Artists of the early Renaissance. Early Renaissance painting
Lakes occupy about 1.8% of the globe, mostly small, quiet bodies of water with gently sloping sandy shores. But there are real giant lakes, several hundred kilometers long, with an area larger than some seas, on the surface of which real storms with multi-meter waves rage. Meet the ten largest lakes in the world.
10. Great Slave Lake
Great Slave Lake has an area of 28,930 km², and is the remains of a reservoir formed after the melting of glaciers formed during ice age. This is the deepest lake in North America, located in Canada, with a depth of 614 meters, which is bordered on one side by the tundra and on the other by the Canadian boundary shield. The name of the lake was given in honor of the Indian tribe that lived on the shore, whose name was very similar to English word"slave", which translates as "slave".
9. Lake Malawi
Lake Malawi, also known as Nyasa, with an area of 30,044 km 2, contains 7% of the world's fresh water reserves. The reservoir is a depression on the border of Mozambique, Tanzania and Malawi, 706 meters deep, into which 14 rivers flow. Storms often rage along the steep shores of the lake, during which shipping almost completely stops.
8. Great Bear Lake
The most big lake Canada, Great Bear Lake has an area of 31,153 km². The reservoir is located beyond the Arctic Circle at an altitude of 186 meters above sea level and has a depth of 413 meters. It was from uranium mined on the shores of Great Bear Lake that the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were made.
7. Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal, with an area of 31,722 km², is the largest freshwater reservoir in the world, storing 19% of the world's freshwater reserves. The reservoir, 1,637 meters deep, was formed at the site of a tectonic fault, and is surrounded on all sides by hills and mountains. By the way, this is the most deep lake in a world where more than 300 rivers flow in and only one river, the Angara, flows out. The most important thing is Baikal and its shores, it is a home for large quantity animals and plants that are found nowhere else in the world.
6. Lake Tanganyika
Lake Tanganyika, with an area of 32,893 km 2, located on the border of Congo, Tanzania, Zambia and Burundi, was formed at the site of a tectonic fault on the border of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. It is the second deepest (its depth is 1,470 meters) enclosed body of water in the world and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It also bears the title of the longest lake in the world, stretching 673 kilometers from north to south. The shores of Tanganyika are high cliffs and only on the eastern side there are flat areas. Due to the fact that the lake was formed many millions of years ago with a closed ecosystem, there are many unique species of fish that cannot be found anywhere else in the world.
5. Lake Michigan
Lake Michigan, with an area of 58,000 km2, is the only one of the five Great Lakes that is entirely located in the United States. It is located at an altitude of 177 meters above sea level, its depth is 281 meters. Michigan is located high in northern latitudes and its waters are frozen for about four months of the year.
4. Lake Huron
Lake Huron, on the border of the USA and Canada, with an area of 59,600 km 2, has a depth of 229 meters and is located at an altitude of 176 meters above sea level. The most interesting thing is that Huron has a simply huge number of islands, more than 30 thousand, among which Manitoulin Island stands apart, the largest freshwater island in the world, which in turn contains the largest inland lake in the world - Manitou, with an area of 106 km 2.
3. Lake Victoria
Lake Victoria, with an area of 69,485 km 2, is the largest African and tropical lake in the world. The reservoir was formed in a depression on the East African platform on the border of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda at an altitude of 1134 meters above sea level. The lake with a large number of bays, bays and islands is surrounded by low swampy shores, only in the southwestern part does the water rest against sharply rising rocks. Victoria has a depth of 84 meters, the main source of water replenishment of which is tropical rains. By the way, the longest river in the world, the Nile, originates from here.
2. Lake Superior
The world's second largest and largest lake North America– Upper, has an area of 82.414 km 2. The reservoir was formed in the basin as a result of the movement of tectonic plates and soil erosion, which was filled with water from melted glaciers. Strong winds constantly blow over the lake, 406 meters deep, not protected by mountains, which is why strong seiches often form on its surface ( standing waves), severely destroying the banks.
1. Caspian Sea
The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea, yes, it is a lake, despite the fact that it is most often called a sea, has an area of 371,000 km 2. The banks of this reservoir are flat and swampy, only in the northern part they are strongly indented, in the area of the delta of the Volga and Ural rivers. The Caspian Sea, which is located on the border of Russia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan, has a depth of 1025 meters. The most interesting thing is that this lake appeared as a result of tectonic shifts, which led to the appearance of a closed body of water separated from the world ocean.
Volkhov, Russia - known from history as the beginning of the journey “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” When searching for unusual rivers of the world, it is most often encountered. She attracts with a legend that we will retell. In the Middle Ages, the Novgorodians, outraged by the obscene behavior of their bishop John, decided to expel him from their possessions. They put him on a raft and sent him on his way. But that was not the case. Before the raft had time to float out into the middle of the stream, it... reverse side! That is, upstream. The Lord has done a MIRACLE! - the Novgorodians exclaimed, and, having taken their spiritual shepherd out of the unusual river, they returned him back with honors.
And the box opened simply: the slope of the Volkhov River, flowing from Lake Ilmen to Lake Ladoga, is very small, and when there is heavy rain at the mouth and drought at the source, the ratio of lake levels changes, and the river begins to flow in the opposite direction. This is exactly what happened on the day of the expulsion of the unlucky servant of God. So there was no miracle, but the fact that Bishop John was a very lucky guy is beyond any doubt.
And there are not so few such rivers with reverse flow in Russia and in the world. Let's list some of them. The common point here is the slight slope of the riverbed.
Sukhona, Russia. Just like Volkhov, it has a very slight slope - only a couple of centimeters per kilometer. Flowing from Lake Kubenskoye, the Sukhona calmly makes its way to the mouth. But in the spring, when its tributaries Vologda and Lezha, overflowing with melt water, quickly rush into it, they literally block the flow of the river with their flows. The water level in this place rises and the Sukhona, without thinking twice, turns back and flows again into Lake Kubenskoye. Depending on the year, this lasts from three to nine days.
Ob, Russia. When the mighty, amazing and longest and widest river in Russia floods, its level rises and blocks some tributaries. And for some time they begin to flow in the opposite direction from the Ob.
Penzhina, Kamchatka, Russia . Another unusual river that changes its flow direction. It flows into Penzhinskaya Bay, and with every ebb and flow it flows back and forth.
Shuya, Karelia, Russia . Ushkozero, from which this interesting river flows, is fed by underground springs and, when the volume of feeding water decreases, the water level in the lake decreases. As a result, the river changes its direction. This happens 15-20 times a year.
Sap, Kingdom of Cambodia. It flows out of Tonle Sap Lake and flows into the Mekong River. When the Mekong floods, its level rises by 7-12 meters, and its waters rush along the bed of the Sap River into Lake Tonle Sap. Local residents celebrate this event, even giving it a name - “Festival of Returned Waters.” There is reason for joy, and a great one: the waters of the Mekong greatly replenish the lake’s fish stocks. Its quantity can be judged by the fact that during the return flow of the Sap River, the water level in the lake increases 3-4 times. When the level of the Mekong falls, the Sap begins to flow again from the lake, and it slowly becomes shallow. In the area freed from water, a lot of fertile silt remains, and enterprising Cambodians are growing record harvests of rice here. This lowland is called the "rice dish of Asia."
Avar, Greece. Similar to the Kamchatka river Penzhina. It flows into the Aegean Sea, and with each ebb and flow it changes the direction of its flow.
2. A unique river in the world - A river that exists only at night.
The unique river Huata Rique.
Even the most unique! And its unusualness lies in the fact that it exists only at night, and is not there during the day. But this secret has long been revealed. The fact is that the river is fed by Andean snow that melted during the day, the water of which, flowing from the mountains in streams, reaches the bed of Huata Rique only in the evening. During the night, the water supply is depleted and the river ceases to exist until the next night. Of course, there are no fish here. And yes, the name of this unusual river is translated from the local dialect as “Night Butterfly”. Very aptly noted, don’t you think?
A river can have not one mouth, but two. This happens when a river bifurcates into branches that empty into different bodies of water.
An example would be R. Orinoco in South America . The Orinoco branches in the upper reaches into two branches, one of which continues the path under the same name, and the second, called Casiquiare, flows into a tributary of the Amazon - the Rio Negro.
Another example R. Pizhma Mezenskaya – this is already a Russian river. One of its branches flows into the Mezen, the other into the Pechora.
Kur, Far East, Russia . The mouths of its branches are located at a distance of 200 km from each other: one on the Amur near Khabarovsk, the other on Lake Bolon.
4. Unique rivers of the world and rivers of Russia - Rivers that go underground for a while.
There are water streams in the world that flow not only on the surface of the earth, but also periodically go underground. There are no obstacles in the way of such rivers and mountains. This, for example, is R. Sim on Southern Urals : it goes underground at the foot of the mountain, and comes to the surface on the other side.
A rare sight - a key on the right bank of the same river Sim, one and a half kilometers below the mouth of another river - Berda. It shoots straight out of the cliff, but it’s interesting that the water pours out in spurts: for about three minutes, vigorously, and then calmly for the same amount of time.
In the Perm region, not far from the village of Kyn, the tributaries of the Chusovaya River perform such a trick: they seem to dive underground and then reappear on the surface. The place where they disappear is called dive by local residents, and where they come out into the light again is called dive. Local Kumysh river has cut itself such a channel that for six kilometers it is almost invisible, and only then does it break out from under the rock and again become an ordinary river.
In the Urals, about fifteen rivers, large, small and very small, are distinguished by such inconstancy - sometimes they are visible, sometimes they are not, hidden. Right tributary of the Kosva - Gubeshka - not visible for ten kilometers, the river is hidden for eight Vezhey .
5. Unusual rivers of the world - Rivers flowing higher than the surrounding area.
Yes, this happens too. We are accustomed to the fact that rivers flow in depressions of the relief, but on earth there are natural streams that flow along the hills. This happens with rivers originating in the mountains. Swift streams erode rocks and carry them to the plain. On the plains, the flow becomes slow and the silt, gravel and other material carried by the water are deposited in the riverbeds. Gradually, year after year, the river bed rises and becomes higher than the surrounding landscape. Examples include Rioni in Georgia, Po in Italy, Chinese Yellow River, Red in Vietnam and others.
6. Unusual river of the world - The river with the most violent character.
R. Yellow River, China
– fully deserves this title. “The Woe of China”, “The River That Tears the Heart”, “The River That Brings Thousands of Troubles” are just some of the many nicknames given to the Yellow River local residents. And she fully deserved these unflattering accusations: 26 times per human memory it abruptly changed its course, overflowing its banks 1,500 times, causing catastrophic destruction. During a flood, the river level becomes 10-12 meters higher than the banks, and the water quickly floods the entire surrounding area, sweeping away everything in its path. Over the past 40 years alone, during the construction of dams and coastal fortifications on this river, three times more work was completed than during the construction of the Panama Canal, and twice as much as the Suez Canal.
7. A unique river in the world - A river with very muddy water.
And again R. Yellow River, China
breaks records. It is the muddiest large river: one cubic meter of river water contains up to 30-40 kg of solid material. The annual removal of solids is 2 billion tons. How long will it be, well, not in parrots, but, say, in the pyramids of Cheops? And there will be three and a half hundred of these pyramids, consisting of yellow sand. Therefore, it is not surprising that the sea into which the Yellow River flows is called the Yellow Sea. The Chinese say about the Yellow River that “you can’t drink its water, because it’s too thick for that, you can’t plow on it, because it’s very rare.”
8. Unusual rivers of the world - Rivers that do not flow anywhere.
When we studied the structure of a river, we wrote that every river has a source, a channel and an mouth (i.e., the place where the river flows into another body of water). So, this is not true for all rivers: some of them do not have a mouth. Such rivers are typical, first of all, for arid regions of the globe, for example, Kazakhstan and Central Asia: Big and Small Uzen, Chu, Zeravshan, Murgab, Turgai, Sarysu
and others. The largest river of this type is Tejen
. Its length is 1150 km. It originates in the mountains of Afghanistan and flows through the territory of Iran and Turkmenistan, where it is completely dismantled for irrigation.
R. Okavango in South Africa also has no mouth: its waters are lost in the Kalahari Desert, forming impenetrable swamps.
9. A unique river in the world - A river with a sharp change in water temperature.
R. Puarenga, New Zealand
– simply an extraordinary river! The water on its left bank is almost boiling, while on the right it is cold as ice. This is due to the river’s feeding sources, which are hot and cold springs. And the river flow is so fast that the water does not have time to mix.
10. Unusual rivers of Russia - Rivers with an unusual flow pattern.
R. Sviyaga, Russia, tributary of the Volga. It is unique in that for almost 400 km it flows parallel to the Volga, but in the opposite direction. In some places, for example, near Ulyanovsk, Sviyaga comes very close to the Volga, but then moves away again, slowly pouring its waters into it.
R. Piana, Russia, tributary of the Sura.
Also a very unusual river. Its length is about 400 km, and the mouth from the source is located only 30 km. The pattern of its flow is very tortuous, reminiscent of the tread of a drunken person, which is why it got its name. Academician Ivan Ivanovich Lepekhin traveled around Russia in 1768 and described Piana as follows: “Its flow is very radiating and crooked, which is why the name Drunken River came about.”
R. Ural and r. Pechora, Russia. These rivers are interesting because of the stepwise direction of the currents: for some time they flow in a meridional direction to the south, then sharply at an angle of 90 degrees. change their direction, then again turn at a right angle to the south. The reason for this strange behavior These are faults in the earth's crust through which rivers flow.
11. Unusual rivers of the world and rivers of Russia - Rivers whose tributaries are larger than the main one.
As a rule, in a river system, the largest, longest and deepest river is the main river. But, as always, there are exceptions to every rule. Let us list some rivers that confirm the last statement.
By volume of water:
Angara, Russia, right tributary of the Yenisei – the volume of water that the Angara brings to the Yenisei is almost twice as much as it itself brings to the confluence.
Kama, Russia, right tributary of the Volga - the same situation as with the Angara. Only the volume of water is 1.5 times greater.
Yonne, France, tributary of the Seine . To the confluence, the Yonne brings 105 cubic meters of water per second, and the Seine - only 75.
By lenght:
Sukhona, Russia, tributary of the Northern Dvina. 1130 and 750 km respectively.
Brahmaputra, India, tributary of the Ganges. Main river shorter than its tributary by 200 km.
Darling, Australia, tributary of the Murray River. Murray is 170 km shorter than Darling.
Missouri, USA, tributary of the Mississippi. 4740 and 3950 km respectively.
12. Unique river of the world - River under the sand.
Gascoigne, Australia.
There is such an amazing river in Western Australia. There is a river, and it is marked on the map, but it is impossible to see it. In place of the channel there is a wide strip of sand, bordered by lush vegetation along the “banks”. And the river flows under the sand and is quite large: it has 36 tributaries. In English, Gascoigne is aptly called “the river up and down”, in Russian “the river in reverse”.
13. Unique rivers of the world - Intersecting rivers.
Welna and Nelba, Poland.
They intersect, not merge. Moreover, they intersect at right angles. And even more: when crossing them, the waters do not mix, but each flow their own way. Scientists explained this phenomenon by the difference in temperatures and flow rates of the two rivers. There was even an experiment: paint was poured into two rivers - blue into Nelba, and red into Velna. And at the point of intersection the colors did not mix at all: the red flowed in its own channel, and the blue, on top of the red, in its own way.
14. Unique river of the world - Multi-colored river.
Caño Cristales River, Colombia
- an amazingly beautiful “river of five colors”. The diversity of colors in river water is given by the red, yellow, green and green algae living in it. blue colors. The water in the river is practically distilled, there are almost no minerals and salts in it, and it is not suitable for drinking. However, small fish live in it, which somehow still find food for themselves.
15. Unusual rivers of the world - Very short rivers.
We are used to measuring the length of rivers in kilometers, but there are many water streams on earth whose length is only a few meters. Let's look at examples.
Rowe, Montana, USA . One of its arms is only 17.7 meters long.
Reprua, Abkhazia. It flows out of underground caves on the shores of the Black Sea and immediately flows into it. It is the coldest river on the Caucasian coast. Its length is 18 meters. According to the ancient Abkhaz legend, Reprua are the tears of the daughters of the underground spirit.
River D, USA. Length – 36 meters. And the name suits the length quite well.
16. Unique river in the world - The highest mountain river.
Rivers flow not only in valleys and lowlands, but also high in the mountains. For example,
Yarlung Tsangpo, Tibet - the highest mountain river flowing through the South Tibetan plains, located at an altitude of almost 3000 meters above sea level.
17. Unique river in the world - The widest river.
When talking about rivers, it is customary to name their length. Well, what is the widest river in the world?
Widest in the world - R. Rio de la Plata . It reaches a width of 225 km and is the result of the confluence of two rivers - the Uruguay and the Paraná. By the way, the widest river in Russia is the Ob. During a spill, its width reaches 60 km.
18. Unusual rivers of the world and rivers of Russia - Rivers with acidic water.
R. El Rio Vinegre
– the most acidic, flows in the area of the active Purace volcano (Colombia). Its length is about 1260 kilometers. River water contains 11 parts of sulfuric acid and 9 parts of hydrochloric acid for every 1000 parts and is so sour that not a single fish can live in it. One of the reasons for the high acid content is the proximity of the volcano.
And in our vast country there is a stream called Sour : it flows from the slopes of the active Mendeleev volcano on the island of Kunashir from the Kuril Islands group.
19. A unique river in Russia and the world - The coldest river.
R. Indigirka
, flowing into the Arctic Ocean, is considered the coldest river in the world. Towards the end of winter, the lower reaches of the Indigirka can freeze through - winters in these places (Yakutia) are among the harshest in the world.
20. Unusual rivers of Russia - Rivers with salt water.
Many people believe that river water can only be fresh. But that's not true. If a river flows through salt layers, its water becomes salty. There are many examples of such rivers, here are some of them:
Solyanka, Yakutia, Russia. Salt layers were formed here many millions of years ago, when the sea that once splashed here retreated.
Liquid Solyanka, Saratov region, Russia.
Berdyanka, Orenburg region, Russia. In the upper reaches the river is fresh, but in the lower reaches it erodes the salt layer and becomes noticeably salty.
21. A unique river in the world - A river flowing from the sea.
As a rule, rivers flow into some other body of water: a river, lake, sea, ocean... But there is such an unusual river that flows out of the sea.
Tadjoura, northeast Africa. It flows out of the Gulf of Tadjoura, flows inland and flows into Lake Assal.
22. A unique river in the world - A river sentenced to death.
Examples of tyranny by those in power have always been striking in their unexpectedness. But the Persian king Cyrus surpassed everyone: he sentenced the river to death!
Diala, Iraq. She was sentenced to death for drowning a “sacred” in it. White horse Persian king. The sentence was carried out: 360 canals were dug to drain river waters. The river ceased to exist for 1000 years. But nature took its toll. The desert sands covered the canals, and the “sentenced” returned to its previous channel.
23. A unique river in the world - A river that changes its course every year and is the most “load-carrying”.
Kosi, India . The river is known for the fact that every year it creates a new channel for itself, eroding the rocks of the Himalayas on its way. The river carries all the excavated material with it. The annual volume of sediment reaches 120 million cubic meters, which is equivalent to the volume of 8,000,000 freight cars!
The Styx is a mythological river flowing through the kingdom of the dead in the domain of the gloomy Hades. She also has a namesake in the real world.
Styx, Perm region, Russia. And here, however, there were some dead people - the river separates the city of Perm from the cemetery.
25. Unusual rivers of Russia - Namesake rivers, rivers - clones.
Maiden, Voronezh region, Russia. There are two rivers with this name. And even Furthermore: They both have tributaries called Rossoshka, and both flow into the Don.
Don. There are six rivers on the globe with this name.
Control guide. Two rivers with one name. One flows into the river. Ussuri, the other in Bikin. For some reason, there is a widespread opinion on the Internet that there is only one river, Kontrovod, and every three months it changes its flow direction and flows into one river, then into another. But, unlike the rivers with a reverse flow described at the beginning of the article, two rivers called Kontrovod are separated by the Strelnikov Ridge, through which the water flow cannot flow back and forth under any conditions.
26. Unique rivers of the world - Blue rivers, icy banks.
Ice rivers, Greenland.
Another type of unusual rivers that exist on our planet are the rivers of the icy island of Greenland. Greenland is covered by a thick ice sheet, the surface of which begins to thaw with the arrival of summer. Meltwater collects in streams, and the streams flow into rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean. The water of these unique rivers has an amazing aquamarine hue, which, in combination with the dazzling white icy banks, amazes happy observers with its extraordinary beauty.
27. Unique rivers of Russia - The cleanest rivers in the world.
Vonchi, Mari El, Russia
- the cleanest river in the world. Vonchi is a shallow river 33 km long and 2-3 meters wide, a tributary of the river. Fly. No contaminants were found in the water of this forest river, which makes it stand out even among other reservoirs in this region known for their purity.
Irtysh, Russia, tributary of the Ob - is also recognized as one of the cleanest rivers on our planet.
28. Unusual rivers of the world and rivers of Russia - Rivers “Tamara and I walk as a pair.”
There are rivers on the globe that have underground counterparts.
Kara-Balta, Kyrgyzstan . The river flows from the Kyrgyz ridge. Kara-Balta, giving its waters to wheat fields, sugar beet plantations, orchards. Examining its bed, scientists discovered that even before entering the valley, the river loses about a third of its flow. When they drilled a well, it turned out that this river was two stories high! Seeping through the pebbles and sand, part of its water formed, as it were, a second, underground stream.
Volga, Russia. In 1981, hydrogeologists established that across the territory of the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic a large underground river runs parallel to the Volga, and in some places even adjoins it.
Amazon, South America. At the beginning of the 21st century, the world's longest underground river was discovered under the longest surface river in the world., flowing parallel to the Amazon at a depth of 4000 m. It originates in the Andes and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Its unofficial name is Hamza, in honor of the scientist who discovered it. The flow speed of the Hamza River does not exceed several meters per year, and the width is about 400 meters.
29. Unusual river of the world - A river playing hide and seek.
In Yugoslavia there is a river that first carries its waters in a narrow gorge, and then completely disappears into huge caves. Having walked a long way through the underground galleries, she disappears into a deep crack. Exactly - it disappears, because no one knows where it goes. They tried to find out with the help of dyes, but colored water was found in many springs around Trieste and even in the city water supply...
30. A unique river in the world - Underwater river.
It turns out that there are such unusual rivers on our wonderful planet. In 2010, a unique underwater river was discovered at the bottom of the Black Sea. An amazing river has the same elements as surface rivers: banks, waterfalls, rapids, floodplains and even whirlpools. The latter, by the way, twist not counterclockwise (like all rivers in the Northern Hemisphere), but along it. Scientists have not yet figured out what causes this phenomenon.
The waters of the unusual underwater river are several times saltier than the surrounding sea water. The river flows through a trench 35 meters deep and about one kilometer wide. The length of the unique river is 60 km. The river flow speed is 6.5 km/h. If this unusual river flowed on the surface of the earth, it would be the sixth largest river in the world.
This was the article Unique and unusual rivers of the world and rivers of Russia."See further:
The area of the Red Sea is 450,000 km², almost 2/3 of the sea lies in the tropical zone.
Volume - 251,000 km³.
According to various estimates, the length (in the north-south direction) ranges from 1932 to 2350 km, width - from 305 to 360 km. The shores are slightly indented, their outlines are mainly predetermined by fault tectonics, and almost along their entire length the eastern and western shores are parallel to each other.
The bottom topography includes: coastal shallows (up to a depth of 200 m), the widest in the southern part of the sea, with numerous coral and indigenous islands; so-called main trog- a narrow depression that occupies most of the seabed, on average to a depth of 1000 m; axial trough - a narrow and deep trench, as if embedded in the main trough, with a maximum depth of different sources, from 2604 to 3040 meters. The average sea depth is 437 m.
There are few islands in the northern part of the sea (for example: Tiran Island) and only south of 17° N. w. Several groups with numerous islands were formed: the Dahlak archipelago in the southwestern part of the sea is the largest, and the Farasan, Suakin, Hanish archipelagos are smaller. There are also separate islands - for example, Kamaran.
In the north of the sea there are two gulfs: Suez and Aqaba, which is connected to the Red Sea through the Strait of Tiran. A fault runs through the Gulf of Aqaba, so the depth of this gulf reaches large values(up to 1800 meters).
The peculiarity of the Red Sea is that not a single river flows into it, and rivers usually carry silt and sand with them, significantly reducing the transparency of sea water. Therefore, the water in the Red Sea is crystal clear.
The Red Sea is the saltiest sea in the World Ocean. 1 liter of water here contains 41 g of salts (in the open ocean - 34 g, in the Black Sea - 18, in the Baltic - only 5 grams of salts per liter of water). During the year, no more than 100 mm of atmospheric precipitation falls over the sea (and not everywhere and only in the winter months), while 20 times more evaporates in the same time - 2000 mm (this means that every day more than half a centimeter evaporates from the surface of the sea water). In the complete absence of water supply from land, this water deficit in the sea is compensated only by the supply of water from the Gulf of Aden. In the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, there are simultaneously currents entering and exiting the Red Sea. Over the course of a year, almost 1,000 km³ more water is brought into the sea than is taken out of it. It takes only 15 years for the Red Sea to completely exchange water.
In 1886, during an expedition on the Russian corvette “Vityaz” in the Red Sea, waters with an abnormally high temperature were discovered at a depth of 600 meters:21. The Swedish ship Albatross also discovered similar waters in 1948, moreover, with abnormally high salinity. The presence of hot metal-bearing brines at great depths in the Red Sea was finally established in 1964 by an expedition on the American ship Discovery, when the water temperature from a depth of 2.2 km was 44 °C and its salinity was 261 grams per liter. By 1980, 15 places on the bottom of the Red Sea were discovered with similar waters, which, together with the adjacent bottom sediments, are highly enriched in metals: 33.
Geological structure and bottom topography
The Red Sea is very young. Its formation began about 25 million years ago, when a crack appeared in the earth's crust and the East African Rift Valley was formed. Under the influence of centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth, the African plate separated from the Arabian plate, and their reversal formed a “spiral” twisting to the northeast, and between them a gap formed in the earth’s crust, which gradually, over thousands of years, was filled with sea water. The plates are constantly moving - the relatively flat shores of the Red Sea are moving apart at a rate of 1 cm per year, or 1 m per century (Kendall F. Haven says that at this rate of expansion in the next 200 million years, the Red Sea will be as wide as the Atlantic Ocean) - but also at different speeds relative to each other: the movement of the African plate was very slow, while the Arabian plate moved much faster and, as a result, the Somali plate began to shift to the east. The spiral movement of the Arabian Plate led to the locking of part of the huge Tethys Ocean, which washed Africa, and subsequently the formation of the Mediterranean Sea. This is confirmed by the fact that rocks and minerals characteristic of Mediterranean Sea, were also found in Krasnoye. And further rotation of the Arabian and Somali plates opened a strait in the south, into which the waters of the Indian Ocean poured, ultimately leading to the formation of the Gulf of Aden. The movement of continental plates continued to influence the terrain. In the south, a large segment that broke off from the Arabian plate eventually closed the passage that formed between the African and Somali plates. The sea dried up here, and a valley was formed, known as the Afar Triangle. This geologically unique region has given scientists a lot of information about the history of the planet and the evolution of mankind. The lowest segment of the Afar Triangle is currently slowly sinking under water and will eventually fall back below sea level.
The changes, of course, affected not only this local area of the earth's surface. The shift of the Syrian-African fault to the north led to the formation of the Bay of Suez. The Arabian and African plates continued their movement from at different speeds(this difference in speeds was caused by different distances of the plates from the axis of rotation). The inevitable friction between the plates formed another valley, very similar to the bed of the Red Sea. This fault starts from the Strait of Tiran and goes further north to the Gulf of Eilat, as do the valleys in which the Dead Sea and Arava lie. End point these valleys are Syria. Continuous tectonic activity shifted the Bay of Suez to the north - towards the Mediterranean Sea. Human intervention completed this process in 1869 with the opening of the Suez Canal. The waters of the Mediterranean Sea flowed into the Red Sea, and the migration of underwater flora and fauna began in both directions.
Hydrological regime
The Red Sea is the only body of water on Earth into which no river flows.
Strong fumes warm water turned the Red Sea into one of the saltiest on the globe: 38-42 grams of salts per liter.
There is intense water exchange between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. In winter, the South-West Monsoon Current is established in the Indian Ocean, starting in the Bay of Bengal, turning into the Western Current, which branches, and one branch goes north to the Red Sea. In summer, the monsoon current, which begins off the coast of Africa, is joined in the Gulf of Aden area by a current from the Red Sea. In addition, the Indian Ocean contains deep water masses formed by dense waters flowing from the Red Sea and the Gulf of Oman. Below 3.5-4 thousand meters, bottom water masses are common, forming from Antarctic supercooled and dense salty waters Red Sea and Persian Gulf. .
Climate
The climate on the coast of almost the entire Red Sea is tropical desert, and only the far north has a Mediterranean climate. Air temperature at the most cold period(December-January) during the day it is +20-25 °C, and in the hottest month - August, it exceeds +35-40 °C and even sometimes reaches +50 °C. Thanks to the hot climate off the coast
Everyone knows that Italy was the heart of the entire Renaissance period. Great masters of words, brushes and philosophical thought appeared in each of the Culture in Italy demonstrates the emergence of traditions that would develop in subsequent centuries, this period became the starting point, the beginning great era development of creativity in Europe.
Briefly about the main thing
Early Renaissance art in Italy spans the period from approximately 1420 to 1500, preceding and culminating the Proto-Renaissance. As with any transitional period, these eighty years are characterized by both ideas that preceded them and new ones, which, nevertheless, were borrowed from the distant past, from the classics. Gradually, creators got rid of medieval concepts, turning their attention to ancient art.
However, despite the fact that for the most part they sought to return to the ideals of a forgotten art, both in general and in particular, ancient traditions were still intertwined with new ones, but to a much lesser extent.
Architecture of Italy during the Early Renaissance
The main name in the architecture of this period is, of course, Filippo Brunelleschi. He became the personification of Renaissance architecture, organically embodying his ideas, he managed to turn projects into something fascinating, and, by the way, his masterpieces are still carefully protected for many generations. One of his main creative achievements It is considered to be buildings located in the very center of Florence, the most notable of which are the dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore and the Pitti Palace, which became the starting point Italian architecture Early Renaissance.
To others important achievements Italian Renaissance also applies which is located near main square Venice, palaces in Rome by Bernardo di Lorenzo and others. During this period, the architecture of Italy strives to organically combine the features of the Middle Ages and the Classics, striving for the logic of proportions. An excellent example of this statement is the basilica San Lorenzo, again the hands of Filippo Brunelleschi. In others European countries The early Renaissance did not leave equally striking examples.
Early Renaissance Artists
Results
Although the culture of the Early Renaissance in Italy strives for the same thing - to display the classics through the prism of naturalness, the creators take different paths, leaving their names in the Renaissance culture. Many great names, brilliant masterpieces and a complete rethinking of not only artistic, but also philosophical culture- all this was brought to us by a period that foreshadowed other stages of the Renaissance, in which established ideals found their continuation.
For a hundred years after Giotto's death, there was not a single artist as gifted as him in Florence. The best of the subsequent masters were aware of their inferiority, but did not see any other way than intensive copying and distortion of Giotto. Giotto was ahead of his time, and only a hundred years later another Florentine - Masaccio (1401-1428) - raised art to an even higher level.
Less than ten years of creativity were allotted to him by fate. But even in this short time, he managed to accomplish, according to his contemporaries, “a real revolution in painting.” In Florence, he painted two of the largest cathedrals - the church of Santa Maria Novella and the Brancacci Chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine.
Giotto's successor, Masaccio always strived to construct space according to the laws of perspective, conveying real volumes on a plane. But his innovation was not limited to the development of perspective. He was attracted to the image of the surrounding world, imitation of natural nature. Art critic A.K. Dzhivelegov noted the innovative nature of his work: “Painting before Masaccio and painting after Masaccio are two completely different things, two different eras. Giotto discovered the secret of transmitting the sensations of a person and a crowd. Masaccio taught how to depict man and nature... He completely freed himself from stylization. The mountains are no longer pointed, ledge-like pebbles, but real mountains. They either take on the soft contours of the spurs of the Apennines... or they develop into a harsh rocky landscape... The ground on which people stand is a real plane on which one can actually stand and which the eye can trace to the background. Trees and vegetation in general are no longer props, sometimes stylized, sometimes simply fictitious, but nature itself... If the people appearing in the picture decide to enter the houses, this will not cause any inconvenience: they will not break through the roofs with their heads, they will not break the walls with their shoulders will fall apart. Masaccio began to look at how everything was happening in reality. Then the conventional poses, the unnatural facts, and the fictitious landscape naturally disappeared.”
The main subjects of Masaccio's paintings were the life and deeds of the apostles, Jesus Christ, and scenes of the creation of the world. These are the frescoes “The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise” (1427-1428) [Appendix 3] and “The Miracle of the Statir” (1427-1428) [Appendix 4] in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine. One of Masaccio's early paintings, Madonna and Child with Angels [Appendix 5], was conceived as the central part of a large altar for the church of Santa Maria del Carmine. On a high throne placed in a deep niche, Mary sits with a baby in her arms. The golden background, halos on the heads, and flowing clothing give a special solemnity to the image. The novelty of the artistic solution is striking in the picture. None of the masters of the 15th century. You won’t find such clarity in conveying the depth of space, “achieved thanks to the geometrically precise reduction in the size of the throne. The figures fit naturally into the architectural space with the Gothic arch and classical columns of the throne.
“Trinity” [Appendix 6] is one of the last and perfect creations of Masaccio, in which a completely new interpretation of the plot of the Old Testament Trinity was proposed. In three-dimensional space, the artist shows real figures of God the Father, Christ and the Holy Spirit, symbolically embodying the image of the world created by the human mind. In the ability to distribute light and shadows, in creating a clear spatial composition, in the volume and tangibility of figures, Masaccio is in many ways superior to his contemporaries. Showing the naked body of Christ, he gives him ideal, heroic features, exalts his power and beauty, and glorifies the strength of the human spirit. Inside the chapel, at the foot of the cross, stand the Virgin Mary and the Apostle John. The face of the mother of Christ, devoid of its usual beauty, is turned to the viewer. Being the link between God and man, she points with a restrained hand gesture to the crucified Son. In this generally static composition, Mary's gesture is the only movement that symbolically organizes the space. In front of the arch, at the entrance to the chapel, a kneeling man and woman are depicted in profile - the customers of the paintings for the church.
The artistic unity of Masaccio, just like that of the great Giotto, the founder of new Italian painting, was not identical with real reality, but represented something higher than it, something that should not be a copy of this reality. This phenomenon becomes clearer when analyzing the image of individual figures than the entire composition as a whole. And the frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel in this regard most of all reflect new era. A gigantic gulf separates the powerful figures of Christ and his disciples from the graceful costumed dolls from the works of the immediately preceding period. Not only have the precious fashions and entertaining details disappeared, but also all attempts to influence the viewer through verisimilitude in the representation of real objects taken from reality: the fresco captures a timeless, eternal human existence, appearing before us in the same way as in Giotto, and again - completely different from his. This difference is usually defined as a different sense of form. What can be seen in Masaccio's frescoes is typicality, sublime through intensive study of nature. The real forms that underlay the old iconographic schemes turned out to be so enriched with new knowledge that they no longer appear to be dead formulas, but to living people. Far from the slender and graceful images of the late Trecento period depicted in lively movement, these figures remind us of the powerful characters of Giotto. As well as in ancient art, here the heaviness and lifelessness of the body are overcome with the help vital energy, and this balance serves as the source of a new sense of form and the source of what should serve as the most important content of the artistic depiction of the human figure. And at the same time, this is overcoming the Gothic.
Masaccio's characters are much more independent than Giotto's, so they are full of a new understanding of human dignity, expressed in their entire appearance. This understanding is based on the reflection of a certain spiritual force, it is also based on the awareness of Masaccio’s heroes of their own power and free will. In this lies the moment of some of their isolation. For to whatever extent all these characters participate sacred history in the events depicted, they are nevertheless characterized not only by their relation to these events, but also by their own individual significance, which gives them the character of solemnity. But this isolation is also expressed in the compositional role of individual figures. Giotto divided into separate figures the traditional medieval mass group of participants in an event; in Masaccio, on the contrary, groups are built from separate, completely independent figures. Each of these figures seems absolutely free in its position in space and in its plastic volume. The entire artistic process proceeds differently in Masaccio than in the art of the period preceding him. Giotto, like medieval artists, starts in his compositions from a general concept in which individual figures are assigned certain functions of content and form that determine their character. Masaccio's compositions are endowed with a special originality - it is characterized by the fact that, despite all the achievements in the depiction of figures and spatial surroundings, their connection with each other has not become closer than before, but, on the contrary, has weakened.
The depiction of a landscape segment of space has become more consistent with sensory experience. Those occasional advances in perspective during the Trecento period are replaced by a universal and more accurate system of perspective. In Giotto, everything - both space and figures - consists of one piece and is built as a kind of unity, here plane and space are inextricably intertwined. This absolute unity, which encloses all the elements of the composition and creates a solid structure of the work, is replaced by Masaccio (and even more so by his followers) with somewhat conditional connections. This can be seen in the division of the image into three scenes. As a result, a dualism of figure and space arises. This dualism is even more striking in the later masters of the Quattrocento period than in Masaccio, in whom the Giottian composition is felt somewhat more strongly; in later masters this dualism leads to the opposition of landscape background and figures in the plane. This dualism is based on the fact that body and space appear as separate complexes of visual means. As a result, the paintings become a comparison of space and individual figures, with figures being the most important component this complex unity have the advantage.
Without this fact, it is impossible to understand the nature of the development of art during the Quattrocento period. Compositional rules throughout the fifteenth century change to an insignificant extent - accordingly, very few sketches of compositions have survived - but in the depiction of figures and in the depiction of space there is continuous intensive progress, which is evidenced not only by completed works, but to a much greater extent - numerous sketches and drawings. The great act of the Renaissance was not precisely the “discovery of the world and man,” but the discovery of material laws. Based on this discovery, which is in close contact with the ancient understanding of the world, the meaning and content of all subsequent development of art now lay in the task of a new understanding of the image and a new conquest of the world. The depiction of man as the most important and responsible complex was to come to the forefront of artistic interests, and it is in this area that the further improvement of the new style can be observed. How short is the period of time that Masaccio’s life allowed him to create the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, so great is the progress made during this period.
In the narrow fresco “St. Peter Healing with His Shadow,” [Appendix 7], Peter, immersed in his thoughts, accompanied by St. John, passes through the quarter of the poor, and his shadow heals the sick located near the wall of the house. The emotion of the sick - it is represented in various shades, is as beautiful in design as the majestic gait of the saint. The saint's clothes - just like Giotto's - still touch the ground, which, however, Masaccio usually avoided. to more clearly characterize the motives of rest and movement. But baggy clothes, when depicted only by rare folds within the boundaries of large planes create plastic animation, are reminiscent of Giotto. Signs of the realism of late Trecento art can also be found in the second scene, which depicts Saints Peter and John distributing alms. This time the outskirts of the city are depicted: the streets end here, and only a few buildings precede the field. The poor gathered here to receive modest gifts from the saints. Nothing like this, of course, had ever happened before in Italian painting: thanks to their grandeur and free style, they resemble classical dressed figures and indicate that the desire to depict clothing in its natural function led the artist not only to imitation of ancient models, but also to the comprehension of artistic the meaning of antique clothing. And not only this greatness, but also the underlying concept of beauty and perfection - this can be taught to us by the fresco located above the one described above and depicting St. Peter performing the rite of baptism. This event takes place in a deserted mountainous area, the powerful forms of which emphasize the significance of the scene. The converts gathered in a semicircle near the saint proceeding to baptize a kneeling man in water. Already the entire fifteenth century admired the figure of a naked young man, seemingly shivering from the cold, among the witnesses of baptism - but the group of St. Peter and the kneeling man deserves more attention. Giotto in “The Baptism of Christ” [Appendix 8] depicted the naked Savior: the figure of a standing emaciated man; in Masaccio’s fresco, the beautiful male body, similar to an ancient statue, was reintroduced into art, the classical ideal of bodily beauty and perfection was introduced. Masaccio seemed to have used an ancient model when depicting the body - and yet, despite some contradictions that become noticeable only upon careful study, the entire kneeling figure is perceived as a whole as a free competition with the ancient image of the naked body. To enter into such a competition with equal forces, however, there was still lacking - and this is evidenced by “Expulsion from Paradise” [Appendix 3] - exact knowledge of a living organism. The heavy, hopeless tread of people leaving their lost bliss outside the gates seems clumsy; overcoming this constraint was the problem that had to be solved. Masaccio acquired knowledge of the anatomy of the human body by working with nature and studying works of classical sculpture; in his work he abandoned the decorativeness and conventionality inherent in gothic art. The figures, the three-dimensionality of which is conveyed through powerful cut-off modeling, are correlated in scale with the surrounding landscape, painted taking into account light-air perspective.
Thus, we can conclude that Masaccio was a great master who understood the essence of painting, he was highly gifted with the ability to convey tactile value in artistic images.
Masaccio was a worthy successor to Giotto, whose art he knew well and carefully studied. Giotto introduced him to monumental forms, taught him to depict what is important and significant from the standpoint of high artistic unity. Masaccio's art contains the entire program of new Renaissance painting - man as the center of the universe
Unlike Giotto, a characteristic feature of Masaccio’s work is a more accurate study of nature. He was also the first to depict the naked body in painting and gives a person heroic features. In the painting of a later time one can find greater perfection of detail, but it will not have the same realism, power and persuasiveness. Masaccio acquired knowledge of the anatomy of the human body by working with nature and studying works of classical sculpture; In his work, he abandoned the decorativeness and conventionality inherent in Gothic art.
Masaccio is characterized by a rational, three-dimensional space built according to the rules of perspective, light and shadow processing of the form, making it convex and voluminous, and enhanced plasticity of the form through color. The figures, the three-dimensionality of which is conveyed through powerful cut-off modeling, are correlated in scale with the surrounding landscape, painted taking into account light-air perspective.
Masaccio was a great master who understood the essence of painting, he was highly illuminated by the ability to convey tactile value in artistic images. The artist’s concept is expressed by the statement of one of his contemporaries: a fresco or painting is a window through which we see the world.
Conclusion
During the Renaissance, painting was expected to depict new people destined for great purposes. One of the main centers remains the object of close attention of historians Renaissance culture- Florence. After all, it was here that, earlier than in other city-states, the prerequisites for changing cultural eras were formed, Renaissance humanistic ideas were born, and writers, artists, architects, and sculptors created their greatest creations. And within it, social life pulsated with unusual intensity, drawing in almost the entire adult male population, for whom the concerns of education, upbringing, and culture were far from the least important.
The ideological guidelines of the Renaissance culture of Italy were influenced by the psychological climate of city life. In the secular-oriented merchant morality, new maxims began to prevail - the ideal of human activity, energetic personal efforts, without which it was impossible to achieve professional success, and this step by step led away from church ascetic ethics, which sharply condemned the desire for hoarding. The lower urban environment was the most conservative; it was there that the traditions of folk medieval culture were firmly preserved, which had a certain impact on the culture of the Renaissance.
Giotto's innovation was manifested in three main features of his work, which his followers then continued to develop. On the one hand, the beauty of lines was improved, various fusions of colors were used. On the other hand, the narrative element becomes of great importance. Also, figures and scenes borrowed from life are associated with a poetic understanding of the whole, and thus from this source also flow many realistic motives, such as truthfulness in the depiction of nature, etc. Giotto’s very understanding of man was in agreement with nature. For Giotto, the image of movement and action is important. The grouping of figures and their gestures are completely subordinated to the meaning of what is depicted. With line and chiaroscuro, expressing the full significance of the event, with glances turned to the sky or down, with gestures that speak without words, based on the simplest painting technique, without knowledge of anatomy, Giotto gives an image of movement.
Masaccio is similar to Giotto, but Giotto, who was born a century later and found himself in favorable artistic conditions. He showed Florentine painting the path it followed until its decline. This path lies in the ability to distribute light and shadows, in creating a clear spatial composition, in the power with which he conveys volume, Masaccio is far superior to Giotto. In the painting of a later time one can find greater perfection of detail, but it will not have the same realism, power and persuasiveness.
Masaccio took the next decisive step after Giotto in creating a collective image of a person, now freed from the religious and ethical basis and imbued with a new, truly secular worldview. He used the possibilities of chiaroscuro, modeling plastic form, in a new way.
In general, the phenomenon of the Renaissance is a very multifaceted phenomenon in the cultural development of Europe, the core of which was a new worldview, a new self-awareness of man. During this period, art developed as rapidly as it had never developed before. Each artist adds something of his own, his own unique feature to the development of painting of this period. Therefore, great works of art created even in a distant era not only do not lose their meaning, but acquire new shades in understanding their content and moral and ethical issues. Artistic forms, understood from the perspective of modern times, and the universal human values contained in them, excite us at all times.
Bibliography:
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Appendix 1. Giotto “Kiss of Judas”.
Fresco.
Appendix 2. Giotto “Lamentation of Christ”
Fresco.
Scrovegni Chapel (Capella del Arena), Padua
Appendix 3. Masaccio “The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise.”
Fresco.
Appendix 4. Masaccio “The Miracle of the Stater”
Fresco.
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine (Brancacci Chapel), Florence
www.school.edu.ru
Appendix 5. Masaccio “Madonna and Child and Angels”
Wood, tempera.
National Gallery, London
www.school.edu.ru
Appendix 6. Masaccio “Trinity”
Fresco.
Church of Santa Maria Novella, Florence
www.school.edu.ru
Appendix 7. Masaccio “St. Peter healing with his shadow”
Fresco.
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine (Brancacci Chapel), Florence
www.school.edu.ru
Appendix 8. Giotto “The Baptism of Christ”
Fresco.
Scrovegni Chapel (Capella del Arena), Padua
www.school.edu.ru
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