince Gleb measured... 10,000 and 4,000 fathoms.” From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were fathomed measuring ropes and wooden “folds” that were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms:

• policewoman or Oblique fathom- 284.8 cm,
• without name - 258.4 cm,
• great - 244.0 cm,
• Greek - 230.4 cm,
• breech - 217.6 cm,
• royal - 197.4 cm,
• church - 186.4 cm,
• folk or Machaya fathom- 176.0 cm,
• masonry - 159.7 cm,
• simple - 150.8 cm,
• small - 142.4 cm
• and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as a courtyard, pavement.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

Elbow - equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger of the hand”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

Elbow- a native ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (on average approximately 46-47 cm) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem Temple made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The cubit was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade of canvas, cloth, linen - elbow was the main measure. In large wholesale trade, linen, cloth, etc., were supplied in the form of large pieces - “postavs”, the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade these measures had a specific meaning).

A vershok was equal to 1/16 of an arshin, 1/4 of a quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

When determining the height of a person or animal, counting was carried out after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 vershoks in height, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 vershoks, i.e. 209 cm.

For humans, two methods of fully expressing height have been used:

• combination of “height *** elbows, *** spans.”
• combination “height *** arshin, *** vershoks.”
• from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches".
• For domestic small animals they used - “growth of *** tops”.
• For trees - “height *** arshins”.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

• 1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm. The name comes from the Dutch - “thumb”. Equal to the width of your thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.
• 1 line = 10 points = 1/10 inch = 2.54 millimeters (example: Mosin’s “three-ruler” - d = 7.62 mm.) Line- width of wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.
• 1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm.
• 1 point = 0.2540 millimeters.
• 1 geographical mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
  (from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps)).
• 1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km.
• 1 English mile = 1.609 km.
• 1 yard = 91.44 centimeters.

Old Russian Measures of Volume.

Bucket.

The main Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids is bucket= 1/40 barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 liters - according to other sources, rare). Bucket– iron, wood or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical in shape, with ears or a bow for carrying. In everyday life, two buckets on the yoke should be “fit for a woman.” Division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: the bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as into mugs and cups.

Until the middle of the 17th century. the bucket contained 12 mugs, in the second half of the 17th century. so-called government bucket contained 10 mugs, and the mug contained 10 cups, so the bucket contained 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the glasses were made three times larger than before (“three glasses of glasses”). The sales bucket held 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was constant, 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic inches.

Barrel.

Barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trade with foreigners, who were prohibited from conducting retail trade in wine for small measures. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l).

The material for making the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:

• oak - for beer and vegetable oils,
• spruce - under water,
• linden - for milk and honey.

Most often, small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (magpies). Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the 15th century ancient measures were still common - golovazhnya, bow And cleaning. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with the fairly common korobya and belly, the Vyatka grain measure marten, the Perm sapsa (measure of salt and bread), the Old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the saptsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, bast - 5 pounds of salt, poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-selyodovka (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk). Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshins, and across - an arshin, and to measure up, like a leader, half an arshin."

In everyday life and in trade they used a variety of household vessels: cauldrons, jugs, pots, bratins, valleys. The significance of such household measures varied in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was also introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic vershoks or 21952 cubic inches.

Wine measures.

The Wine Charter of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber.”

Bottle . The “bottle” measure appeared in Russia under Peter I. Russian bottle = 1/20 of a bucket = 1/2 of a damask = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (a half-liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century). Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the bill was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, glass production began in a factory way in 1635. The production of glass vessels also dates back to this time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists. Overseas, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - ranging from 0.63 to 0.76 liters in different countries. A flat bottle is called a flask.

Glass quarters. (modern production).

(from German Stof) = 1/10 bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 l. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Shtof. Green glass (Russia, 1749). Historical Museum. Moscow.

Mug (the word means “for drinking in a circle”) = 10 glasses = 1.23 liters.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.

Stack = 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.

Shkalik (popular name - “kosushka”, from the word “mow”, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.

Quarter (half a scale or 1/16th of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrelware (that is, for liquid and bulk products) was distinguished by a variety of names depending on the place of production (baklazhka, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, sorokovka), its main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished cooperage products were divided into buckets, tubs, vats, kegs and casks.

Endova - wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used for serving drinks to the table. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made from aspen, linden or birch.

Endova. Arkhangelsk region, Krasnoborsky district, Permogorye pier, group of villages of Mokraya Yedoma. White background painting. 24 x 18 x 11. (photo from the site: bibliotekar.ru)

Tub - height of the vessel - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters, volume - 2 buckets or 22-25 liters.

• Leather bag (skin) – up to 60 l.
• Korchaga - 12 l.
• Nozzle - 2.5 buckets (Nogorod liquid measure, 15th century).
• Ladle.
• Jug.
• Krynki.
• Sudenians, mises.
• Tuesa.

The oldest (first?) “international” measure of volume is A handful of(palm with fingers cupped). A large (kind, good) handful - folded so that it holds a larger volume. A handful is two palms joined together.

The box is made from solid pieces of bast, sewn together with strips of bast. The bottom and top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large chests of drawers.

Balakir is a dugout wooden vessel with a volume of 1/4-1/5 of a bucket.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measuring containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, pots, milk pans, lids, jugs, throats, milking bowls, birch bark with lids, containers, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 buckets (about 3-5 l). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tuesk, in which fermented milk products were kept - sour cream, yogurt and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushki, izhemki, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more poods. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass pots, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 of a bucket. The commercial measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia was a large clay (drinking) glass and jug.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagle-shaped (branded with the sign of an eagle), that is, standardized drinking measures: bucket, octagon, half-octagon, stop and mug, first appeared in Russia. Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, staves, stacks remained in use, and for small sales - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In old Russian measures and in vessels used for drinking, the principle of volume ratio is laid down - 1: 2: 4: 8: 16.

Ancient volume measures:

• 1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters.
• 1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters.
• 1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm.
• 1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter).
• 1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm.
• 1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm
• 1 quart is a little more than a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of bulk solids (“grain measures”) were used for a long time:

• Last - 12 quarters.
• Quarter (chet) – 1/4 part of cadi = 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 liters.
• Chetverik (“measure”) = 2.624 deciliters = 26.24 liters.
• Garnets = 3.280 liters.
• Osmina (octah - eighth part).
• Kad (tub, fetter) = 20 buckets or more.
• A big tub is bigger than a tub.
• Tsybik - box (of tea) = from 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).

Details: Tea was compacted tightly into wooden boxes, “tsibiki” - leather-covered frames in the shape of a square (two feet on a side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umesta (“Place” is a possible option).

Russian Weights.

In Rus', the following weight measures (Old Russian) were used in trade:

• Berkovets = 10 poods.
• pood = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg.
• pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg.
• lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g.
• spool = 4.27 g.
• fraction = 0.044 g.

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

Berkovets - this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc. Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg). There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

The spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small and expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

A pound (from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound is worth." The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound. They bought tea with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g. Until recently, a small packet of tea weighing 50 grams was called an “octam” (1/8 pound).

Lot is an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

A share is the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

A pood was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was already used in the 12th century. Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weighing device. When weighing metals, the pud was both a unit of measurement and a unit of counting. Even when the results of weighings were reported to tens and hundreds of poods, they were not transferred to Berkovites. Back in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-armed and unequal-armed beams: “pud” - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, “skalvy” - equal-armed scales (two-cup). Pud, as a unit of mass, was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in the 18th century:

Note: the ones most used at that time (18th century) are highlighted.

Old Russian Square Measures.

The main measure of area was considered to be a tithe, as well as shares of a tithe: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter was 40 fathoms of length and 30 fathoms of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the “Cathedral Code” of 1649) mainly the official three-arshine fathom, equal to 2.1336 m, so a tithe of 2400 square fathoms was equal to approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, the general inventory of lands would take many years. And then in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Ermolai Erasmus, proposed using a larger unit - tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000 fathoms. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the large plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who also sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, tithes were introduced with great difficulty because the lands were inconvenient for measurement due to their location and irregular shapes. The most commonly used yield measure was a haystack. Gradually, this measure acquired a meaning linked to the tithe, and was divided into 2 half-shocks, 4 quarter-shocks, 8 half-quarters of a hay, etc. Over time, a haystack, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that, on average, 10 copecks of hay were taken from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Old Russian measures of area:

• 1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometer
• 1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares.
• 1 kopn = 0.1 tithe.
• 1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters.
• 1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters.
• 1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm.
• 1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m.
• 1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter
• 1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeter.

Monetary units.

• Quarter = 25 rubles.
• Gold coin = 5 or 10 rubles.
• Ruble = 2 half.
• Tselkovy is the colloquial name for the metal ruble.
• Poltina = 50 kopecks.
• Quarter = 25 kopecks.
• Five-altyn = 15 kopecks.
• Altyn = 3 kopecks.
• Dime = 10 kopecks.
• Kidney = 1 half.
• 2 money = 1 kopeck.
• Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

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The system of Old Russian measures of length included the following main measures: verst, fathom, arshin, elbow, span and vershok.

ARSHIN- an ancient Russian measure of length, equal in modern terms to 0.7112 m. Arshin was also the name given to a measuring ruler, on which divisions in vershoks were usually applied.

For small measures of length the basic value was the measure used from time immemorial in Rus' - “span” (since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - “quarter arshin”, “quarter”, “chet”), from which, by eye, it was easy to get smaller shares - two vershok (1/2 span) or vershok (1/4 span).

STEP- average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name was “field”). This word originally referred to the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 fathoms, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.
"Verstoy" was also called a milestone on the road.
The Code of 1649 established a “boundary mile” of 1 thousand fathoms. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a “travel mile” of 500 fathoms (“five hundredth mile”) began to be used.

SAZHEN- one of the most common length measures in Rus'. There were more than ten fathoms of different purposes (and, accordingly, size). “Makhovaya fathom” is the distance between the ends of the fingers of an adult man’s widely spaced hands. “Oblique fathom” is the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the raised right hand. Used in the phrase: “he has slanting fathoms in his shoulders” (meaning - hero, giant)

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not multiples of one another. Fathoms: city - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, state - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another one without a name - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - courtyard, pavement.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - “the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the extended middle finger”). The size of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. Since the 16th century, it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost not used.

VERSHOK equaled 1/16 arshin, 1/4 quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century. There are also fractions of an inch - half an inch and a quarter inch.

Length measures(used in Russia after the “Decree” of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 poles = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers

1 fathom = 3 arshins = 7 feet = 48 vershoks = 2.1336 meters

Oblique fathom = 2.48 m.
Mach fathom = 1.76 m.

1 arshin = 4 quarters (spans) = 16 vershok = 28 inches = 71.12 cm
(divisions in vertices were usually applied to arshins)

1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)

1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

Volume measures

Bucket

bucket= 1/40 barrel = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 glasses = 200 scales = 12 liters
Barrel- most often in peasant life small barrels and kegs from 5 to 120 liters were used. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Wine measures

Bucket– Russian premetric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters

Quarter<четвёртая часть ведра>= 3 liters (previously it was a narrow-necked glass bottle)

Measure" bottle"appeared in Russia under Peter I.
Russian bottle= 1/20 bucket = 1/2 damask = 5 glasses = 0.6 liters (half a liter appeared later - in the twenties of the 20th century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the count was on buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

A flat bottle is called flask.

Shtof(from German Stof) = 1/10 bucket = 10 glasses = 1.23 l. Appeared under Peter I. Served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The shape of the damask was like a quarter.

Mug(the word means “for drinking in a circle”) = 10 glasses = 1.23 l.

Modern faceted glass was previously called "doskan" ("planed boards"), consisting of fret-boards tied with rope around a wooden bottom.

Charka(Russian measure of liquid) = 1/10 shtofa = 2 scales = 0.123 l.

Stack= 1/6 bottle = 100 grams It was considered the size of a single dose.

Shkalik(popular name - “kosushka”, from the word “mow”, according to the characteristic movement of the hand) = 1/2 cup = 0.06 l.

Quarter(half a scale or 1/16 of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Ancient volume measures:

1 cu. fathom = 9.713 cubic meters meters

1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cubic meters meters

1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cubic meters. cm

1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)

1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm

1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm

1 quart is a little more than a liter.

Weights

In Rus' the following measures were used in trade weight(Old Russian):
Berkovets = 10 poods
pud = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot = 3 spools = 12.797 g
spool = 4.27 g
fraction = 0.044 g
...

Hryvnia(latest pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to designate both a weight and a monetary unit. This is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft applications. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island of Bjerk. This is what was called in Rus' a measure of weight of 10 pounds, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a known mention of Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

GOLDEN equaled 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about it: “the spool is small but expensive.” This word originally meant a gold coin.

LB(from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. Used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound of raisins is."
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

LOT- an old Russian unit of mass measurement equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE– the smallest old Russian unit of mass measurement, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD equaled 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg.

Area measures

Area measures surfaces:

1 sq. verst = 250,000 square fathoms = 1.138 sq. kilometers

1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares

1 kopn = 0.1 tithe

1 sq. fathom = 16 square arshins = 4.552 sq. meters

1 sq. arshin=0.5058 sq. meters

1 sq. vershok=19.76 sq. cm

1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m

1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeter

1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeters

Ancient measures in modern language

In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings

Sayings:

“You write in big letters” - large

"Kolomenskaya Versta" is a humorous name for a very tall man.

"Oblique fathoms in the shoulders" - broad-shouldered

Dictionary

Currency units

Quarter = 25 rubles
Ruble = 2 half
Tselkovy - the colloquial name for the metal ruble
Poltina = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Five-altyn = 15 kopecks
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half a coin) = 1 kopeck.
Grosh (copper penny) = 2 kopecks.

Polushka (otherwise half money) was equal to one kopeck. This is the smallest unit in the ancient money account. Since 1700, half coins were minted from copper = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

Ancient Russian quantities:
Quarter - quarter, quarter
"a quarter of wine" = a fourth of a bucket.
"quadruple grain" = 1/4 cady
kad - an old Russian measure of bulk solids (usually four pounds)
Osmina, osmukha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called osmushka ("octam of tea").
"a quarter to eight" – time = 7:45 am or pm
Five - five units of weight or length
A ream is a measure of paper, formerly equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
"one hundred and eighty osmago November day of osmago" - 188 November eighth
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half a point = 4.5
Half elevenths = 10.5
Half a hundred - two hundred and fifty
Field - "arena, lists" (115 steps - a variant of the magnitude), later - the first name and synonym for "verst" (field - million - mile), Dahl has a variant meaning of this word: "daily march, about 20 versts"
“Printed fathom” - official (standard, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
A cut is an amount of material in a single piece of fabric sufficient to make any clothing (for example, a shirt)
“No estimate” - no number
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match