Russian artistic culture in the era of enlightenment formation. Culture of the Age of Enlightenment

The eighteenth century is not only a time of brilliant victories for Russian weapons, the construction of luxurious palaces and parks, the creation of the Russian theater, and the flourishing of literature and art. It was at this time that the tasks of educating the fatherland were set in full breadth. The ideology of Russian enlighteners - Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and others - was based on the experience of the enlightened monarch Peter I and his “learned squad”. At this time, humanistic ideals of the triumph of reason, the social value of man, and the importance of his civic duty are promoted. Russian classicism, as the main literary movement of the era, proclaimed the ideas of patriotism and service to the motherland. It was at this time that the words patriot and patriotism came into use.

The gradual liberation from the influence of the church, the formation of a new worldview, the “secularization” of literature, which now turned to earthly affairs and the joys of man, urgently required further “secularization” and improvement of the language.

The Petrine era left Russian enlighteners with a legacy of grammatical disorder and extreme lexical diversity. By that time, the language of Russian artistic and scientific prose had not yet been developed. This led, in particular, to extraordinary difficulties when translating from foreign languages. Known tragic fate translator Volkov, who, unable to cope with the difficulties of translating terms, committed suicide in despair.

We encounter attempts at further democratization of language in the works of the remarkable writer of the 18th century, the creator of satirical works, Antiochus Cantemir, who willingly inserted “common people” words and proverbs into his satires. As V. G. Belinsky correctly noted later, Kantemir’s satires are distinguished not only by “the Russian language, but also by the Russian mind.”

Another prominent representative sharply contrasted the Church Slavonic and Russian languages XVIII classicism V. - Vasily Trediakovsky. In the preface to the translation of Paul Talman’s novel “A Trip to the Island of Love,” this unusually hardworking, but unsuccessful Russian writer frankly and temperamentally declared: “I humbly ask you, do not deign to be angry with me (if you still stick to Slavicism in deep words), that I translated not into the Slovenian language, but into almost the simplest Russian word, that is, the one we speak among ourselves. I did this for the following reasons. First: the Slovenian language is a church language, and this book is secular. The other: the Slovenian language is in this century is very obscure, and many of our readers do not understand it: “In a program speech delivered in 1735 at the opening of the “Russian Assembly” of translators, Trediakovsky put forward the tasks of compiling a “good and correct” grammar, a dictionary (“dictionary”) and rhetoric.

However, life still urgently demanded democratization and streamlining of the Russian language. The lack of grammatical and stylistic norms hampered not only official language practice. It contradicted the requirements of the then dominant literary movement - classicism, which was based on rationalism, strict normativity and a hierarchy of genre rules designed to regulate artistic creativity.

Only the genius of Lomonosov, in whom a talented poet and a great all-round scientist were happily united, was able to carry out the urgent tasks of streamlining the Russian literary language. “Our literature begins with Lomonosov,” wrote V. G. Belinsky; he was its father and mentor; he was its Peter the Great.” It would not be an exaggeration to say that the scientific understanding and normalization of Russian also begins with Lomonosov. literary language.

Lomonosov has done an amazing amount in the field humanities. But, of course, his works on grammar and stylistics are most significant for us. He highly appreciated the importance of grammar in the life of society in the introduction to “Russian Grammar”, completed in 1755. Lomonosov wrote: “Oratorio is stupid, poetry is tongue-tied, jurisprudence without grammar is dubious.” Lomonosov's work is, in essence, the first grammar of the Russian language, and not the Church Slavonic language. This work contains not only a detailed and thorough description of the grammatical structure of the Russian language, based on rich and careful observations. Lomonosov's grammar is the first normative and stylistic manual that regulated the use of parallel forms of language that existed at that time. It would be difficult to even list those features of the then word usage that Lomonosov discovered and noted in his grammar, often brilliantly predicting them future fate. For example, he points out that for high style in prepositional case It is recommended to use forms of nouns ending in -e, and for simple style- forms starting with -y; for example: he did the work by the sweat of his brow, but ran home in the sweat. We also find traces of the stylistic demarcation of these grammatical variants in modern language; Wed in a neutral style: being on vacation, working in the 5th workshop; in colloquial speech: to be on vacation, to work in the 5th workshop. And, I repeat, dozens of such examples could be given.

Lomonosov's doctrine of three styles was of no less historical importance. It is neither possible nor necessary to present his stylistic theory in detail here. Suffice it to say that Lomonosov approved precisely the Russian (and not Church Slavonic) basis of the Russian literary language. However, not all Slavicisms were expelled from speech practice, but only “very dilapidated”, “incomprehensible” words (for example: obavayu, ryasny, svene - in translation: I conjure, eyelashes, except). A complete rejection of Church Slavonicisms would then mean an undesirable break with the book cultural tradition (in addition, as we will see below, many Slavonicisms subsequently became a significant stylistic device). The historical task then was to combine Russian (including vernacular) and Church Slavonic elements within a single literary language, which, in turn, implied their association with certain literary genres and styles of speech. Lomonosov solved this problem brilliantly. This paved the way for the creation of a unified Russian literary language.

The literary practice of the poet and scientist also played an important role in the creation of a unified Russian literary language. For a long time In science, the prevailing opinion was that Lomonosov was mainly a court poet, the author of laudatory solemn odes, generously saturated with sonorous and lush metaphors. The sublimity and pathos of Lomonosov's poems gave rise to comparison with the festive splendor of the palaces of Bartholomew Rastrelli. But such an assessment of his literary work suffers from obvious one-sidedness. This was noted by Pushkin. “Lomonosov,” he wrote, “he himself did not value his poetry and was much more concerned about his chemical experiments than about official odes on the highly solemn day of his name and so on.” Pushkin also mentions the following fact: “Another time, having argued with the same nobleman, Lomonosov angered him so much that Shuvalov shouted: “I will dismiss you from the Academy!” - “No,” Lomonosov objected proudly, “will the Academy dismiss me from me?” "This is what this 'humiliated' writer of laudable odes and court idylls was like!"

Science for Lomonosov was a true calling, the work of his whole life. Even in poetry special occasion(for example, in “Ode on the Day of Elizabeth Petrovna’s Accession to the Throne”) he composes a hymn to science:

Sciences nourish youths,

Joy is served to the old,

In a happy life they decorate,

In case of an accident, take care of:

Lomonosov the scientist did an extraordinary amount to create the language of Russian science. In addition to improving syntax, he made a significant contribution to the creation of accessible and understandable scientific terminology. They were offered such physical and technical names as: air pump, earth's axis, liquid bodies, equilibrium of bodies, resistance, elasticity and dozens of others. New philosophical and terminological meaning Lomonosov put into everyday Russian words: experience, movement, phenomenon, particle, etc.

The era of Russian Enlightenment is characterized not only by a general significant increase in the lexical composition of the Russian language, but also by a very noticeable increase in words denoting abstract concepts. Cantemir, in his translation of Fontenelle’s book “Conversations on the Many Worlds,” introduced into use the words concept, density, beginning (meaning “principle”). In the 18th century The Russian language is being enriched with dozens of new words for -ost (legality, correctness, obsolescence, limitation, remoteness, gullibility, daydreaming, irritability, absent-mindedness, etc.) and for -nie (impression, review, accusation, training, rebirth, resettlement, protection, philosophizing, etc.). It is important to note that such words, expressing abstract concepts, were clearly born on a Russian, and not on a Church Slavonic basis.

In the last quarter of the 18th century. The trends of modern times are becoming more and more noticeable in literature and language. The era of the dominance of classicism is coming to an end. Derzhavin’s realistic lyrics require different linguistic means. The invasion of vernacular into middle and even high styles destroys the strictness of their former boundaries. The language of poetry is gradually being simplified. For example, how relaxed in colloquial words(previously completely unacceptable in poetry) Derzhavin already writes:

Or, sitting at home, I'll play a prank,

Playing fools with my wife;

Then I get along with her at the dovecote,

Sometimes we frolic in blind man's buff:

But the popular element had not yet acquired full citizenship rights. The time for reassessment of values ​​lies ahead. The Russian language has not yet completely freed itself from the chains of Slavism, and the noble salon is already claiming the role of a legislator of norms. What path will our language choose?

For the development of world cultural thought, revealing their role in the formation of cultural studies as a special system of knowledge is an urgent task modern science. So, the topic of this essay is “Problems of culture in the philosophy of Russian education.” The purpose of the work is to reflect the essence of the process of cultural formation in the Age of Enlightenment. In connection with the purpose of the work, the following tasks were set: - to reflect the essence...

Journal" P. Rousseau criticizes the supporters of the traditional concept, coming from the humanists of the 16th century, who did not strive for the wide dissemination of knowledge among the majority of the "uninitiated". The culture of the European Enlightenment (the American Enlightenment is close to it) has a number of distinctive features. Firstly, it is characterized by deism (the doctrine of God as the creator of the universe, which after its creation...

Topic 12. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment: the formation of humanistic ideals

European forms of cultural life as a standard in Russian culture of the Enlightenment. New ideological guidelines for a secular state. Preservation of traditional national values ​​while mastering European forms and genres of art. The phenomenon of “Russian Europeanness”.

The priority role of the word in the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. Writers of the first half of the century (by teacher's choice). Theory of classicism M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokova: general and different. The importance of classicism for the development of music.

Vocal genres in the culture of the Enlightenment: from Peter’s cants and “book songs” to “Russian songs” (F.M. Dubyansky, I.A. Kozlovsky). Opera: European and Russian. The development of the comic opera genre, the role of the literary basis, the composition of folk songs “to voices”. V.A. Pashkevich, E.I. Fomin - the founders of Russian opera. Spiritual music. Creativity.S. Berezovsky and D.S. Bortnyansky. Classicist choral concert.

The formation of instrumental music in Russia. “Russian Paganini” - I.E. Khandoshkin. Piano music by D.S. Bortnyansky.

Development of humanistic ideals of the Russian Enlightenment and the “peasant question”. Peasant images in Russian art. Collection and study of Russian folk songs (collections by V.F. Trutovsky, N.A. Lvov-Prach). Anti-serfdom motifs of Russian prose (N.I. Novikov, A.N. Radishchev), drama of turgy (Ya.B. Knyazhnin), poetry (V.V. Kapnist), music (V.A. Pashkevich). Comedy in the works of D.I. Fonvizin, satirical images and accusatory pathos (satire “on morals”). Creativity G.R. Derzhavin (by teacher's choice).

Development of theatrical art. Serf theaters and serf actors. Italian and French opera in St. Petersburg.

The uniqueness and intrinsic value of the human personality in the fine arts of the Enlightenment. Portrait painting (I. Ya. Veshnyakov, I. P. Argunov, A. P. Antropov, F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky). Academy of Arts. The formation of the genre of historical painting. Creativity of A.P. Losenko. Sculpture - the new kind art in Russia. Creativity F.I. Shubina. Monument to Peter the Great E.-M. Falcone. Works by F.G. Gordeeva and M.I. Kozlovsky.

The ideals of architecture are the glorification of the greatness of the new Russian statehood. A mixture of architectural forms - Russian and imported European ones. Fundamental novelty in urban planning. The appearance of St. Petersburg. Baroque in architecture. Creativity V.V. Rastrelli. Classicism; creators of palaces and public buildings (A. Rinaldi, D. Quarenghi, C. Cameron - foreign masters in Russia). School of domestic architects (M.G. Zemtsov, I.K. Korobov, P.M. Eropkin, S.I. Chevakinsky, I.F. Michurin, D.V. Ukhtomsky, A.F. Kokorinov). Outstanding masters V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov.

The entry of Russian artistic culture into the context of European culture. “Russian Europeanness” is a harbinger of the classical stage in the development of art of the “golden” 19th century.

Requirements for the level of student preparation

The requirements for the level of student preparation correspond to the requirements formulated in the federal state standard of general education and the exemplary (model) curriculum (Law of the Russian Federation “On Education”, Articles 12, 13, 15, 32).

Modern trends in the development of art education are aimed at the dynamics of the development of multi-art education, ensuring the formation of a general culture of the individual.

As a result of studying the course “World art culture» students must Know:

The main eras in the artistic development of mankind;

Cultural dominants of various periods in the development of world artistic culture;

Main styles and trends in world artistic culture;

The role and place of the classical artistic heritage in the artistic culture of our time;

Features of the artistic culture of modern humanity and its complex structure;

Outstanding monuments and works of art from various eras;

Basic art museums Russia and the world.

Be able to:

Distinguish between works of art of different styles;

Show on specific examples the place and role of Russian artistic culture in world artistic culture;

Formulate your value judgment about works and genres of art;

Use reference literature on art, analyze and interpret it.

The result of teaching the academic subject “World Artistic Culture” should be the aesthetic growth of students who comprehend world artistic culture: from students’ perception of specific works of art through their comprehension of the holistic artistic painting world to independent aesthetic activity, to one’s own creativity, the elevation of spirituality on the basis of world, domestic, regional cultural heritage.

Forms and controls

Modernization of the education system involves a significant change in the organization of quality control of students’ knowledge and the quality of teaching of the MHC in accordance with the curriculum and educational and methodological set of L. A. Rapatskaya. The subject of pedagogical control is the assessment of the results of the pedagogical process organized in it. The main subject of assessing the results of art education is knowledge, the result of training is abilities, skills and the result of education is ideological attitudes, interests, motives and needs of the individual. In the practice of pedagogical control, it is possible to distinguish the following types: starting, current, thematic, milestone, final and final. The forms of control include oral, written, programmed. Starting control determines the initial level of training and readiness to master further material. It is advisable to carry out starting control at the beginning school year. With the help of current monitoring, it is possible to diagnose the didactic process, identify its dynamics, and compare learning results at its individual stages. Midterm control carries out a stage-by-stage summing up of results for half a year, a year after completion, for example, big topics, large sections of the program. The mid-term control also takes into account current control data. Final control is carried out after passing all training course, usually on the eve of transfer to the next grade. Final control data allows you to evaluate the work of the teacher and students. The results of the final control must correspond to the level of generation II standards.

Certification of students varies in form: oral, written, programmed, in the form of test control, as well as control creative tasks. Methods for diagnosing learning outcomes can include: debates, seminars, Olympiads, quizzes, festivals, excursions, etc.

MOSCOW DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

WESTERN DISTRICT EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

CITIES OF MOSCOW

SECONDARY SCHOOL No. 806

CALENDAR AND THEMATIC PLANNING

on world artistic culture

Class 11 "A" class

Teacher Ginzburg I.A.

Number of hours:

total - 34 hours;

per week - 1 hour.

The planning is based on the work program of I.A. Ginzburg.

Calendar and thematic planning

10 "a" class

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1 . SecularizationRussian culture in comexemplar of Peter's reforms

education artistic culture secularization

Secularization, anti-Christian policies Russian emperors XVIII century (primarily Peter I and Catherine II), aimed at weakening the spiritual influence of the Orthodox Church and turning its property into secular property. The great mistake of Peter I was the reorganization of the life of the Russian people in the German way, which was completely imbued with churchliness, since our ancestors before Peter, according to church and monastic rules, distributed the time of their lives, and everything regarding their clothing, social etiquette and mutual relations of family members, bore the stamp of religion and was considered Orthodox, in contrast to the “infidel” - heretical. But this mistake became even more serious and even disastrous for Russia, thanks to the fact that Peter, in his reforms, destroyed our Orthodox faith on the basis of his obvious sympathies for Protestantism.

That same year, on March 28, Peter issued a decree that aroused great unrest in Moscow. This decree prohibited the establishment of chapels at market places and crossroads, in villages and other places and the performance of divine services here before icons by priests. In one of his decrees to the Synod, Peter limits other manifestations of the religiosity of the Russian people, “for now, all hope,” it is said here, “is placed in church singing, fasting, bowing and the like, in which the building of churches, candles and incense.” In accordance with these views of Peter, a regulation was issued, which set out the rules regarding the religious education of the people and which is a caustic satire on the religiosity of our ancestors. Guided by these regulations, the Synod issued a decree against ritualism, religious processions, walking with images, expensive frames on icons, multiplying chapels, year-long storage of artos, Epiphany water, etc. Even more detrimental to Russian piety were the measures of Peter, whose goal was to reform our monasteries, which were expressed in his decree of January 31, 1724. This patristic teaching found its way into best embodiment in life pre-Petrine Russia, when the ideal of Russian piety and the leaders of the moral and Christian life of the Russian people were monks. This is not how Peter viewed monasticism. While praising the original monasteries of deep antiquity for their diligence, in the mentioned decree he says that a hundred years after the beginning of this order, the monks became lazy, parasites and depraved. Here the multiplication of monasteries in Constantinople and in the places closest to it is rarely condemned, which allegedly turned out to be the reason for the amazing small number of soldiers who were so needed during the siege.

According to Peter, the monks do not stand up to the height of their calling, they eat free bread and there is no profit from this for society. Therefore, he demands that in Russian monasteries there should be charitable institutions for elderly soldiers and that seminaries be established from where educated students seeking monasticism for the bishopric could take monastic vows upon reaching the age of 30. And shortly before his death, the sovereign issued a decree that Moscow monasteries should be intended for the sick, old and crippled, for abandoned babies. In general, the number of monks in Russia under Peter was very limited, they were constrained by special rules, and the monasteries themselves were primarily converted into almshouses. The main evil here, and moreover for all of Russia, was that Peter took away its property from the monasteries and from the Russian Church in general. The latter were gifts that were brought to the Church by believers in fulfillment of the Divine commandment: to give tithes to the Lord from their estates. This church property was Divine property and therefore assigned to the Church of St. canons as inviolable and inalienable. Russian grand dukes and tsars always protected church property from seizure with their spells. Thus, in the charter, those who seize the income of the Church are offered damnation. Other princes, kings, and church benefactors in general did the same. It is clear that the taking of church property into other hands is the gravest sin of violating the Divine commandment and St. canons, brings down terrible curses both in this and in the next century from church benefactors and is, in essence, sacrilege. The disastrous consequences of this sin were not slow to be felt during Peter’s lifetime. Monasteries in Russia not only taught the Russian people the life of their true monks, but also illuminated them with true Christian enlightenment. By turning them into charitable institutions, Peter thereby destroyed the basis for the true enlightenment of Russia. This was especially achieved by the confiscation of monastic and bishop's property when Peter renewed the Monastic Order on January 24, 1701. Through this Order, Peter, having abolished the patriarchate, deprived the Church of its independence and the means to acquire books and establish schools for the education of the Russian people. Thus, the confiscation of church property was a great evil for all of Russia, for the latter was deprived of true, ecclesiastical and patriotic enlightenment, which the Church spread thanks to its rich funds. The disastrous nature of this reform was reflected at the same time, precisely in the fact that, due to a lack of church funds, excellent schools at the bishop’s departments began to close. One of these schools was the exemplary seminary of St. Demetrius in Rostov. The impoverishment of the bishop's house of St. Dmitry reached such an extent that he not only could not maintain his school, but there was nothing to give to those begging for alms. This circumstance, in connection with the troubles caused to Saint Dmitry by the steward sent from the Monastic Order, as well as some of Peter’s reforms directed against the Church, prompted Saint Dmitry to turn to the Metropolitan of Ryazan with a letter in which he wrote to him as his friend “so much lawlessness, so many insults, so much oppression cry out to heaven and arouse the wrath and vengeance of God.” Unfortunately, the Orthodox faith was destroyed not only by Peter’s reforms, but also by his personal behavior. Peter's anti-church activities could not remain without protest from our hierarchy, and above all from its head, the last Patriarch Adrian. There was deep discord between him and Peter. He sharply condemned the innovations introduced by the tsar, but soon, to the displeasure of the people, he was forced to remain silent, especially after Peter’s unpleasant sorrow for the patriarch for the disgraced archers. After the death of the patriarch, the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, a friend of St. Dmitry of Rostov, Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, openly protested against Peter in defense of the Orthodox faith and the basic order and way of life in Russia. Metropolitan Stefan was a man of great talents, great intelligence, brilliant European education. Courageous, noble, frank, he spoke the truth to Peter, surrounded by Protestants. For this, the king hated Stefan as his irreconcilable and persistent enemy. Peter, although he himself elevated him, became so estranged from him that he began to avoid meeting with him. However, this attitude of Peter towards Metropolitan Stephen did not stop the latter from protesting to the Tsar against innovations in the spiritual life of the Russian people, despite the fact that these protests fell on his own head, calling the Tsar’s wrath against him. He was not even afraid to openly denounce Peter in his sermons.

By order of the tsar, a decree was issued on non-observance of fasts in the regiments; one soldier was tried for the fact that, contrary to the will of his superiors, he did not want to break the fast. Of course, she could not come to terms with such a Lutheran negative attitude towards the Orthodox faith and most of bishops of our Church, whose speeches against Peter caused terrible terror on their part on his part. As a result of Peter's anti-church reforms in the life of the Russian people, there was a cooling towards the Orthodox faith and all external forms of its manifestation. Freethinkers multiplied, condemning, according to Protestant principles, Orthodox ritual. Even the Russian educated society contemporary with Peter, imbued with European Protestant views, began to be ashamed of their former childish and simple-minded religiosity and tried to hide it, especially since it was openly exposed from the height of the throne and by those in authority. harsh judgment. But this does not exhaust the evil that Peter caused to Russia. The Russian Church could successfully combat the absence of Russian people from the Orthodox faith on the basis of Protestinism through school education. But Peter took away property from the Church. Because of this, the enlightenment of the Russian people was not introduced by the Church, it was not spread on the original historical principles of our Orthodox faith, it even introduced a negative attitude towards faith and therefore concealed the death of Russia. Unfortunately, not immediately after Peter, our emperors, who were the patrons of the Orthodox faith and its defenders not only for Russia, but also for other Orthodox countries, began to lead Russia. Even after Peter, the Russian people had to endure a number of deep upheavals in their faith.

The Synod sentenced Metropolitan Arseny to deprivation of his episcopal rank and to be handed over, after being removed from monasticism, to a secular court, which was to condemn him to death for insulting Her Majesty. But the empress ordered the release of metropolitan Arseny from the secular court, leaving him as a monk and exiling him to a distant monastery.

Catherine II fulfilled all the requirements of outward piety, admired the sermons of Metropolitan Plato, kissed the hands of the clergy, went to religious processions, however, she did not have an Orthodox disposition and valued religion, like Peter, solely from the point of view of its political significance - its benefit to the state. What was especially bad was that she worshiped, and even excessively, the atheist Voltaire, curried favor with him and consulted with him in her plans regarding certain reforms for Russia. Hence, it was natural for her to appoint such non-Orthodox persons as the Freemasons Melissino and Chebyshev to the post of Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The first of them proposed to the synod to provide a synodal deputy for a meeting with the Code Commission with the following proposals regarding reforms in church life: weaken and shorten fasts, destroy the veneration of icons and holy relics, prohibit the carrying of images in homes, reduce church services to avoid pagan verbosity in prayer, abolish stichera, canons, troparions compiled in later times, to appoint short prayers with teachings for the people instead of Vespers and all-night vigils, to stop supporting monks, to allow the election of bishops from priests without tonsure into monasticism, to allow bishops to conduct married life, to allow the clergy to wear “the most decent dress ", cancel the commemoration of the dead, allow marriage more than 3 times and prohibit the giving of communion to infants under ten years of age. The Holy Synod rejected this proposal and drew up its own order. Thus, if under Peter the Russian Church had to suffer greatly from Protestantism, then under Catherine II the Church experienced strong pressure not only from Protestantism, but also from unbelief. But Catherine II dealt a particularly severe blow to the Church through the final confiscation of monastic estates into the treasury and the introduction of monastic states. Due to this reform, detrimental to the Church, 754 of the 954 previously existing monasteries were closed; consequently, only a fifth of them remained in Russia. When taking away church estates, a promise was made to provide theological schools and clergy, but it was not fulfilled by the state authorities. Moreover, the latter did not receive much benefit from this reform, since a huge part of the monastery estates was distributed by the empress as a gift to her favorites. It is clear what a painful blow this reform was to the hearts of the believing Russian people. The places illuminated by the exploits of holy monks have become desolate. The path along which they were heading was overgrown masses to the holy elders for spiritual guidance, to the holy graves for prayers. Many schools, hospitals and almshouses were closed at churches and monasteries. Along with the closure of the monasteries, the great work of educating foreigners in Siberia and other places in vast Russia also stopped. The people's feelings were too indignant, for the confiscation of church property was a flagrant violation of the property rights and will of those who bequeathed their estates to churches and monasteries for charity, for support, monasticism and for the commemoration of souls. This reform was a great sin in the eyes of the people, for the Church always looked upon donations to churches and monasteries, as mentioned above, as dedicated to God. Therefore, contemporaries of this sad phenomenon in the life of the Church could not help but protest. The sharpest protest came from Arseny, Metropolitan of Rostov. His personality aroused and arouses deep respect, as he always fearlessly defended his just cause. But he remained unforgettable for the Russian Church mainly for his speech against the confiscation of church property. Regarding this sad event, Metropolitan Arseny submitted one protest after another to the Synod. On the week of Orthodoxy, he added an anathema to the usual anathematizations of “offenders of churches and monasteries.” All these actions of Metropolitan Arseny were brought to the attention of Catherine. An investigation into the case of Metropolitan Arseny was appointed at the Synod. The latter was summoned to the palace, where he was interrogated in the presence of the empress herself. Metropolitan Arseny spoke so harshly that the Empress covered her ears, and he himself was “riveted.” Catherine ordered the Synod itself to judge her brother.

2 . OSObenefits of the “Russian Enlightenment”

The Russian Enlightenment inherited the problems of the European Enlightenment, comprehended and developed it in a completely original way, in the context of the unique historical situation that developed in Russian society at that time.

According to the enlighteners, the greatness of man, his difference from other creatures generated by nature, lies in his mind. A person endowed with reason is able to work creatively, thereby ensuring the progress of humanity. This admiration for man as the most perfect creation of nature is characteristic of all educational thought. But it sounds especially bright in the ode “Man” by I.P. Pnin (1773-1805), educator, poet, follower of A.N. Radishcheva. This is a kind of hymn to his greatness, to those acts through which a person overcomes the slave within himself.

Enlighteners create a special moral philosophy, with the help of which they determine the basic principles of ethics and the behavior of people in society. The main provisions of moral philosophy are set out in the work of A.P. Kunitsyna (1783-1840) “Natural Law.” Morality in this essay is considered as a natural manifestation human nature. Russian enlighteners thought about why freedom of thought, as a deep human need, is so difficult to realize in real conditions. Freedom or love of freedom is considered by Russian enlighteners as an absolute value. Without freedom, a person cannot exist; all his actions are dictated by the desire to gain freedom.

A huge place in the works of Russian enlighteners was given to the reconstruction of society. The goal of a free society, according to educators, is the well-being of citizens. “The state is only happy when it is loved by its compatriots,” wrote A.F. Bestuzhev (1761-1810), father of the Decembrists Bestuzhev brothers. Living in a society based on freedom and happiness, a person must be a worthy citizen. Therefore, the interest of educators in the problem of personality education was enormous. The tract by A.F. is devoted to this topic. Bestuzhev “On Education”, published in the “St. Petersburg Journal”, which he published together with I.P. Pnin.

The philosophical and anthropological thought of Russian enlighteners was distinguished by significant diversity, depth and originality. It covered a wide range of political, worldview, moral problems and such an acute problem of Russian reality as the situation of the peasants.

The development of enlightenment in Russia was started by M.V. Lomonosov, through whose efforts a university was opened in Moscow.

The ideas of enlightenment are widespread in Russian literature - in the works of D.I. Fonvizina, G.R. Derzhavina, V.K. Trediakovsky, in Russian painting - in the paintings of F.S. Rokotova, D.G. Levitsky.

The herald of revolutionary sentiments in Russia A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) in his works (ode “Liberty”, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”) reflected a wide range of ideas of Russian enlightenment and, above all, a sharp denunciation of autocracy and serfdom.

The largest representative of Russian enlightenment is N.I. Novikov (1744-1818), publicist, publisher of satirical magazines, organizer of printing houses, libraries, bookstores (in 16 cities). The books he published covered all branches of knowledge.

The autocracy brutally dealt with educators. Radishchev's book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was confiscated and banned (only in 1905 a new edition was published), and the author himself was sent into exile. Novikov was also imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

The diversity of ideas among educators, united by common goals and ideas, was a prerequisite for exceptional fruitfulness of creative activity. In the endless disputes between them, modern concepts of human and civil rights, civil society and pluralistic democracy, the rule of law and the separation of powers, a market economy and the ethics of individualism were born. The peoples of many countries have paid dearly for attempts to neglect this heritage.

The 18th century also prepared the way for the dominance of bourgeois culture. The old, feudal ideology was replaced by the time of philosophers, sociologists, economists, and writers of the new century - the Enlightenment. The aesthetic innovation of the century manifested itself not only in the desire to break or even reconstruct traditional forms, but in the creation of some other forms that exist in everyday life of tradition and, as it were, independently of it.

3 . Stor trends in Russian artistic cultureXVIIIV.

European art of the 18th century. It combined classicism and romanticism. Romanticism, which arose in an atmosphere permeated with the ideas of the Enlightenment and revolutionary events, placed the imagination, emotionality and creative spirituality of the artist at the forefront. Using the old stylistic forms of classicism, the art of the Enlightenment reflected a completely different content. In art different countries and peoples, classicism and romanticism sometimes form some kind of synthesis, sometimes they exist in all sorts of combinations and mixtures.

An important new beginning in the art of the 18th century. There was also the emergence of movements that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to develop it. This largest cultural movement was, first of all, sentimentalism, which fully reflected the Enlightenment ideas about the original purity and kindness of human nature, which are lost along with the distance of society from nature. In diaries, novels, letters, and poems, sentimentalist writers analyzed the subtlest shades of their own feelings and moods.

In European art of the 18th century. There was another direction - Rococo. It is characterized by lightness, grace, sophistication and whimsical ornamental rhythm. All Rococo art is built on asymmetry, creating a feeling of unease - a playful, mocking, pretentious, teasing feeling.

It is no coincidence that the origin of the term “rococo” is traced back to the French word “rocaille” (diamond and shell decoration), which denoted a style of interior decoration based on S-shaped curves and spiral shapes. Rococo became a leading art movement in France in the 18th century, and then became widespread in Europe, especially in the churches and palaces of southern Germany and Austria.

Development of European art of the 18th century. Complex and uneven. In Italy, the highest achievements are associated with the Venetian school. In France, the evolution from Rococo to the art of a programmatic and civic orientation can be traced. In art, and especially in the literature of England, the characteristic features of realism were already emerging. Young Goya (1746-1828) in Spain promoted the romanticism of the new century with all his work.

The most valuable heritage of the 18th century. The foundations of aesthetics and art history laid down in it appeared as a truly scientific discipline, the development of which is closely connected with the successes of philosophy.

4 . RUsska artXVIIIcentury

In the 18th century The fine arts are also undergoing changes - painting, sculpture, etc. This is the heyday of portrait painting. The artistic line of Russian portraiture has retained its originality, but at the same time absorbed Western traditions.

The most famous artists of the Peter the Great era are A. Matveev (1701-1739) and I. Nikitin (c. 1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting abroad. Matveev's portraits are marked by ease of poses and truthfulness of characteristics. He owns the first self-portrait in Russian art - “Self-portrait with his wife.” I. Nikitin sought to convey in his portraits the characteristic individual features of the model and the expressiveness of the depicted objects. In the portraits “Floor Hetman” and “Peter I on his Deathbed” he was far ahead of his contemporaries in the depth and form of artistic expression.

The appearance of the portrait in the Petrine era was, according to academician I.E. Grabar, “one of the main factors that decided the fate of Russian painting.”

By the end of the 20s. There was a turning point towards the court direction in painting. It was a time of intense personal development, which was reflected in the work of the best portrait painters of the 18th century. - Antropov, Rokotov, Levitsky, Borovikovsky, sculptors Shubin and Kozlovsky.

Portraits of A.P. Antropov (1716-1795), although they still retained the connection with the parsuna, they are distinguished by the truthfulness of their characterization of the human personality (portrait of Peter III).

Subtle in painting and deeply poetic portraits of F. Rokotov (1735-17808) are imbued with an awareness of the spiritual and physical beauty of man (“Unknown in pink dress", "Portrait of V.E. Novosiltseva").

The largest portrait painter of that time, D.T. Levitskaya (1735-1822) created a magnificent series of ceremonial portraits - from the portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants. His paintings combine solemnity with colorful richness. His portraits of women are filled with vitality and charm, especially of Smolensk women - students of the Smolny Institute.

Creativity V.L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825) is distinguished by a combination of decorative subtlety and grace with a faithful conveyance of character. He paints a portrait against the backdrop of a soft landscape. His lyrical portrait of the charming young woman M.I. is wonderful. Lopukhina.

Famous sculptor F. Shubin (1740-1805), fellow countryman M.V. Lomonosov, Kholmogory peasant. At the age of 19, the talented young man went to St. Petersburg. At first he was a stoker, and then a student at the Academy of Arts, improving his skills abroad. Shubin created a gallery of psychologically expressive sculptural portraits - busts of A.M. Golitsyna, M.R. Panina, I.G. Orlova, M.V. Lomonosov.

The classical direction was represented by the sculptor and draftsman M. Kozlovsky (1753-1802). His work is imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, sublime humanism, and vivid emotionality. This was especially clearly expressed in the sculptural group for the cascade of fountains in Peterhof “Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion” - an allegory personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden. His nephew A.V. is interesting. Suvorov (in the image of Mars) in St. Petersburg.

The famous French sculptor E.M. Falconet (1716-1791) came to Russia specifically to build a monument to Peter I. He worked on the Bronze Horseman monument for 12 years. Opening of the monument on Senate Square took place in 1782. The “Bronze Horseman” embodies the image of a creator, a transformer: a horse rearing up is pacified by the firm hand of a mighty horseman. The monument became a symbol of the city on the Neva.

At the end of the 18th century. One of the richest art collections in the world is being created - the Hermitage. It is based on private collections of paintings by Western European masters acquired by Catherine II. The Hermitage also hosted performances and musical evenings. Inventive art of the 18th century. made a significant step forward in the development of the secular direction.

5 . RURussian literatureXVIIIcentury

The book publishing business developed successfully. In 1708-1710 a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. The maintenance of the civil (as opposed to the church) alphabet and the civil press contributed to the increase in the production of secular, civil books, including textbooks. The ABC, “First Teaching to Youths” by F. Prokopovich, “Arithmetic” by L. Magnitsky, and “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky, a book of hours and a psalter were published for public schools. From 1708 to 1725 About 300 civil books were printed, but circulation was still small.

Much credit for the development of Russian book publishing belongs to the Russian educator, writer, and journalist N.I. Novikov (1747-1818). His printing houses printed about one third of those published in the last quarter of the 18th century. books (approximately a thousand titles). He published books on all branches of knowledge, as well as satirical magazines “Drone”, “Painter”, “Wallet”, in which he was an ardent opponent of serfdom. Novikov is the organizer of libraries and schools in Moscow and bookstores in 16 cities of Russia. He also published textbooks. In 1757, “Russian Grammar” was published by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the outdated “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky as the main textbook.

Since 1703, the first printed newspaper “Vedomosti” began to appear, which published a chronicle of domestic and foreign life.

Widespread book publishing activity greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil script contributed to the strengthening of the secular language, although the Church Slavonic language was still widespread.

Satires, odes, fables, and epigrams of the Russian poet and educator A. Cantemir (1708-1744), one of the founders of Russian classicism in the genre of poetic satire, were popular.

Poet-philologist V.K. Tvardovsky (1703-1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification. In his work “A New Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems,” he formulated the principles of Russian syllabic-tonic versification. This gave a powerful impetus to the further development of literature in Russia.

The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet, author of the first Russian comedies and tragedies, director Russian Theater In Petersburg. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables.

Russian morals and customs expressed in his social comedies“Brigadier” and “Minor” by D.I. Fonvizin (1744/45-1792). His comedies, satirical depictions of morals noble class, incriminating serfdom as the root of evil of all troubles in the country, laid the foundation for the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature.

The last quarter of the 18th century was the heyday of the poet’s creativity, statesman G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). A representative of Russian classicism, he asserted the beginnings of realism in literature. The main genre of his works is ode. In them he gave a broad picture of his contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, satire on nobles. The famous ode “Felitsa” is imbued with the idea of ​​a strong state power. In it, he gives an overview of the ideal monk and calls on “the truth to be spoken to kings with a smile.” In his poems, Derzhavin boldly combined “high” and “low” styles and introduced elements of living speech into the Russian language.

In the 80-90s of the 18th century. philosophical works of the Russian thinker and writer A.N. were published. Radishcheva (1749-1802). One “Liberty”, the story “The Life of F.V. Ushakov" and the main work - "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" - are imbued with the ideas of the Russian Enlightenment, denunciation of serfdom and autocracy, and a sympathetic depiction of the life of the people. The book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was confiscated and until 1905 it was distributed in lists, the author was exiled to Siberia.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), who reached the heights of sentimentalism in the story “ Poor Lisa" Author of "Letters of a Russian Traveler". Karamzin’s main work is “History of the Russian State (in 12 volumes) - new stage in the development of Russian historical science and at the same time an example of Russian prose.

6 . RURussian Drama Theater

In the 18th century The development of the theater continued. By order of Peter in 1702, a Public Theater was created, designed for a mass audience. Especially for him, a “Comedial Temple” was built on Red Square in Moscow, where the German troupe I.H. gave performances. Kunst, who later taught the “Russian guys”. The repertoire included foreign plays that were not successful with the public, and the theater ceased to exist as subsidies from Peter I ceased.

At the beginning of the 18th century. continued his activities school theater at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Performances were staged glorifying the deeds of Peter I.

Petrovsky official theater split into several theaters. Theater troupes continued their activities in capitals and provinces.

First 30's. In the 18th century, an official theater appeared again in St. Petersburg. In the 40s under the Shlyakhetsky cadet corps A school theater was created, in which the students of the corps performed as actors. The soul of this theater was A. Sumarokov, who also staged Russian plays there. It was there that the first Russian tragedy, “The Choreans,” written by Sumarokov, was staged.

In the middle of the 18th century. in many cities Russian Empire Foreign acting troupes performed - French, German, etc. But among the public there was growing interest in Russian theater, associated with a general rise in national self-awareness.

In 1705, performances of the first provincial public theater with Russian actors, artists, and musicians began in Yaroslavl. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fyodor Volkov (1729-1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna sent Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to the court, and in 1752 the Theater moved to St. Petersburg. Based on this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the queen, a theater was created “for the presentation of tragedies and comedies.” Sumarokov became its director, and F. Volkov became its first court actor. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater called the Russian Theater was created.

In 1779, a private theater was created on Tsaritsyn Meadow, directed by the famous Russian actor I.L. Dmitrievsky (1734-1821). He began his acting career at the F. Volkov Theater in Yaroslavl, then was an actor at the Russian Theater. Dmitrievsky was also a director and teacher, a full member of the Russian Academy. In his theater on Tsaritsyn Meadow, plays by D.I. were staged for the first time. Fonvizina. In 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the theater was closed.

In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened in Moscow, where dramatic, opera and ballet performances were staged.

At the end of the 18th century, the serf theater arose - noble theaters with troupes of serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (theatres of the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs, etc.). Into the history of Russian theatrical arts included the names of serf actresses Praskovya Zhemchugova (1763-1803), Shlykova-Granatova. At the beginning of his creative activity, the famous Russian dramatic actor Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin (1788-1863) was also a serf. Serf theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers during intermissions of first dramatic and then opera performances. Gradually, ballet groups began to form. To train dancers for the court ballet group in 1738, the project of “Her Majesty’s Own Dance School” was approved.

With the accession to the Russian throne in 1741, the daughter of Peter I Elizabeth, a decree was issued on the establishment of a Russian ballet troupe. Since the production of a separate ballet “Flora's Victory over Boreas” by the invited Austrian choreographer Hilferding in 1760, the plot ballet has become firmly established in Russia. The first Russian ballet librettist was A.P. Sumarokov.

Along with foreign dancers, Russian artists also became famous. Timofey Bublikov became the first dancer in St. Petersburg, received a court rank and the title of dance master of the court. In Moscow, famous ballet dancers were Ivan Eropkin, Vasily Balashov, Gavrila Raikov. The first Russian choreographers Balashov and Raikov staged comic ballets and divertissements in Moscow. The leading Moscow dancer was Arina Sobakina.

7. Russian musicart of the Enlightenment

At the end of the XVII-XVIII centuries. that one begins to take shape musical language, which the whole of Europe will then speak. The first were the German composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and George Frideric Handel (1685-1759).

Great German composer and organist Bach worked in all musical genres except opera. He is an unsurpassed master of polyphony. His orchestral music includes concertos for keyboard instruments and violins, orchestral suites. Bach's music for clavier and organ, his fugues and chorales are significant.

Like Bach, Handel, used biblical stories for your works. His most famous works are the oratorios “Saul”, “Israel in Egypt”, “Messiah”. Handel wrote more than 40 operas, as well as huge concertos, sonatas, and suites.

The Viennese classical school and its most prominent masters - Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven - had a huge influence on the musical art of Europe. Viennese classics rethought and made all musical genres and forms sound in a new way.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1709), the teacher of Mozart and Beethoven, is called the “Father of the Symphony.” He created more than 100 symphonies. Many of them are based on themes of folk songs and dances, which the composer developed with amazing skill. The pinnacle of his work is the 12 London Symphonies, written during the composer’s triumphant trips to England in the 90s. Haydn wrote many wonderful quartets and keyboard sonatas, over 20 operas, 14 masses, a large number of songs and other works, and brought a symphony, quartet, and sonata to classical perfection. At the end of his career, he created two monumental oratorios - “The Creation of the World” and “The Seasons”, which express thoughts about the greatness of the universe of human life.

Even as a child, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) impressed with his extraordinary abilities: he was a virtuoso performer and composed a large amount of music. Wolfgang's extraordinary abilities developed under the guidance of his father, the violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. Since 1781 Mozart lives in Vienna, where his creative genius flourished. In operas, Mozart with amazing skill creates diverse and lively human characters, shows life in its contrasts, moving from jokes to deep seriousness, from fun to subtle poetic lyricism.

The same qualities are inherent in his symphonies, sonatas, concerts, and quartets, in which he creates the highest classical examples of genres. The pinnacles of classical symphonism were his 3 symphonies (Mozart wrote about 50 in total): “E flat major” - a person’s life is full of joy, play, fun dance movement; “G minor” is the deep lyrical poetry of the movement of the human soul, the drama of its aspirations; “C major,” called “Jupiter” by contemporaries, embraces the whole world with its contrasts and contradictions, affirming the rationality and harmony of its structure.

Mozart's music represents the highest achievement of classicism in the perfection of melodies and forms.

“Music should strike fire from people’s hearts,” said Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770-1827), whose work belongs to the achievements of human genius. A man of republican views, he affirmed the dignity of the individual artist-creator. Beethoven was inspired by heroic stories. Such are his only opera “Fidelio” and the overtures “Egmont”, etc. Winning freedom as a result of persistent struggle - that’s main idea his creativity.

All mature creative life Beethoven is connected with Vienna, where as a young man he delighted Mozart with his playing, studied with Haydn, and here became famous as a pianist. The spontaneous power of dramatic collisions, the sublimity of philosophical lyrics, the rich, sometimes rude humor - all this can be found in the infinitely rich world of his sonatas (he wrote 32 sonatas in total). The lyrical and dramatic images of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Sonatas reflected the composer’s despair during the most difficult period of his life, when Beethoven was close to suicide due to hearing loss. But the crisis was overcome: the appearance of the Third Symphony marked the victory of human will. In the period from 1803 to 1813. he created the majority symphonic works. The variety of creative endeavors is truly limitless. The composer was attracted and chamber genres. Beethoven strives to penetrate the innermost depths of man's inner world.

The apotheosis of his work is the Ninth Symphony and the Solemn Mass. The Ninth Symphony includes an excerpt from Schiller's "Years of Joy", chosen as the anthem of Europe.

Bibliography

1. Culturologists: Textbook. A manual for universities. - A.N. Markova

2. History of world culture: A.N. Markova, L.A. Nikitich, N.S. Krivtsova

3. History of Russia A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina

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The Age of Enlightenment and its progressive role in the aesthetic development of society. Aesthetics in various forms Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment is one of the brightest in the development of spiritual culture in Europe. It was connected with the Renaissance by many threads.

Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment

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Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment

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Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He was a worker with an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: with his own hand edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles according to educational institutions. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 -1698 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known.

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Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov.

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Birthday of the Russian press. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. In 1708-1710 in Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected final version new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer.

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The first museum. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection preserved human freaks. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia.

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The first academy In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also higher education in Russia. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor.

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Changes in everyday life. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. Encyclopedia cultural behavior became the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct.” The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. During the reign of Peter I, a new Julian calendar. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. Petrine reforms affected all sides Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1.

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Man and culture of modern times. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes, who accomplished incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits.

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Target: To form an idea of ​​the features of Russian culture, expressed in the monuments of art of this era.
Plan:
1.Features of the art of the Russian Enlightenment.
2.Petersburg is the capital of new Russia.

In the culture of the Russian Enlightenment, the birth of secular art in Russia took place, and in all the diversity of its types and genres. Even at the end of the 17th century it was impossible to even think about sculptural and pictorial portraits of real living people, theatrical productions and secular literature. In the sphere of artistic culture, the same radical and large-scale reform is being carried out as in the entire culture of Russia of this period.

The reform of versification was undertaken by V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov. A.P. Sumarokov lays the foundation for a new type of Russian drama. A new Russian theater is emerging, an example of this is the theater of F. Volkov. The formation of national sculpture and architecture is based on Western experience.