History of culture and arts: Lecture notes. A Brief History of Russian Culture

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

At any stage of its existence, culture is not just located next to other spheres of a person’s life, but enters into all spheres, manifesting itself in political activity, in relation to work, in art, and scientific research. By making key values and life goals of a person, culture passes on this unique axiological relay from generation to generation. That's what this role is all about.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

It is from this cultural and historical period that the history of human civilization begins, man is formed, society emerges, and such forms of human spirituality as religion, morality, and art are born.

4. Basic character traits Egyptian culture

Main features of culture: hieroglyphic writing, art style, religious ideas and the cult of the dead. It is characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.

Literary Memos: Pyramid Texts, Book of the Dead, Sarcophagus Texts, Harpist's Song.

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

Writers, artists of various European countries began to take episodes from ancient times as the plots of their works Greek mythology. Some works of outstanding artists are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities. Italian artists Renaissance -

Leonardo da Vinci (bust of the goddess Flora), Sandro Botticelli (paintings “The Birth of Venus”, “Spring”), Titian (painting “Venus in front of the Mirror”), etc. From the images of ancient Greek mythology he took the plot for his wonderful statue of Perseus, an outstanding Italian sculptor Benvenuto Cellini.

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". Names mythological heroes found in many other works

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

Greek culture entered the arena of history earlier than Roman culture and developed in the territory that occupied the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as the coasts of Asia Minor, the Aegean and Ionian seas and the adjacent islands. Moreover, researchers note that civilization on Greek soil arose, as it were, twice with a fairly large time gap.

The Greeks actively adopted scientific and technical advances other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era of ancient civilization itself:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period(V-IV centuries BC) - time of greatest prosperity ancient greek culture, development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Art culture classical Greece

At this time, Greek theater and the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished. The theater became a true educator of the people; it shaped the views and beliefs of free citizens. Greek tragedy in the images of myths reflected the struggle of the people with external enemies, for political equality and social justice.

5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. Leading place occupied by temples of the Doric order. Heroic character The art of classics is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. Subjects for sculptural works sculptors drew from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development realistic art sculptures Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as, for example, Boy Taking out a Thorn. Rome, Palazzo of the Conservatives) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.

The great sculptor Myron, who worked in the middle of the 5th century in Athens, created a statue that had a huge influence on the development of visual arts. This is his bronze Discobolus, known to us from several Roman copies, so damaged that only their combination made it possible to somehow recreate the lost image.

For the Greek painter, realistic depiction of nature became a top priority. The famous artist Polygnotus (who worked between 470 and 440) was responsible for an innovation in this area that now seems to us perhaps naive, but which then revolutionized painting.

8. Features

History of Russian culture in brief overview we propose to trace it according to the structural typology of N.A. Berdyaev, developed by him in a series of works about its features, path, fate, etc. In these works, the scientist outlined and defined its several main stages. This historical typology of Berdyaev can be considered as a basis, but with additions related to the events of the last century.

Stage of Slavic-European civilization (X – beginning of the 13th century)

By this period, called Kievan Rus , the foundations of the organization of society have already been formed. There was a written language, the basis of statehood was laid, and legal institutions appeared. All this gave impetus to the further evolution of East Slavic culture. Strengthening the country and increasing territories was carried out simultaneously with Eastern Slavs and neighboring tribes. “Dual faith” - a bizarre symbiosis of paganism and Christianity gives rise to an original picture of existence, combining different religious ideas.

not solving problems, but moving away from them to new lands,
no man's land, God's land,
sense of temporality
no need for deep rooting in one place.

This method of conducting peasant farming in terms of territory and number of participants made up the majority of ancient Russian culture, which is difficult to study, since it does not have written sources.

Artistic culture and history based on written sources

The history of Russia at that time is studied based on the main artifacts related to urban culture: chronicles, writings, architectural monuments, arts and crafts, paintings from treasures and burials. Based on the analysis of artistic written sources, two stylistic directions are distinguished:

monumental historicism
epic lyricism.

Monumental historicism

This style became widespread at the end of the 10th century. and dominated until the beginning of the 12th century. This was a period of communion and equivalent entry of Rus' into Christianity, understanding of its role in new culture. This is confirmed by the surviving architectural, pictorial and literary evidence of this period. They are characterized by a sublime and majestic mood, they are filled with importance. The style of monumental historicism accurately reflected the spirit of the times of the reign of the Rurik dynasty. For the heroic era of the country this was the primary style, identical Romanesque style for the West. It was equivalent to the state one and corresponded to the demands of the princely environment, the desire of the young country to create its own image, its own principles, and compare itself with the culture and history of the world.

Empirical lyricism

This style is also called secondary; it was formed by the middle of the 12th century. This time was characterized by increased feudal fragmentation. Art became closer to man, features began to stand out in it individuals, and not just the breadth of the state, as was the case in the previous period.

Chamber forms appeared in architecture; it became more animated, more festive, rather than masculine.
of that period became “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This is an epic and emotional work that reflects the history of Rus', along with the thoughts, emotions, sorrows and joys of a real person.
Temples are being erected everywhere, monasteries are being built, schools of icon painting and crafts are being founded, and the events that take place are recorded in chronicles.

The versatility of the development of artistic culture of that time can be judged by the way writing crystallized and artistic training developed.

Novgorod becomes the center of veneration of Sophia,
Vladimir - Our Lady,
in Chernigov and Ryazan - princely images of Boris and Gleb.

Appanage Rus' - culture of the 13th – 14th centuries

The 13th century went down in history as the beginning of the Golden Horde period. “Tatar Rus'” entered the phase of “moral monumentalism.” Gradually, the fragmentation of the country into appanage principalities was overcome, which helped to free ourselves from the yoke.

The profound changes that occurred by the middle of the 13th century provide grounds for the isolation of this period, since they also had a great influence on the type of Russian culture. Much research has been carried out on that era, and there are different opinions in assessing the consequences of the invasion of the steppe people. Gumilev believed that it saved the country from being subjugated by Europe, which, in his opinion, would have brought much more harm to Russia.

These events left a significant mark, but the Mongol-Tatar yoke could not radically change the Russian agricultural culture to a nomadic one. But the invasion of the Horde stopped development and caused irreparable damage. Temples were destroyed, libraries and cities were burned, and crafts were in a depressed state. The invasion of nomadic tribes was perceived as God's punishment, a universal disaster, which was unthinkable to resist.

When the yoke was thrown off, the culture and history of Russia became different. The main consequence of the invasion is regression in all areas of life. In the second half of the 13th century, development seemed to freeze. Even in the Novgorod lands, where the Horde did not “reach”, there was gloomy stagnation, accompanied only by the renewal of fortifications.

The atmosphere of the era and the experiences of people can be understood from literary sources in the genre of “war stories”, biographies of martyrs for the faith, and sermons.

Muscovite Rus' - stage XIV - XVII centuries

The period from the end of the 14th to the 17th century. went down in history as the time of formation of the Eurasian civilization. The emergence of a centralized independent state with power in Moscow formed a different picture in different areas life. This was conducive to the generation of a renewed concept of values and the universe.

The Russian principalities, freeing themselves from the shackles of the yoke, rallied around Moscow, creating a state of a new type. It was a means of defending sovereignty. To this day, the state has extreme significance in the minds of people, which was acquired back in those days.

The interests of the state and power turned out to be higher than personal gain and even more important than laws. The formation of the Moscow kingdom took over the baton of Orthodoxy from Constantinople, which had fallen in those days. The Byzantine state sank into oblivion. Elder Philotheus, in his letters to Vasily III, voiced new messianic aspirations in the concept

Stage-by-stage history of culture great Russia Moscow period

The evolution of Russian culture during the Moscow period can be divided into three stages:

Russian Pre-Renaissance (end of the 14th century - mid-15th century)

This time was marked by the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, and with it came an emotional leap national identity. During this period, literature, art, and the rise of individuality began to flourish. Vivid examples can be the names of Daniil Cherny. Theophanes the Greek. By these values, the development of Russia can be compared with the Proto-Renaissance and the Italian early Renaissance. The Renaissance bypassed Russian history. All resources were used to create and develop a country with its center in Moscow. The most majestic temples are built there, icons and frescoes are created, books are written.

"Sovereign monumentalism"(second half of the 15th century - 16th century)

It is characterized by the final formation of the Moscow kingdom. The country began to expand towards the eastern aisles, Kazan was taken. Gradually the state turned into a vast Eurasian empire.

In all spheres of the country's life there is a settlement and ordering, for example,

the arrangement of the state is described in the “Degree Book”,
systematization of historical information - in the Personal Chronicle,
religious canons - in “Stoglava”, in “Great Cheti-Menaia”,
family problems - in Domostroy.

A new one appears architectural style– Moscow. The Kremlin and the Assumption Cathedral are being rebuilt; they are a symbol of Russia to this day.

Russian Renaissance or Baroque (XVIIV.)

During this period, also called the “rebellious age,” many events took place. Change of dynasties, Polish intervention, peasant revolts. The culture of this period, despite many dramatic pages in history, is enlightened and alive.

The architecture is rich in color, intricate in shape and decorative.
Paintings are decorative, at the same time realistic features appear in them, objects become more voluminous due to the transfer of chiaroscuro. The first Russian parsuns appeared - a synthesis of portrait and icon.
heroes also appear with humane traits who live in real life, this is the first Russian novel, “The Tale of Savva Grudnitsyn.”

In art and literature, the individual origin and the author's point of view are conveyed.

History of culture and art of Russia (XVIII century - beginning of XX century)

The period of Imperial Russia is the time of the presentation of its new appearance. Russian culture gravitates toward European culture, is influenced by it, but remains original. The gigantic Eurasian civilization is public to the West and East, but retains its independence. This era can be divided into three time periods.

History of culture of the 18th century

This is a time of radical reform. Since the adoption of Christianity, Russia has turned to the West at the behest of the ruler for the second time. Cultural metamorphoses under the reign of Peter I are as contradictory and complex as the innovations of Prince Vladimir.

Peter's movement to Europe was continued by his heirs. Everything became a period of deep transformations affecting different sides. Main feature there was mastery of results and gains European culture, for the most part through education. Changes took place under pressure from the top and from within, since the prerequisites for them had already matured in the previous century. Such traits as realism, individuality, and rationality are now dressed in European attire.

The rapidity of reforms led to their uneven assimilation in different strata of society. A split arose between the Europeanized upper classes and the lower classes, mired in the “quagmire of Asiaticism.” In addition to disunity according to social standards, at this time a crack formed between ethnic and national culture. In the future, the efforts of many people will be aimed at bridging this gap.

Story XIX culture century

This is the period of its beginnings and knowledge gained in Europe. Their merger gave impetus to further development. This century is called the Russian Golden Age. A huge list of names, discoveries, plans, achievements, brilliant creations allows us to say that during this period Russia played a significant role in the history of world culture. Then her individuality was most clearly revealed, primary questions were asked and solutions to problems were given. This is a period of searching for cultural community and spirituality.

The main thing about the Silver Age

The turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in the history of Russia is called it. Despite its short duration, it can be distinguished as a separate type. The turning point of time gave this era freedom, an active change of course and trends. An avalanche of fresh ideas, ideas, judgments, and paradigms that had a contradictory orientation swept over the country. Creative life became intense. Unions, associations, circles arose and multiplied, involving big number new members.

In dialogue different cultures The focus also changes: this is not just a retrospective study, but a desire to join and comprehend, plunging into the very depths. Merger different types arts, worldviews, and a desire for unity - was one of the important features of this time. But the period was not monolithic; there were many incompatible ideas, multidirectional movements, demonstrating a degree of freethinking.

History of Russian culture - stage of the 20th century.

1917 - 1991 of the twentieth century belong to Soviet Russia. This is a difficult and paradoxical time that has yet to be objectively assessed. It reflected the most controversial features national character. Totalitarianism sought to bring culture to a uniform form, but external monolithicity was combined with individual creativity, which can be seen in an allegorical form both at the everyday level and in the underground. It is worth adding to the assessment of the significance of Russian culture of the Soviet period and it can be considered as a legacy of pre-revolutionary culture. About 10 million emigrants believed in their mission to preserve and enhance it. This is confirmed by their educational, scientific, and publishing work. Characteristics spiritual life of the Silver Age and the development of these ideas reflected in their works

ON THE. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, B.P. Vysheslavtsev, I.A. Ilyin, N.O. Lossky, G.P. Fedotov, G.V., Florovsky, S.L. Franc.

There remains to be an objective study and assessment of the works of the Russian Abroad as an integral part of all-Russian culture.

Modern stage of history

As Berdyaev predicted, after the “fifth” there is the formation of a “sixth” post-Soviet Russia. The most important achievement here, despite all the obstacles and problems, is:

liberation from the prohibitions of ideology,
addition of previously prohibited works and names,
acquaintance with foreign Russian culture.

The modern progress of Russian culture is explained by the dynamic development of self-knowledge, the search for community, and the disclosure of its role in world culture.

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Classification of types of spatial arts. Temporal, space-time (synthetic) and spatial types of arts. Art. Easel, monumental, decorative and decorative arts. Technical arts.

Basic theories of the origin of art. Magical and mythological ideas as the basis for the emergence of art. Social function of art. The theory of artistic instinct. Aesthetic views of I. Kant, F. Schiller and G.W. Plekhanov. Primitive art – forms, functions, specificity.

The art of ancient Egypt - typological characteristics, periodization, main types of architectural structures, monumental and small sculptures, sculptural relief and painting. Canonicity as the main artistic quality of Egyptian art. Monumental form with a sense of harmonious balance and symmetry of proportions are the fundamental features of Egyptian art. The sacred significance of hieroglyphs and its connection with visual themes. Typology of Egyptian furniture. Identification of the specifics of formal figurative language within the designated ethno-cultural framework. The use of Egyptian stylistic features in works of art from other historical eras.

Periodization of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization (the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC - the 12th century BC). Geographical framework of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture and the main centers of its development on the islands and mainland. Late Minoan period - 1600-1200 BC. The originality of the architectural composition and artistic appearance of Cretan palaces using the example of the Knossos Palace: the incorporation of architecture into the surrounding landscape; free picturesqueness, asymmetrical layout of premises, alternation of open courtyards with enclosed spaces; complexity of the route; picturesque and decorative character of the interior; artistic and tectonic features of the Cretan column. The picturesque change of illuminated and unlit spaces as a certain aesthetic concept associated with the peculiarities of the ritual and ceremonial program of the palace complex. Murals of the Knossos Palace.

Periodization of the art of Ancient Greece. Features of the socio-political structure of ancient Greek society. Mentality and value system of Greek culture (anthropocentrism, etc.). The role of the artist's personality in Greek art. Heterogeneity of Greek art for different regions of the ancient world (differences between the centers of mainland Greece, between metropolises and colonies). Art of Homeric times (XI - VIII centuries BC). Art of the archaic period (VIII - VI centuries BC). Art of the classical period (V - IV centuries BC)

Changing the social and ethical role of architecture as the reason for the emergence of new constructive solutions. Features of the aesthetic program of Greek architecture. The temple is an image of a harmoniously constructed Cosmos, “philosophy in stone.” The main elements of the architectural composition of the temple. Types of Greek temples: temple in anta, prostyle, amphiprostyle, peripterus, dipterus, tholos. Features of the use of the principle of symmetry in Greek architecture. The importance of spatial-plastic effects in Greek architecture. The role of sculpture in the Greek temple. The temple as a synthetic architectural and sculptural program. The special meaning of color in architecture.

The formation of order architecture as a system of artistic and expressive unity of carried and load-bearing parts. Doric and Ionian orders: basic design elements. Corinthian order. Interrelation of elements of the Greek temple: functional meaning and figurative program. The concept of architectonics. Introduction of a system of proportionality and harmony in the visual perception of architecture. Proportions of a Greek temple: thoughtfulness of the plastic image. The place of order design in the world history of art.

The image of a person central theme Greek plastic art. The specificity of the formal-content structure in the display of male and female images (kuros and kora). The role of color in archaic sculpture. Gradual evolution of the plastic image along the path of identifying proportions human body, interest in volume during the mature archaic period. A new understanding of the statuary image in the second half of the 6th BC: the expressiveness of the silhouette, the architectonics of the form, the plastic development of clothing and muscles. The origin and evolution of a group statuary composition (Moschophorus). Sculptural tombstone. The sculptural design of temples is a plastic representation of a specific mythological plot.

Artistic and figurative program of the ensemble of the Athens Acropolis. The balance of the components of the composition is the unity of free layout and order both in the elements of buildings and in the composition of the ensemble. Proportionality to human scale. The originality of the logic of the ensemble layout associated with the route of the Panathenaic processions. The main elements of the ensemble: Propylaea, Temple of Nike Apteros, Parthenon, Erechtheion. The Parthenon is the pinnacle in the development of Greek architecture and sculpture. Erechtheion: asymmetry of layout as a feature of the formal structure. Parthenon and Erechtheion: a harmonious balance of contrasts in conveying the organic connection of architecture and sculpture in the ensemble of the Acropolis.

Art of the classical period (V - IV centuries BC). The desire to embody in plastic the vital persuasiveness of movement is the main task of the classics. A new approach to depicting a person: concreteness of the plastic image and showing the state of action or the ability to do it. Early classics - gradual mastery of the concrete transfer by plastic means of the motive of movement (Delphic Charioteer, statue of Poseidon (Zeus), “Tyrannicide”). Mature classics - the work of Myron (“Discobolus”, Athena and Marsyas). The Canon of Polykleitos and its application in sculpture. “Doriphoros” and the chiasmus system. Sculpture of Phidias (Athena Parthenos, Olympian Zeus). Late classic. New features in the artistic reflection of the world as a consequence of changes caused by the loss of the ideals of the polis. Skopas's creativity is the destruction of a holistic and harmonious plastic image in the direction of conveying sharp, agitated motives. (Maenad). Apollo Belvedere by sculptor Leochares. Sculptural decoration of temples.

Vase painting from the Archaic period. Expanding the scope of used subjects and forms of vessels as a feature of archaic vase painting. Black-figure vase painting: a feature of the artistic and content program. Works of Exekius (kylix with the boat of Dionysus, Vatican amphora). Red-figure vase painting and its masters (Euphronius, Euthymides). Vases from the Classical period. Further development of red-figure vase painting (“strict style”). Exquisite line, conveyance of moving peace, harmonious balance in showing a mythological plot through a real, “everyday” episode as the main features of the “strict style”. Master Brig - kylix depicting the consequences of a feast. The peculiarity of the formal-shaped structure of white-phone lekythos. Figured vessels.

The art of Hellenistic times. Chronological and territorial framework of the Hellenistic era. Intensive development of all artistic forms, their connection with both Greek and Eastern principles of art. Rejection of the aesthetic ideal of Greek art. Architecture loses its integrity and organic content and brings to the fore the problem of the emotional impact of architecture. The tendency to mix different orders and their elements. Altar of Zeus in Pergamon: a feature of the artistic and figurative program, an example of the synthesis of architecture and sculpture of the Hellenistic era. Mausoleum in Halicarnassus - composition of the structure, sculpture Complication of the composition of buildings and the appearance of the theme of intense overcoming of the path in the ensembles of Hellenistic architecture.

The existence of various sculptural schools in the Hellenistic era. Nike of Samothrace and Venus de Milo by sculptor Alexander: two options for representing the artistic and meaningful program of the era (emphasized sensuality and increased drama). The appearance in Hellenistic times of statues of rulers, philosophers, interest in age characteristics. Allegory in Hellenistic sculpture. Laocoon.

Periodization of Etruscan art. Etruscan culture as the interconnection of cultures of individual cities - states. Religious views of the Etruscans and their role in the formation of the figurative program of Etruscan art. The main centers of Etruscan culture. Funerary architecture. Division of tombs into main types based on exterior and interior. Monumental paintings. Subjects of paintings of Etruscan tombs. The funeral cult and its influence on the formation of the artistic and figurative program of Etruscan tomb paintings. Fantastic composition and increased decorativeness of color. Archaic period (about 600-470 BC) Introduction of composition into tomb paintings and the principle of organizing space (basement, plot area, pediment, false door). Expanded narrative cycles, maintaining a brightly decorative color scheme, the use of a rigid outline, static, frozen poses, a large number of “landscape” themes, the possibility of thematic variations within the general content system as distinctive features monumental painting archaic era (Tombs of the Lionesses, Augurs in Tarquinia). Classical Age (circa 460-380 BC). A gradual departure from the organic unity of painting and architecture, the breadth of the palette, the expressiveness of the contour, at the end of the classical period - the desire for increased decorativeness, the complication of compositional schemes, an increase in ornamentation (Tomb of the Leopards, Tomb of the Triclinium). Funeral urns. From biconical urns of the impasto type to Etruscan funeral urns from Chiusi (7th - early 6th centuries BC - lids decorated with a specially made bronze mask, late 6th - early 6th centuries BC - with lids in the shape of a human head). Expressiveness of facial features and gestures, lack of idealization and originality of each image. Canopic urn decorated with a clay mask from Chiusi, canopic urn from Sarteano. Weak dismemberment of form, strict frontal pose, as characteristic features of funeral urns in the form of sitting figures (Ciusi, 6th century BC). Appearance in con. VI century BC. a new type of urn in the form of a rectangular box with reliefs and its widespread distribution in Etruria. Formation in the 5th century. BC. an urn with an image of the deceased reclining on a bed and a female figure sitting next to him. Sarcophagi. Development of the plastic motif of a reclining figure with an emphasis on the careful execution of the head in sarcophagi of the 6th BC. Sarcophagus of a married couple from Cerveteri. Second half of the 6th century. BC. - a new type of sarcophagus with figures lying flat on the lid. Sarcophagus with an image of the deceased couple on the lid from the Boston Museum. Development during the 3rd century. BC. of a single type (common for urns and sarcophagi) in the form of a box, decorated with reliefs and an image of the deceased feasting, a gradual increase in attention to portrait features.

Periodization of ancient Roman art. The art of Ancient Rome during the Republic period. The most ancient (VIII -V centuries BC) and Republican (V century BC -I century AD) eras as periods of the formation of Roman art. Different from the Greeks, the “Roman” understanding of the order: the order as a frame that shapes the architectural space, a system of superimposed orders. Application of arch and vault. A different ideological content of architecture: grandeur, scale, glorification of the greatness of the empire and emperor, monumentality, large spatial scope, standardization of architectural elements and decor. The formation of the main types of buildings in the era of the Republic: forums, basilicas, temples, baths, theaters, residential architecture - villas. Use of concrete technology. The use of an order arcade as a functional and artistic solution. The art of the Roman Empire. The importance for the architecture of the empire of the problems of the evolution of the main types of architectural structures. Formation of the Roman triumphal arch and its artistic and figurative structure. Widespread Roman architecture throughout the empire.

Early Republican portraiture is the leading genre of fine art in Rome. Development of the main types of portraits: busts, standing statues of orators, generals. The relationship between the individual and the typical: clear constructiveness of the plastic volume, accuracy in the depiction of real details. “Orator”, portrait of Brutus . Evolution of the portrait from the Early and Mature Republic to Late Republic, the transition to portraits of political figures, the emergence of the personality of the person depicted beyond the framework of republican ideas. Portrait of Julius Caesar. Portrait of Augustus from Prima Porto - the “programmatic” nature of ceremonial statues, the idealization of personality under the influence of new aesthetic norms, the official direction in Roman sculptural portraiture. The variety of directions in the development of a sculptural portrait, the gradual replacement of an idealizing interpretation with a more accurate representation of facial features and character of a person. The time of the dominant is an era of deep crisis of ancient plastic forms. The transition to a flattened form, a gradual abandonment of volume, often rigidity, schematism and hypertrophy in the rendering of facial features, a transfer of interest exclusively to the area of conveying the internal state and a loss of artistic unity of the image. Portrait of Constantine.

Painting. I Pompeian style (II century BC - 80s of the 1st century BC) - fusion of painting with the plasticity of architectural elements, emphasizing the constructiveness of the form, the predominance of warm tones (red, brown, yellow). II Pompeian style (80-15 BC) - great illusoryness, a fundamentally new understanding of the architectural and pictorial image and the relationship of the interior with the space surrounding the building, breaking through the wall (introduction of illusory architectural elements, use of natural views). Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii. Murals of the III Pompeian style (15 BC - 50 AD) - refusal of decorations that violated the plane of the wall, interest in solemn statics, inclusion of stamps with landscape views, still lifes, portraits. Large compositions of a plot nature. Aldobrandine wedding. The fourth Pompeian style is the use of techniques of illusory breakthrough of space, fantastic architectural compositions, dynamism, the choice of intense, dramatic compositions in the plot, and an attraction to spatial breadth. Paintings of the House of the Vettii, the Golden House of Nero.

The program of the Colosseum: extreme simplicity and economy of design, isolation, fenced off volumes and therefore interest in the internal space, a system of order decoration (superimposed order, the use of all three order systems simultaneously, the use of a large order) for different comprehension and emotional perception of the tiers. Widespread use of order arcades and plastic elements to enliven the architectural mass of the wall. The Colosseum as the most significant building of the 1st century. AD

The Pantheon is the highest expression of the engineering and architectural thought of ancient Rome. The artistic and figurative program of the Pantheon: an example of covering a large-span domed space, a priority in the development of interior space.

Periodization of the art of Ancient Rus'. The influence of Byzantine culture and art. Formation of the composition of the cross-domed church. Distinctive feature art of the pre-Mongol era - monumentalism of forms (the temple of St. Sophia of Kyiv and St. Sophia of Novgorod). Single-domed four-pillar churches of Novgorod and Moscow. Temples with hall interior space (Moscow Assumption Cathedral). Tent architecture (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye).

Development of local art centers of Ancient Rus' in the XIII - XIV centuries. Architecture of Novgorod XIV century. The parish church as a new type of temple (the first of this series is the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa). The influence of changes in material and building masonry on the composition and appearance temples. Churches of the Savior on Kovalevo, the Assumption on Volotovo Field, and the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street. Monumental and decorative decoration of temples - plots and symbolism. Frescoes by Theophanes the Greek.

The crown is the main structural element in the wooden structure of Russian architecture. The canonical scheme underlying the composition of a wooden temple. Three-part form of the simplest cell church (Church of Lazarus of the 16th century). The octagon is a new planning technique in architecture. The appearance of an octagonal church with four arches. An ensemble of buildings on the Kizhi island of Lake Onega. A masterpiece of wooden architecture from the 17th century is the twenty-two-domed Church of the Transfiguration.

A quadrangular log frame is the basis of wooden buildings. The simplest form of housing with a stove is a hut. Features of lighting. The composition of a traditional Russian dwelling, the application of the principle of division into separate parts and modular construction. Combination of residential and commercial zones. The evolution of urban housing in the 16th – 17th centuries. Connection with the natural environment and seasonal use of some premises. Various purposes of chambers. Formation of a tower ensemble of buildings. Wooden palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye.

The importance of monasteries in the state and social life of Moscow Rus' XIV- XVII centuries. The influence of Sergius of Radonezh on the development of Orthodoxy. Formation of a new type of monastery with a communal charter. Trinity-Sergius Lavra as a center of Orthodox philosophy and national culture. Participation of monasteries in the development and strengthening of the borders of North-Eastern Rus'. Kirillo-Belozersky, Ferapontov, Solovetsky, Valaam, Mirozhsky and other monasteries. Creative activity of Andrei Rublev and Dionisy. Development of book miniatures.

Formation of art schools in Russian lands. Language and content of the icon. Icon painting is the main type of fine art. Novgorod icons of the XIII-XV centuries. Conciseness and simplicity of composition, precision of drawing, colorful coloring, unique interpretation of images. (Miracle of George about the serpent; Miracle of Flora and Laurel). "Hagiographical" icons. Icons of the “northern letter”. Pskov icons of the XIII-XV centuries. Monochrome palette, heavy figures, contrasting colors. Moscow icons of the XIV - XV centuries.

Andrey Rublev. Biographical information. Work in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Creative school Theophanes the Greek. Participation in the formation of the composition of the Orthodox “high” iconostasis. Frescoes and iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. "Zvenigorod rank". The “Trinity” icon is the relationship between the author’s intention and the original composition. The influence of Andrei Rublev on the Moscow school of icon painting.

Determining the place of decorative and applied arts in Russian artistic culture. Reflection of the process of development of national forms of culture in the history of decorative and applied arts. Traditions of processing materials in artistic craft. Artistic craft of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Cultural connections with Byzantium and Western Europe. A combination of artistic craft and architecture, white stone carving. Development of forging, minting, casting. "Fire gilding" technique. Artistic craft of Novgorod. Enamel, embossing, wood carving, stone carving, bone carving. Wicker ornament in Novgorod craft. Monuments of gold and silver work of the 11th-12th centuries. and the Novgorod school of ancient Russian sewing. Decorative and applied art of the Moscow state in the XIV-XVI centuries. Jewelry making. Face sewing in Moscow and Novgorod. Workshops of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and a school of miniature wood and bone carving. Wood carving in church utensils and temple decoration. Ceramics: the spread of the foot potter's wheel, the emergence of new types of red earthenware. Art of the 16th century. The first information about the royal workshops in the Kremlin. The composition of general stylistic trends in the decorative and applied arts of Moscow. Face sewing, influence of the icon painting school of Dionysius. Sewing from the middle and second half of the 16th century. Jewelry making (filigree, filigree enamel, embossing and carving in silver, niello in gold). Silversmithing of Novgorod, Solvychegodsk, Vologda. Wood carving. Development of through and relief carvings. Floral (“herbal”) ornament in wood carving and painting. The connection between wood painting and the development of icon painting and book art. Areas of its application (interior decoration, decoration of iconostases, furniture, church utensils, caskets, chests, wooden utensils). Openwork and relief carving on bone. Black-polished and stained ceramics. Application of engobe and glaze. The emergence of architectural ceramics. Copper casting and blacksmithing.

Baroque is a system of artistic vision and style. Special shape a synthesis of arts based on the interpenetration and transition of one type of art to another. Entertainment, theatricality. Italian Baroque - the origin and formation of stylistic features. Roman Baroque architecture - characteristics, masters, monuments. Bernini and Borromini. Monumental and easel painting of the Baroque era - trends and masters. Development of genres. Caravaggio. Italian Baroque sculpture – masters and monuments. Bernini. The grandeur of scale, luxury of materials, decorative brightness, variety of tasks and genre richness of the Italian Baroque. The main features of the Baroque style are the unity of fluid, complex, usually curvilinear structures, the richness of the interior, and the decorative composition.

Variants of Art Nouveau in different national schools. General and specific features of modern architecture in different countries. National schools and masters (William Morris, Victor Horta, Henri van de Velde, Antonio Gaudi,). Russian Art Nouveau School (Fedor Shekhtel). Art Nouveau painting. Modern (Art Nouveau) is a characteristic of style. The path from eclecticism to art nouveau architecture. Preserving the significance of historical styles; formation of original principles of form creation. The importance of the individual style of the architect and the specifics of national traditions. Options for rejecting the design value of the order system. The main characteristics of the style: asymmetry, avoidance of the rigid interdependence of the logics of constructing the exterior and interior, the meaning and functions of ornamental and decorative elements, the combination of dissimilar materials, the role of color, the symbolic language of forms, the functionality of the internal space. A variety of trends within Art Nouveau.

Federal Agency for Education State educational institution higher professional education Tula State University Department "DESIGN" Lecture notes of the discipline "History of Culture and Arts" (Federal component of the cycle of general professional disciplines) Discipline code according to the curriculum: ZF.01 TULA 2006 2 Lecture notes of the discipline "History of Culture and Arts" Introduction Art history as a complex of sciences about all types of artistic creativity, their place in common system human culture and as a science with the plastic arts (in a more special sense). Main sections of art history and specific areas. Theory, history and criticism of art. Iconology, structuralism, connoisseurship, formal method, sociology, psychology and ecology of art. The problem of style as one of the most important subjects of art criticism. Stylistic analysis and its purpose. Schools of contemporary art. Classification of types of arts. Specificity and essence various types arts Plastic arts: tectonic and visual. Architecture, decorative and applied arts and design Architecture: the relationship between functional-technical and spiritual-aesthetic principles. Specific artistic media architecture: composition, tectonics, scale, proportions, rhythm.; plasticity of volumes and surfaces, texture and color of building and finishing materials, synthesis of arts, architectonics as an expression of the main figurative idea of a work of art, construction, as the basic principle of construction, design, texture. Architecture as one of the main (along with fine and decorative arts) types of spatial arts; 1) an artistically organized space for human activity; 2) a set of objects that determine the artistic organization of space by their presence, location and functioning; 3) totality creative processes aimed at creating artistic image organized space and the objects that organize it, which are buildings (religious, residential, administrative, industrial, public, etc.), open 3 city spaces (squares, streets, parks), as well as complexes of buildings and open spaces (districts of the city and etc.), which are designed as ensembles. Functional properties of buildings: inaccessibility, openness, capacity, comfort. Decorative and applied arts as a form of art. Bifunctionality: decorative, utilitarian. Ornament is the structural basis of a product, like a pattern. Classification of decorative and applied arts. Functionality and material (metal, ceramics, glass, silver, gold, porcelain, bronze, earthenware, etc.). Decorative and applied arts, along with architecture and design, are a constantly operating factor in the aesthetic organization of the environment and aesthetic impact. Design is a new type of aesthetic activity in the field of industrial production; its tasks, its significance in the life of society. Painting, sculpture, graphics, photography. Painting as a form of fine art. Genres: portrait, landscape, still life; historical, everyday, mythological, battle, animalistic genre. The main types of painting are easel and monumental (stone, ceramic, smalt mosaic, stained glass, fresco and other types of painting). Special types painting: icon painting, miniature, decorative painting ( theater scenery and film decoration), diorama and panorama. Means of expression: composition, drawing, color; tone, color gradations, local color, colorful range, values, reflexes, texture, linear and aerial perspective, light and shadow modeling. The main technical types of painting. Basic tools: brushes, palette knife, airbrushes. Sculpture as a form of fine art. Genres, Varieties - round sculpture and relief. Easel, monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture. Sculpture of small forms. Technology and materials. 4 Graphics as a form of fine art. Genres: landscape (including travel sketches), portrait (including sketch from life); caricature, (satirical drawing, cartoon), poster, newspaper graphics, etc.. Unique, printed, computer graphics. Letter graphics (font, epigraphy, calligraphy). Graphic design. Technical types of graphics (monotype, collage, aquatype, watercolor, gouache, pastel, ink, photomontage, woodcut, linocut, zincography, lithography, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, drypoint, etc.). Artistic and expressive means. Photography as a form of plastic arts; using the visual and expressive capabilities of photography; Genres. Ethnographic, geographical, battle, reportage photography. Art photography and hyperrealism. Theory of art Artistic method as a historically established set of principles of artistic and imaginative thinking in art. Artistic method and artistic direction in art. The concept of style. The history of great artistic styles, the era of their origin, flourishing and decline from antiquity to the beginning of the 20th century. Romanticism, classicism and realism, Art Nouveau, Art Nouveau, Art Nouveau, Secession, etc. symbolism, critical realism, verism, regionalism and naturalism, modernism (surrealism, hyperrealism, avant-garde, abstract art, cubism, favism, expressionism, constructivism, non-objective art, abstract expressionism, tachisme, actionism, informal art, pop art), impressionism and neo-impressionism , Baroque and Neo-Baroque, Gothic and Neo-Gothic, Neo-Russian style, Neo-Renaissance, Neorealism, etc. Art criticism as a branch of art criticism 5 Criticism is one of the types of scientific creative activity, operational analysis of works of art in context modern culture. P. Aretino - "father" art criticism; 16th century. "Salons" by Denis Diderot in France - a genre of critical review of exhibitions; 18 century. C. Baudelaire, T. Gautier, E. Zola in France, D. Ruskin in England, V. V. Stasov in Russia; 19th century. A.N. Benois in Russia - early 20th century. The meaning of criticism; its influence on the art movement, tastes, assessments, and worldview of viewers. Iconology, iconography and formal method Iconology as a direction in art criticism. E. Cassirer (German neo-Kantian philosopher). Iconography (a branch of art criticism that studies themes, symbols and subjects of art) and iconology. Principles of iconology and formal method. K. Fiedler. A. Hildebrand. Hans von Marais. G. Wölfflin. The concept of structuralism; interaction of iconology and structuralism. Sociology of art Theories of socio-economic development, developed in line with the historical and cultural concepts of G. Hegel. The founder of the sociology of art is the French philosopher I. Taine. Lines of development of the sociology of art: general philosophical, theory and history of art, practical sociology of art. Psychology of art Psychology of art as a section of art criticism and as an art criticism direction. Psychoanalysis (3. Freud); ideas of the “collective unconscious” (C.G. Jung); patterns of visual perception - (V. Arnheim). The importance of the psychology of art at the end of the 20th century. Artistic activity and artistic culture The origin of artistic activity. Artistic and religious 6 consciousness in a mythological context. Dialectics of stable and changeable in the history of art. Art in artistic culture. The spiritual content of art: epistemological and axiological aspects. A system of images as the internal form of a work of art. Material-constructive facet artistic form. The structure of the artistic and creative process. A work of art as an organic integrity. Psychological structure of perception of a work of art. The functions of art in its relationship to man, society, nature, culture. Artistic development humanity in the context of artistic culture. General laws of the artistic-historical process: 1. The artist as a subject of creativity; 2. Dialectics of the transitory and enduring in the history of art; 3. Dialectics of progress and regression in artistic development. Sociocultural determinants of artistic development: public consciousness and artistic creativity, art and the class-class structure of society, the national structure of society and art. History of art. The relationship between world history and art history. History and development of art from antiquity to the present day. Historical, artistic, social and national properties of art that are common and unique to each region and country. The level of development of artistic life in various regions of the world, the relationship and coincidence of individual eras of art history with eras of world history. Features of the development of art in different regions of the world. Culture of primitive society Features of mythological thinking. 7 Analogy as a principle for explaining the world (according to E.B. Tylor). Animism is the oldest worldview of man. Kinship relations among members of a primitive tribal society as the reason for the emergence of the idea of universal animation (A.F. Losev). The world as a universal tribal community. A thing as a unity of essence and appearance. Primitive image of the world. Magic performances primitive man. Two basic principles of magic (J. Frazer). L. Lévy-Bruhl about primitive mythology as a principle of expression of primitive thinking and vision of the world. The unsystematic nature of primitive mythology. Prelogicality of primitive thinking. Myth as a secret and sacred property of the tribe. Myth as a complex of ideas about the supernatural. Mythological time and its properties. Participation and its role in the functioning of primitive society. Art in the perception of primitive man. Periodization of the art of primitive society. Paleolithic art. General characteristics of the period. The formation of the clan organization, the emergence of the first religious views. Tools of various shapes. The basis of economic existence is driven hunting. The appearance of the first objects of art - images of animals. Aurignac-Solutre period. Distribution area of art objects. Drawings from the beginning of the period are “pasta”, handprints circled. The evolution of images from the first imperfect drawings of animals to images with correct proportions and clear outlines. Statics as the basis of the style of images of the period. Peculiarities small plastic surgery. “Paleolithic Venuses”, their purpose, main artistic task and style (combination of conventional forms and exaggerations with naturalistic details). Madeleine period. The highest flowering of Paleolithic art. Distribution area of paintings. The location of paintings in a cave: the mystery of the primitive worldview. Painting technique and color specifics. Artistic features of images: poses and movements, scale of images, desire to convey volume, expression and persuasiveness, naturalism. Lack of compositional relationships between individual characters (the scene from the Lascaux cave as a unique attempt to create a coherent narrative composition). Mesolithic art. General characteristics of the period. The beginning of the modern geological era. Small groups of relatives as the basis social organization. Ancestral burial grounds as evidence of its strengthening. The appearance of bows and arrows, boats, weaving fabrics, and wooden utensils. Location of rock paintings. Increasing the overall image scale. Artistic features of images: the emergence of a plot compositional structure, the main character of which is a man. Schematism human figure. The main artistic task is to convey the expression of a person, the perception of the latter as an action, and not an object (“Deer Hunting” in the Valttorta Gorge). Neolithic art. General characteristics of the period. “Neolithic metamorphosis” (P. Teilhard de Chardin). The spread of humanity over a vast territory. Transition to cattle breeding and agriculture. Transition to a sedentary existence. Patriarchy as the basis of social organization. The emergence of pottery production, weaving, and the beginnings of metallurgy. Complicating ideas about the world and its functioning. Artistic practice of the Neolithic era. Disappearance of monumental rock paintings (with the exception of the Neolithic culture of the Sahara). The most common types of art are decoration of ceramic vessels and petroglyphs. The appearance of conventionally ornamental forms in art, the basis of the image becomes a symbol, a sign, and not an image (the development of abstract thinking). The widespread distribution of the same signs is the commonality of Neolithic culture with the simultaneous appearance of local features and differences. Study by the Neolithic 9 artist of the rhythmic patterns of ornament. Organic connection of the ornament with the shape of the vessel. Stylistic analysis ceramics of the Trypillian culture. Art of the Bronze Age. General characteristics of the period. The emergence of foundry. Development of tools and improvement of land cultivation. The emergence of the cult of military leaders. Strengthening the patriarchal organization. Megalithic architecture, its connection with increasingly complex religious and cult ideas and needs. Distribution of megaliths. Forms and methods of decorating a menhir. The dolmen is the result of using a post-and-beam architectural structure. Types and purpose of dolmens. Cromlech, its structure and connection with solar and lunar cults. Cromlech as a primitive observatory. Cromlech at Stonehenge, its composition and history. Artistic practice of the Bronze Age. Deepening local differentiation of individual cultural traditions. Development of toreutics. The technical level of execution of products made of bronze and other metals and their artistic features. The appearance of the potter's wheel and the complication of the shapes of ceramic vessels. Art products from metals in the mounds of the Maykop and Koban cultures. Art of the Iron Age. General characteristics of the period. Improving land cultivation iron tools. Increased wealth stratification. Complication of spiritual culture. Specialization of representatives of artistic creativity. The emergence of local variants within the same archaeological culture, differences in stylistic devices between them. Artistic practice of the Iron Age. Decorativeness and ornamentation, the desire for pomp and luxury, complexity and overload of the composition are the stylistic features of artistic products of the period. Development of pottery production, emergence of 10 improved forms of ceramics. The complication of the ornamental decor of ceramic dishes, the appearance of images of animals and people - characters from myths. Culture of the Hallstatt period. Features of artistic products. The art of Scythian culture. Art and object culture of Ancient Egypt Periodization. general characteristics ancient egyptian culture. Relative geographical isolation. Irrigation farming system requiring centralized management. Widespread occurrence of various types of stone, gold deposits in Nubia, almost complete absence of wood, imported silver. The early emergence of a culture based on the worldview of primitive man of the Neolithic era. Slow development of ancient Egyptian society, long-term preservation of magical primitive ideas. Art of the predynastic period (late 5-4 thousand BC). Forms of burials determined by the specifics of belief in an afterlife. Small plastic from burials. Wall paintings in burials: the search for expressiveness in conveying the most essential. Selection of visual techniques. Paintings from the tomb of the leader in Hierakonpolis. Reliefs on tiles for rubbing paint. Tile of Pharaoh Narmer. Theme of the plots. The abundance of hieroglyphs, the connection of the image with the techniques of pictographic and later hieroglyphic writing. Design of characteristic features pictorial canon: line-by-line composition, different scales of the figures of the pharaoh and subjects, drawing of the image (using the method of orthogonal projections to increase the information content of the image - according to B.V. Rauschenbach). Art Ancient kingdom(XXX - XXIII centuries BC) Art of the I - II dynasties. Development of the funeral cult, development and complication of the tomb. The emergence and spread of mastaba. Construction and design of the mastaba. Necropolises in Saqqara and Abydos: features of architecture and

1. The importance of culture in the development of humanity

Economy, politics and culture are three main areas, without simultaneous advancement in which society cannot develop successfully.

3. The importance of the culture of pre-class society

Primitive culture played a significant role in the subsequent development of mankind.

4. Main characteristics of Egyptian culture

The main features of the culture: hieroglyphic writing, artistic style, religious beliefs and the cult of the dead. It is characterized by special attention to the inner world of a person, an accurate depiction of the drama of life experiences.

Literary memos: “Texts of the Pyramids”, “Book of the Dead”, “Texts of the Sarcophagi”, “Song of the Harper”.

5. Ancient mythology in world culture

Writers and artists from various European countries began to take episodes from ancient Greek mythology as the plots of their works. Some works of outstanding Italian artists of the Renaissance are devoted to the depiction of mythical subjects and deities -

Leonardo da Vinci (bust of the goddess Flora), Sandro Botticelli (paintings “The Birth of Venus”, “Spring”), Titian (painting “Venus in front of the Mirror”), etc. The outstanding Italian sculptor Benvenuto took the plot from the images of ancient Greek mythology for his wonderful statue of Perseus Cellini.

A play by V. was written based on plots borrowed from Greek mythology.

Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida", poem "Venus and Adonis". The names of mythological heroes are found in many other works.

Shakespeare. Sculptural groups created on subjects of ancient Greek mythology,

Many wonderful buildings built in Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 17th-19th centuries are decorated.

6. Main characteristics of Greek culture

The Greeks actively adopted the scientific and technical achievements of other peoples. Therefore, the entire history of Ancient Greece is now usually divided as follows:

I. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean or palace civilization (III-II millennium BC);

II. Homeric (“dark”) centuries (XI-IX);

III. The era of ancient civilization itself:

1. archaic period (VIII-VI - the time of the formation of Hellas, the formation of policies (city-states);

2. classical period (V-IV centuries BC) - the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek culture and the development of democracy;

3. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) - the completion of the development of the culture of Ancient Greece, the loss of its political independence.

7. Artistic culture of classical Greece

At this time, Greek theater and the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished. The theater became a true educator of the people; it shaped the views and beliefs of free citizens. Greek tragedy in the images of myths reflected the struggle of the people against external enemies, for political equality and social justice.

5th century architecture BC e. developed and improved the type of peripterus, a building surrounded by columns. The leading place is occupied by temples of the Doric order. The heroic character of classical art is especially clearly manifested in the sculptural decorations of Doric temples, on the pediments of which statues carved from marble were usually placed. The sculptors drew subjects for their sculptural works from mythology. Ithagoras of Rhegium (480-450). By the emancipation of his figures, which included, as it were, two movements (the initial one and the one in which part of the figure would appear in a moment), he powerfully contributed to the development of the realistic art of sculpting. Contemporaries admired his findings, the vitality and truthfulness of his images. But, of course, the few Roman copies of his works that have come down to us (such as “The Boy Taking out a Thorn.” Rome, Palazzo Conservatori) are insufficient for a full assessment of the work of this brave innovator.

The great sculptor Myron, who worked in Athens in the mid-5th century, created a statue that had a huge influence on the development of fine art. This is his bronze “Discobolus”, known to us from several Roman copies, so damaged that only their totality made it possible to somehow recreate the lost image.

8. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome

Rome becomes the heir to Hellenic civilization. Unlike Athens, Rome did not create high culture during the period of its formation and prosperity as a city - a country. Roman mythology was more primitive than Greek. Only under the influence of the Greeks did images of gods begin to be made and temples were built. The Greek gods were taken as an example.

9. Interaction of Byzantine and Old Russian culture

IN last years Historians, philosophers, philologists, and art historians are actively developing a wide range of topics on the problem of dialogue of cultures. Among them is the question of the stylistic correlation of ancient Russian art. The thesis that the Eastern Christian civilization that developed in Byzantium had great significance and a long period of influence on the formation and development of the cultures of the Slavic peoples is considered generally accepted today. The study of the perception and processing of this heritage - especially in the field of art - is necessary to understand many processes and phenomena that took place both in Byzantium itself and in the countries adjacent to it.

Research on Byzantine-Russian contacts in the artistic and aesthetic field has been carried out by domestic and foreign science for more than two centuries, during which a significant amount of information has been accumulated about Byzantine reminiscences in Russian medieval art. The range of opinions is quite wide. Until recently, there have been debates around the terminology to denote the cultural relations of Byzantium and Rus' (influence, transplantation, mimesis, dialogue, etc.), due to the polysemanticism of concepts typical of humanitarian knowledge. Scientists are determining the intensity of this process in specific chronological periods, the degree of Byzantine influence on ancient Russian architecture, painting, iconography, arts and crafts.

10. Fundamentals of the worldview of Byzantium and its role in the development of culture

Byzantine culture absorbed the ancient heritage and culture of the peoples who inhabited it. However, the influence of antiquity was emasculated by the church and despotism. In Byzantium there was folk culture: epics, fables, folk songs, pagan festivals. Difference Byzantine culture from the west - weak cultural influence of barbarians.

The centers of Byzantine culture are Constantinople, provincial centers, monasteries, feudal estates. Through Byzantium, which existed until the 12th century. the most cultural state Europe, they have reached us Roman law, ancient literary sources lost in the West. Greek scientists and artists made a significant contribution to the world cultural process and its development. Byzantine craft technology, architecture, painting, literature, natural science, and civil canon law contributed to the formation of the medieval culture of other peoples.

11. Basic forms of Byzantine art

1. Architecture.

2. Temple painting (mosaic, fresco).

3. Iconography

4. Book miniature.

12. Historical conditions formation of the culture of the European Middle Ages

Condition for the formation of culture European Middle Ages became Christianity in the form of capitalism. This was no longer the primitive Christianity characteristic of the period of the collapse of the Roman Empire.

13. Formation artistic principles medieval art

Religion is more than wary of female beauty. In Christianity, physical beauty is traditionally recognized as illusory and deceptive, and inquisitors generally saw in a beautiful female face almost as sure a sign of witchcraft as flying on a broomstick.

Meanwhile, the attitude towards female beauty in itself in Judaism is perhaps even more strict than in Christianity. Listening to women's singing and admiring a woman's face is prohibited. And in the Talmud you can find many statements like the following: “Whoever passes money from hand to hand to a woman with the intention of looking at her will not escape hell, even if it is full of Torah and good deeds, like Mosherabeinu” (Iruvin 18).

But still, in continuation of the previously touched upon topic of “Day of Love,” I would like to talk today about an “unpopular” alternative approach. I would like to consider the question of whether there is a positive side to female beauty. religious meaning, and if so, what is it?

Cult female beauty essentially known to only one single culture - European. This cult, if not born, was at least formed under the skies of Provence in the work of the troubadours, who discovered the so-called “courtly love,” i.e. - selfless admiration for the Lady. This cult, of course, made sense only in the broader context of knightly service.