16 Russian artistic culture in the era of enlightenment. Russian culture of the era of enlightenment

Culture in the Age of Enlightenment

Introduction

1. Enlightenment from a general point of view

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

1.2 Age of Reason

2. Education in Russia

2.1 Penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia

2.2 Education in Russian conditions

2.2.1 Catherine II: Culture and Enlightenment

2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy

2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism

3. The most famous educators

3.1 Russia. Radishchev

3.2 Russia: Novikov

3.3 France: Voltaire

3.3.1 Literary creativity. Dramaturgy

3.3.2 Literary creativity: Poetry

3.4 Germany: Goethe

Conclusion

List of used literature

Application

Introduction

The 18th century in world culture left its mark on history and is called the “era of enlightenment.”

During this era, the direction of fantastic forms - "Baroque" - ended, and the persecution of humanists began 1. It was from this time that cultural figures began to have a double life (the 1st life is a secret search for something new by the power of imagination and the 2nd life is an open life like everyone else). In literature, the main work of this time is the novel by the Spanish writer Calderon “Life is a Dream.”

In Europe, a war is emerging between the educated authorities and the poorly educated population, which has become active thanks to books. This war leads to the creation of the first bourgeois republic in Holland. And here it becomes necessary for all monarchies to protect themselves from the influence of republics. For example, in the largest kingdom in Europe, France, the de facto ruler, Cardinal Richelieu, publishes uniform requirements for art: to educate the citizens of the kingdom according to the models of the heroes of antiquity. And from Richelieu’s rules a new direction, classicism, appears. From the 2nd half of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century, the idea of ​​enlightenment (educating the people through art) prevailed in Europe.

So, what is the “age of enlightenment”? What personalities is it built on? And how did it change people's minds? - you will find answers to these and other questions in subsequent topics.

1. Enlightenment from the point of view of history

The Enlightenment was a broad cultural movement in Europe and North America in the 18th century that aimed to spread the ideals scientific knowledge, political freedoms, social progress and the exposure of related prejudices and superstitions. The centers of Enlightenment ideology and philosophy were France, Germany and England (where it originated). The ideology of the Enlightenment received its concentrated expression in France in the period from 1715 to 1789, called the Age of Enlightenment (siecle des lumieres). Kant's definition of Enlightenment as “the courage to use one's own mind” speaks of the fundamental orientation of the Enlightenment to endow reason with the status of the highest authority and the associated ethical responsibility of its bearers - enlightened citizens.

The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant influence on the development of social thought. At the same time, in the 19th and 20th centuries. The ideology of the Enlightenment was often criticized for the idealization of human nature, an optimistic interpretation of progress as the steady development of society based on the improvement of the mind. IN in a broad sense Outstanding disseminators of scientific knowledge were called educators.

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

Despite all the national characteristics, the Enlightenment had several common ideas and principles. There is a single order of nature, on the knowledge of which not only the success of science and the well-being of society, but also moral and religious perfection are based; the correct reproduction of the laws of nature allows us to build natural morality, natural religion and natural law. Reason, freed from prejudice, is the only source of knowledge; facts, the essence, are the only material for reason. Rational knowledge must free humanity from social and natural slavery; society and the state must harmonize with the external nature and nature of man. Theoretical knowledge is inseparable from practical action, which ensures progress as the highest goal of social existence.

The specific ways of implementing this program within the framework of the Enlightenment diverged significantly. The difference in opinions about religion was especially significant: the practical atheism of La Mettrie, Holbach, Helvetius and Diderot, the rationalistic anticlerical deism of Voltaire, the moderate deism of D'Alembert, the pious deism of Condillac, the emotional "deism of the heart" of Rousseau. The unifying point was hatred of the traditional church. At the same time, the deism of the Enlightenment did not exclude such organizational forms as the Masonic 4 quasi-church 5 with its rituals. Epistemological 6 differences were less diverse: basically the Enlightenmentists adhered to Lockean-style empiricism 7 with a distinctly sensationalist interpretation of the origin of knowledge. Sensualism 8 could be mechanical- materialistic character, but a skeptical and even spiritualistic option was not excluded.Ontology 9 was of less interest to the Enlightenment people: they provided the solution to these problems to specific sciences (in this regard, the philosophy of the Enlightenment can be considered the first version of positivism 10), fixing only the evidence of the existence of the subject, nature and God - root causes. Only in Holbach's System of Nature is a dogmatic 11 picture of atomistic-material existence given. IN social sphere Enlighteners tried to substantiate the theory of progress and connect it with the stages of economic and political development society. Economic (Turgot), political (Montesquieu), human rights (Voltaire) ideas of the Enlightenment played a significant role in the formation of the liberal 12 civilization of the modern West.

1.2 Age of Reason

The years of Defoe's life (1660-1731) coincided with a time of rapid development of science, which literally interrupted all the ideas of medieval man about the world around him. During the 16th-18th centuries. Geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of Europeans: the world was rapidly expanding. If in the 15th century. The lands well known in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, English, Dutch, and French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries begun by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law universal gravity. As a result of their work, by the end of the 17th century. the previous picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of ordinary people: the Earth - the biblical focus, the universe - from the center of the universe has turned into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be just one of the stars that complement the endless Cosmos.

This is how modern science was born. She tore traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new world science, in which the concepts of “mind”, “nature”, “natural law” became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence mechanical watches- a favorite image in the writings of statesmen and politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-functioning system there was almost no room for God. He was given the role of the originator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received an impetus, subsequently developed independently, in accordance with natural laws, which the Creator created as universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism and had many followers among naturalists of the 17th and 18th centuries.

But perhaps the most important step that the new philosophy dared to take was the attempt to extend the laws operating in nature to human society. A conviction emerged and grew stronger: both man himself and social life are subject to unchangeable natural laws. They only need to be discovered, recorded, and achieved accurate and universal execution. A path was found to create a perfect society built on “reasonable” foundations - the key to the future happiness of mankind.

The search for natural laws of social development contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them is the theory of natural law, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, and human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was formed. The English philosopher Locke believed that there was no time for transition free people to "civil society" - the result of a "social contract" concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are transferred to some part of the “natural rights” of fellow citizens (justice, foreign relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, religion and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of “civil society.”

A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new, deeply different from the medieval, understanding of the world and man. It was called the Age of Enlightenment - after the name of the powerful ideological movement that by the mid-18th century. widely covered the countries of Europe and America. In the 18th-19th centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That is why the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment.

This movement was represented by outstanding philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures from different countries. Among the educators were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain problems, belong to different religions or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of light restrictions on the monarchy. But they were all united by a commonality of goals and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society through peaceful, non-violent means. "Enlightenment of minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the rational principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of Enlightenment and main meaning activities of educators.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

1 . SecularizationRussian culture in comexemplar of Peter's reforms

education artistic culture secularization

Secularization, anti-Christian policy of Russian emperors of the 18th century. (primarily Peter I and Catherine II), aimed at weakening the spiritual influence Orthodox Church and the conversion of her property into secular property. The great mistake of Peter I was the reorganization of the life of the Russian people in the German way, which was completely imbued with churchliness, since our ancestors before Peter, according to church and monastic rules, distributed the time of their lives, and everything regarding their clothing, social etiquette and mutual relations of family members, bore the stamp of religion and was considered Orthodox, in contrast to the “infidel” - heretical. But this mistake became even more serious and even disastrous for Russia, thanks to the fact that Peter, in his reforms, destroyed our Orthodox faith on the basis of his obvious sympathies for Protestantism.

That same year, on March 28, Peter issued a decree that aroused great unrest in Moscow. This decree prohibited the establishment of chapels at market places and crossroads, in villages and other places and the performance of divine services here before icons by priests. In one of his decrees to the Synod, Peter limits other manifestations of the religiosity of the Russian people, “for now, all hope,” it is said here, “is placed in church singing, fasting, bowing and the like, in which the building of churches, candles and incense.” In accordance with these views of Peter, a regulation was issued, which set out the rules regarding the religious education of the people and which is a caustic satire on the religiosity of our ancestors. Guided by these regulations, the Synod issued a decree against ritualism, religious processions, walking with images, expensive frames on icons, multiplying chapels, year-long storage of artos, Epiphany water, etc. Even more detrimental to Russian piety were the measures of Peter, whose goal was to reform our monasteries, which were expressed in his decree of January 31, 1724. This patristic teaching found its way into best embodiment in life pre-Petrine Russia, when the ideal of Russian piety and the leaders of the moral and Christian life of the Russian people were monks. This is not how Peter viewed monasticism. While praising the original monasteries of deep antiquity for their diligence, in the mentioned decree he says that a hundred years after the beginning of this order, the monks became lazy, parasites and depraved. Here the multiplication of monasteries in Constantinople and in the places closest to it is rarely condemned, which allegedly turned out to be the reason for the amazing small number of soldiers who were so needed during the siege.

According to Peter, the monks do not stand up to the height of their calling, they eat free bread and there is no profit from this for society. Therefore, he demands that in Russian monasteries there should be charitable institutions for elderly soldiers and that seminaries be established from where educated students seeking monasticism for the bishopric could take monastic vows upon reaching the age of 30. And shortly before his death, the sovereign issued a decree that Moscow monasteries should be intended for the sick, old and crippled, for abandoned babies. In general, the number of monks in Russia under Peter was very limited, they were constrained special rules , and the monasteries themselves were primarily converted into almshouses. The main evil here, and moreover for all of Russia, was that Peter took away its property from the monasteries and from the Russian Church in general. The latter were gifts that were brought to the Church by believers in fulfillment of the Divine commandment: to give tithes to the Lord from their estates. This church property was Divine property and therefore assigned to the Church of St. canons as inviolable and inalienable. Russian grand dukes and tsars always protected church property from seizure with their spells. Thus, in the charter, those who seize the income of the Church are offered damnation. Other princes, kings, and church benefactors in general did the same. It is clear that the taking of church property into other hands is the gravest sin of violating the Divine commandment and St. canons, brings down terrible curses both in this and in the next century from church benefactors and is, in essence, sacrilege. The disastrous consequences of this sin were not slow to be felt during Peter’s lifetime. Monasteries in Russia not only taught the Russian people the life of their true monks, but also illuminated them with true Christian enlightenment. By turning them into charitable institutions, Peter thereby destroyed the basis for the true enlightenment of Russia. This was especially achieved by the confiscation of monastic and bishop's property when Peter renewed the Monastic Order on January 24, 1701. Through this Order, Peter, having abolished the patriarchate, deprived the Church of its independence and the means to acquire books and establish schools for the education of the Russian people. Thus, the confiscation of church property was a great evil for all of Russia, for the latter was deprived of true, ecclesiastical and patriotic enlightenment, which the Church spread thanks to its rich funds. The disastrous nature of this reform was reflected at the same time, precisely in the fact that, due to a lack of church funds, excellent schools at the bishop’s departments began to close. One of these schools was the exemplary seminary of St. Demetrius in Rostov. The impoverishment of the bishop's house of St. Dmitry reached such an extent that he not only could not maintain his school, but there was nothing to give to those begging for alms. This circumstance, in connection with the troubles caused to Saint Dmitry by the steward sent from the Monastic Order, as well as some of Peter’s reforms directed against the Church, prompted Saint Dmitry to turn to the Metropolitan of Ryazan with a letter in which he wrote to him as his friend “so much lawlessness, so many insults, so much oppression cry out to heaven and arouse the wrath and vengeance of God.” Unfortunately, the Orthodox faith was destroyed not only by Peter’s reforms, but also by his personal behavior. Peter's anti-church activities could not remain without protest from our hierarchy, and above all from its head, the last Patriarch Adrian. There was deep discord between him and Peter. He sharply condemned the innovations introduced by the tsar, but soon, to the displeasure of the people, he was forced to remain silent, especially after Peter’s unpleasant sorrow for the patriarch for the disgraced archers. After the death of the patriarch, the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, a friend of St. Dmitry of Rostov, Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, openly protested against Peter in defense of the Orthodox faith and the basic order and way of life in Russia. Metropolitan Stefan was a man of great talents, great intelligence, and brilliant European education. Courageous, noble, frank, he spoke the truth to Peter, surrounded by Protestants. For this, the king hated Stefan as his irreconcilable and persistent enemy. Peter, although he himself elevated him, became so estranged from him that he began to avoid meeting with him. However, this attitude of Peter towards Metropolitan Stephen did not stop the latter from protesting to the Tsar against innovations in the spiritual life of the Russian people, despite the fact that these protests fell on his own head, calling the Tsar’s wrath against him. He was not even afraid to openly denounce Peter in his sermons.

By order of the tsar, a decree was issued on non-observance of fasts in the regiments; one soldier was tried for the fact that, contrary to the will of his superiors, he did not want to break the fast. Of course, most of the bishops of our Church, whose speeches against Peter caused terrible terror on their part on his part, could not come to terms with such a Lutheran negative attitude towards the Orthodox faith. As a result of Peter's anti-church reforms in the life of the Russian people, there was a cooling towards the Orthodox faith and all external forms of its manifestation. Freethinkers multiplied, condemning, according to Protestant principles, Orthodox ritual. Another Russian contemporary to Peter educated society, imbued with European Protestant views, began to be ashamed of their former childish and simple-minded religiosity and tried to hide it, especially since it was openly subjected to harsh judgment from the height of the throne and by the authorities. But this does not exhaust the evil that Peter caused to Russia. The Russian Church could successfully combat the absence of Russian people from the Orthodox faith on the basis of Protestinism through school education. But Peter took away property from the Church. Because of this, the enlightenment of the Russian people was not introduced by the Church, it was not spread on the original historical principles of our Orthodox faith, it even introduced a negative attitude towards faith and therefore concealed the death of Russia. Unfortunately, not immediately after Peter, our emperors, who were the patrons of the Orthodox faith and its defenders not only for Russia, but also for other Orthodox countries, began to lead Russia. Even after Peter, the Russian people had to endure a number of deep upheavals in their faith.

The Synod sentenced Metropolitan Arseny to deprivation of his episcopal rank and to be handed over, after being removed from monasticism, to a secular court, which was to condemn him to death for insulting Her Majesty. But the empress ordered the release of metropolitan Arseny from the secular court, leaving him as a monk and exiling him to a distant monastery.

Catherine II fulfilled all the requirements of outward piety, admired the sermons of Metropolitan Plato, kissed the hands of the clergy, went in religious processions, but did not have an Orthodox disposition and valued religion, like Peter, solely from the point of view of its political significance - its benefit to the state. What was especially bad was that she worshiped, and even excessively, the atheist Voltaire, curried favor with him and consulted with him in her plans regarding certain reforms for Russia. Hence, it was natural for her to appoint such non-Orthodox persons as the Freemasons Melissino and Chebyshev to the post of Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The first of them proposed to the synod to provide a synodal deputy for a meeting with the Code Commission with the following proposals regarding reforms in church life: weaken and shorten fasts, destroy the veneration of icons and holy relics, prohibit the carrying of images in homes, reduce church services to avoid pagan verbosity in prayer, abolish stichera, canons, troparions compiled in later times, to appoint short prayers with teachings for the people instead of Vespers and all-night vigils, to stop supporting monks, to allow the election of bishops from priests without tonsure into monasticism, to allow bishops to conduct married life, to allow the clergy to wear “the most decent dress ", cancel the commemoration of the dead, allow marriage more than 3 times and prohibit the giving of communion to infants under ten years of age. The Holy Synod rejected this proposal and drew up its own order. Thus, if under Peter the Russian Church had to suffer greatly from Protestantism, then under Catherine II the Church experienced strong pressure not only from Protestantism, but also from unbelief. But Catherine II dealt a particularly severe blow to the Church through the final confiscation of monastic estates into the treasury and the introduction of monastic states. Due to this reform, detrimental to the Church, 754 of the 954 previously existing monasteries were closed; consequently, only a fifth of them remained in Russia. When taking away church estates, a promise was made to provide theological schools and clergy, but it was not fulfilled by the state authorities. Moreover, the latter did not receive much benefit from this reform, since a huge part of the monastery estates was distributed by the empress as a gift to her favorites. It is clear what a painful blow this reform was to the hearts of the believing Russian people. The places illuminated by the exploits of holy monks have become desolate. The path along which the masses headed to the holy elders for spiritual guidance and to the holy graves for prayers became overgrown. Many schools, hospitals and almshouses were closed at churches and monasteries. Along with the closure of the monasteries, the great work of educating foreigners in Siberia and other places in vast Russia also stopped. The people's feelings were too indignant, for the confiscation of church property was a flagrant violation of the property rights and will of those who bequeathed their estates to churches and monasteries for charity, for support, monasticism and for the commemoration of souls. This reform was a great sin in the eyes of the people, for the Church always looked upon donations to churches and monasteries, as mentioned above, as dedicated to God. Therefore, contemporaries of this sad phenomenon in the life of the Church could not help but protest. The sharpest protest came from Arseny, Metropolitan of Rostov. His personality aroused and arouses deep respect, as he always fearlessly defended his just cause. But he remained unforgettable for the Russian Church mainly for his speech against the confiscation of church property. Regarding this sad event, Metropolitan Arseny submitted one protest after another to the Synod. On the week of Orthodoxy, he added an anathema to the usual anathematizations of “offenders of churches and monasteries.” All these actions of Metropolitan Arseny were brought to the attention of Catherine. An investigation into the case of Metropolitan Arseny was appointed at the Synod. The latter was summoned to the palace, where he was interrogated in the presence of the empress herself. Metropolitan Arseny spoke so harshly that the Empress covered her ears, and he himself was “riveted.” Catherine ordered the Synod itself to judge her brother.

2 . OSObenefits of the “Russian Enlightenment”

The Russian Enlightenment inherited the problems of the European Enlightenment, comprehended and developed it in a completely original way, in the context of the unique historical situation that developed in Russian society at that time.

According to the enlighteners, the greatness of man, his difference from other creatures generated by nature, lies in his mind. A person endowed with reason is able to work creatively, thereby ensuring the progress of humanity. This admiration for man as the most perfect creation of nature is characteristic of all educational thought. But it sounds especially bright in the ode “Man” by I.P. Pnin (1773-1805), educator, poet, follower of A.N. Radishcheva. This is a kind of hymn to his greatness, to those acts through which a person overcomes the slave within himself.

Enlighteners create a special moral philosophy, with the help of which they determine the basic principles of ethics and the behavior of people in society. The main provisions of moral philosophy are set out in the work of A.P. Kunitsyna (1783-1840) “Natural Law.” Morality in this essay is considered as a natural manifestation of human nature. Russian enlighteners thought about why freedom of thought, as a deep human need, is so difficult to realize in real conditions. Freedom or love of freedom is considered by Russian enlighteners as an absolute value. Without freedom, a person cannot exist; all his actions are dictated by the desire to gain freedom.

A huge place in the works of Russian enlighteners was given to the reconstruction of society. The goal of a free society, according to educators, is the well-being of citizens. “The state is only happy when it is loved by its compatriots,” wrote A.F. Bestuzhev (1761-1810), father of the Decembrists Bestuzhev brothers. Living in a society based on freedom and happiness, a person must be a worthy citizen. Therefore, the interest of educators in the problem of personality education was enormous. The tract by A.F. is devoted to this topic. Bestuzhev “On Education”, published in the “St. Petersburg Journal”, which he published together with I.P. Pnin.

The philosophical and anthropological thought of Russian enlighteners was distinguished by significant diversity, depth and originality. It covered a wide range of political, worldview, moral problems and such an acute problem of Russian reality as the situation of the peasants.

The development of enlightenment in Russia was started by M.V. Lomonosov, through whose efforts a university was opened in Moscow.

The ideas of enlightenment are widespread in Russian literature - in the works of D.I. Fonvizina, G.R. Derzhavina, V.K. Trediakovsky, in Russian painting - in the paintings of F.S. Rokotova, D.G. Levitsky.

The herald of revolutionary sentiments in Russia A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) in his works (ode “Liberty”, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”) reflected a wide range of ideas of Russian enlightenment and, above all, a sharp denunciation of autocracy and serfdom.

The largest representative of Russian enlightenment is N.I. Novikov (1744-1818), publicist, publisher of satirical magazines, organizer of printing houses, libraries, bookstores (in 16 cities). The books he published covered all branches of knowledge.

The autocracy brutally dealt with educators. Radishchev's book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was confiscated and banned (only in 1905 a new edition was published), and the author himself was sent into exile. Novikov was also imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

The diversity of ideas among educators, united by common goals and ideas, was a prerequisite for exceptional fruitfulness of creative activity. In the endless disputes between them, modern concepts of human and civil rights, civil society and pluralistic democracy, the rule of law and the separation of powers, a market economy and the ethics of individualism were born. The peoples of many countries have paid dearly for attempts to neglect this heritage.

XVIII century The dominance of bourgeois culture also prepared the way. The old, feudal ideology was replaced by the time of philosophers, sociologists, economists, and writers of the new century - the Enlightenment. The aesthetic innovation of the century manifested itself not only in the desire to destroy or even reconstruct traditional forms, how much in the creation of some other forms that exist in everyday use of tradition and, as it were, independently of it.

3 . Stor trends in Russian artistic cultureXVIIIV.

European art of the 18th century. It combined classicism and romanticism. Romanticism, which arose in an atmosphere permeated with the ideas of the Enlightenment and revolutionary events, placed the imagination, emotionality and creative spirituality of the artist at the forefront. Using the old stylistic forms of classicism, the art of the Enlightenment reflected a completely different content. In the art of different countries and peoples, classicism and romanticism sometimes form some kind of synthesis, sometimes they exist in all sorts of combinations and mixtures.

An important new beginning in the art of the 18th century. There was also the emergence of movements that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to develop it. This largest cultural movement was, first of all, sentimentalism, which fully reflected the Enlightenment ideas about the original purity and kindness of human nature, which are lost along with the distance of society from nature. In diaries, novels, letters, and poems, sentimentalist writers analyzed the subtlest shades of their own feelings and moods.

In European art of the 18th century. There was another direction - Rococo. It is characterized by lightness, grace, sophistication and whimsical ornamental rhythm. All Rococo art is built on asymmetry, creating a feeling of unease - a playful, mocking, pretentious, teasing feeling.

It is no coincidence that the origin of the term “rococo” is traced back to the French word “rocaille” (diamond and shell decoration), which denoted a style of interior decoration based on S-shaped curves and spiral shapes. Rococo became a leading art movement in France in the 18th century, and then became widespread in Europe, especially in the churches and palaces of southern Germany and Austria.

Development of European art of the 18th century. Complex and uneven. In Italy highest achievement associated with the Venetian school. In France, the evolution from Rococo to the art of a programmatic and civic orientation can be traced. In art, and especially in the literature of England, the characteristic features of realism were already emerging. Young Goya (1746-1828) in Spain promoted the romanticism of the new century with all his work.

The most valuable heritage of the 18th century. The foundations of aesthetics and art history laid down in it appeared as a truly scientific discipline, the development of which is closely connected with the successes of philosophy.

4 . RUsska artXVIIIcentury

In the 18th century The fine arts are also undergoing changes - painting, sculpture, etc. This is the heyday of portrait painting. Artistic line Russian portraiture retained its originality, but at the same time absorbed Western traditions.

Most famous artists Peter's era - A. Matveev (1701-1739) and I. Nikitin (c. 1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting abroad. Matveev's portraits are marked by ease of poses and truthfulness of characteristics. He owns the first self-portrait in Russian art - “Self-portrait with his wife.” I. Nikitin sought to convey in his portraits the characteristic individual features of the model and the expressiveness of the depicted objects. In the portraits “Floor Hetman” and “Peter I on his Deathbed” he was far ahead of his contemporaries in the depth and form of artistic expression.

The appearance of the portrait in the Petrine era was, according to academician I.E. Grabar, “one of the main factors that decided the fate of Russian painting.”

By the end of the 20s. There was a turning point towards the court direction in painting. It was a time of intense personal development, which was reflected in the work of the best portrait painters of the 18th century. - Antropov, Rokotov, Levitsky, Borovikovsky, sculptors Shubin and Kozlovsky.

Portraits of A.P. Antropov (1716-1795), although they still retained the connection with the parsuna, they are distinguished by the truthfulness of their characterization of the human personality (portrait of Peter III).

Subtle in painting and deeply poetic portraits of F. Rokotov (1735-17808) are imbued with an awareness of the spiritual and physical beauty of man (“Unknown in pink dress", "Portrait of V.E. Novosiltseva").

The largest portrait painter of that time, D.T. Levitskaya (1735-1822) created a magnificent series of ceremonial portraits - from the portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants. His paintings combine solemnity with colorful richness. His portraits of women are filled with vitality and charm, especially of Smolensk women - students of the Smolny Institute.

Creativity V.L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825) is distinguished by a combination of decorative subtlety and grace with a faithful conveyance of character. He paints a portrait against the backdrop of a soft landscape. His lyrical portrait of the charming young woman M.I. is wonderful. Lopukhina.

Famous sculptor F. Shubin (1740-1805), fellow countryman M.V. Lomonosov, Kholmogory peasant. At the age of 19, the talented young man went to St. Petersburg. At first he was a stoker, and then a student at the Academy of Arts, improving his skills abroad. Shubin created a gallery of psychologically expressive sculptural portraits - busts of A.M. Golitsyna, M.R. Panina, I.G. Orlova, M.V. Lomonosov.

The classical direction was represented by the sculptor and draftsman M. Kozlovsky (1753-1802). His work is imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, sublime humanism, and vivid emotionality. This was especially clearly expressed in the sculptural group for the cascade of fountains in Peterhof “Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion” - an allegory personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden. His nephew A.V. is interesting. Suvorov (in the image of Mars) in St. Petersburg.

The famous French sculptor E.M. Falconet (1716-1791) came to Russia specifically to build a monument to Peter I. He worked on the Bronze Horseman monument for 12 years. Opening of the monument on Senate Square took place in 1782. The “Bronze Horseman” embodies the image of a creator, a transformer: a horse rearing up is pacified by the firm hand of a mighty horseman. The monument became a symbol of the city on the Neva.

At the end of the 18th century. One of the richest art collections in the world is being created - the Hermitage. It is based on private collections of paintings by Western European masters acquired by Catherine II. The Hermitage also hosted performances, musical evenings. Inventive art of the 18th century. made a significant step forward in the development of the secular direction.

5 . RURussian literatureXVIIIcentury

The book publishing business developed successfully. In 1708-1710 a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. The maintenance of the civil (as opposed to the church) alphabet and the civil press contributed to the increase in the production of secular, civil books, including textbooks. The ABC, “First Teaching to Youths” by F. Prokopovich, “Arithmetic” by L. Magnitsky, and “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky, a book of hours and a psalter were published for public schools. From 1708 to 1725 About 300 civil books were printed, but circulation was still small.

Much credit for the development of Russian book publishing belongs to the Russian educator, writer, and journalist N.I. Novikov (1747-1818). His printing houses printed about one third of those published in the last quarter of the 18th century. books (approximately a thousand titles). He published books on all branches of knowledge, as well as satirical magazines “Drone”, “Painter”, “Wallet”, in which he was an ardent opponent of serfdom. Novikov is the organizer of libraries and schools in Moscow and bookstores in 16 cities of Russia. He also published textbooks. In 1757, “Russian Grammar” was published by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the outdated “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky as the main textbook.

Since 1703, the first printed newspaper “Vedomosti” began to appear, which published a chronicle of domestic and foreign life.

Widespread book publishing activity greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil script contributed to the strengthening of the secular language, although the Church Slavonic language was still widespread.

Satires, odes, fables, and epigrams of the Russian poet and educator A. Cantemir (1708-1744), one of the founders of Russian classicism in the genre of poetic satire, were popular.

Poet-philologist V.K. Tvardovsky (1703-1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification. In his work “A New Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems,” he formulated the principles of Russian syllabic-tonic versification. This gave a powerful impetus further development literature in Russia.

The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet, author of the first Russian comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables.

Russian morals and customs were expressed in his social comedies “The Brigadier” and “The Minor” by D.I. Fonvizin (1744/45-1792). His comedies, satirical depictions of the morals of the noble class, exposed serfdom as the root of evil of all troubles in the country, laid the foundation for the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature.

The last quarter of the 18th century was the heyday of the work of the poet and statesman G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). A representative of Russian classicism, he asserted the beginnings of realism in literature. The main genre of his works is ode. In them he gave a broad picture of contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, a satire on nobles. The famous ode “Felitsa” is imbued with the idea of ​​a strong state power. In it, he gives an overview of the ideal monk and calls on “the truth to be spoken to kings with a smile.” In his poems, Derzhavin boldly combined “high” and “low” styles and introduced elements of living speech into the Russian language.

In the 80-90s of the 18th century. philosophical works of the Russian thinker and writer A.N. were published. Radishcheva (1749-1802). One “Liberty”, the story “The Life of F.V. Ushakov" and the main work - "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" - are imbued with the ideas of the Russian Enlightenment, denunciation of serfdom and autocracy, and a sympathetic depiction of the life of the people. The book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was confiscated and until 1905 it was distributed in lists, the author was exiled to Siberia.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), who reached the heights of sentimentalism in the story “Poor Liza.” Author of "Letters of a Russian Traveler". Karamzin’s main work is “History of the Russian State (in 12 volumes) - new stage in the development of Russian historical science and at the same time an example of Russian prose.

6 . RURussian Drama Theater

In the 18th century The development of the theater continued. By order of Peter in 1702, a Public Theater was created, designed for mass public. Especially for him, a “Comedial Temple” was built on Red Square in Moscow, where the German troupe I.H. gave performances. Kunst, who later taught the “Russian guys”. The repertoire included foreign plays that were not successful with the public, and the theater ceased to exist as subsidies from Peter I ceased.

At the beginning of the 18th century. continued his activities school theater at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Performances were staged glorifying the deeds of Peter I.

Petrovsky official theater split into several theaters. Theater troupes continued their activities in capitals and provinces.

First 30's. In the 18th century, an official theater appeared again in St. Petersburg. In the 40s A school theater was created at the Gentry Cadet Corps, in which students of the corps performed as actors. The soul of this theater was A. Sumarokov, who also staged Russian plays there. It was there that the first Russian tragedy, “The Choreans,” written by Sumarokov, was staged.

In the middle of the 18th century. in many cities Russian Empire Foreign acting troupes performed - French, German, etc. But among the public there was growing interest in Russian theater, associated with a general rise in national self-awareness.

In 1705, performances of the first provincial public theater with Russian actors, artists, and musicians began in Yaroslavl. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fyodor Volkov (1729-1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna sent Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to the court, and in 1752 the Theater moved to St. Petersburg. Based on this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the queen, a theater was created “for the presentation of tragedies and comedies.” Sumarokov became its director, and F. Volkov became its first court actor. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater called the Russian Theater was created.

In 1779, a private theater was created on Tsaritsyn Meadow, directed by the famous Russian actor I.L. Dmitrievsky (1734-1821). He began his acting career at the F. Volkov Theater in Yaroslavl, then was an actor at the Russian Theater. Dmitrievsky was also a director and teacher, a full member of the Russian Academy. In his theater on Tsaritsyn Meadow, plays by D.I. were staged for the first time. Fonvizina. In 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the theater was closed.

In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened in Moscow, where dramatic, opera and ballet performances were staged.

At the end of the 18th century, the serf theater arose - noble theaters with troupes of serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (theatres of the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs, etc.). The history of Russian theatrical art includes the names of serf actresses Praskovya Zhemchugova (1763-1803), Shlykova-Granatova. At the beginning of his creative activity, the famous Russian dramatic actor Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin (1788-1863) was also a serf. Serf theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers during intermissions of first dramatic and then opera performances. Gradually, ballet groups began to form. To train dancers for the court ballet group in 1738, the project of “Her Majesty’s Own Dance School” was approved.

With the accession of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, to the Russian throne in 1741, a decree was issued on the establishment of a Russian ballet troupe in St. Petersburg. Since the production of a separate ballet “Flora's Victory over Boreas” by the invited Austrian choreographer Hilferding in 1760, the plot ballet has become firmly established in Russia. The first Russian ballet librettist was A.P. Sumarokov.

Along with foreign dancers, Russian artists also became famous. Timofey Bublikov became the first dancer in St. Petersburg, received a court rank and the title of dance master of the court. In Moscow, famous ballet dancers were Ivan Eropkin, Vasily Balashov, Gavrila Raikov. The first Russian choreographers Balashov and Raikov staged comic ballets and divertissements in Moscow. The leading Moscow dancer was Arina Sobakina.

7. Russian musicart of the Enlightenment

At the end of the XVII-XVIII centuries. that one begins to take shape musical language, which the whole of Europe will then speak. The first were the German composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and George Frideric Handel (1685-1759).

The great German composer and organist Bach worked in all musical genres except opera. He is an unsurpassed master of polyphony. His orchestral music includes concertos for keyboards and violin, and orchestral suites. Bach's music for clavier and organ, his fugues and chorales are significant.

Like Bach, Handel used biblical scenes for his works. His most famous works are the oratorios “Saul”, “Israel in Egypt”, “Messiah”. Handel wrote more than 40 operas, as well as huge concertos, sonatas, and suites.

The Viennese classical school and its most prominent masters - Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven - had a huge influence on the musical art of Europe. Viennese classics rethought and made all musical genres and forms sound in a new way.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1709), the teacher of Mozart and Beethoven, is called the “Father of the Symphony.” He created more than 100 symphonies. Many of them are based on themes folk songs and dances that the composer developed with amazing art. The pinnacle of his work is the 12 London Symphonies, written during the composer’s triumphant trips to England in the 90s. Haydn wrote many wonderful quartets and keyboard sonatas, over 20 operas, 14 masses, a large number of songs and other works, and brought a symphony, quartet, and sonata to classical perfection. At the end creative path he created two monumental oratorios - “The Creation of the World” and “The Seasons”, which express thoughts about the greatness of the universe of human life.

Even as a child, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) impressed with his extraordinary abilities: he was a virtuoso performer and composed a large amount of music. Wolfgang's extraordinary abilities developed under the guidance of his father, the violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. Since 1781 Mozart lives in Vienna, where his creative genius flourished. In operas, Mozart with amazing skill creates diverse and lively human characters, shows life in its contrasts, moving from jokes to deep seriousness, from fun to subtle poetic lyricism.

The same qualities are inherent in his symphonies, sonatas, concerts, and quartets, in which he creates the highest classical examples of genres. The pinnacles of classical symphonism were his 3 symphonies (Mozart wrote about 50 in total): “E flat major” - a person’s life is full of joy, games, cheerful dance movements; “G minor” is the deep lyrical poetry of the movement of the human soul, the drama of its aspirations; “C major,” called “Jupiter” by contemporaries, embraces the whole world with its contrasts and contradictions, affirming the rationality and harmony of its structure.

Mozart's music represents the highest achievement of classicism in the perfection of melodies and forms.

“Music should strike fire from people’s hearts,” said Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770-1827), whose work belongs to the achievements of human genius. Human republican views, he affirmed the dignity of the individual artist-creator. Beethoven was inspired by heroic stories. Such are his only opera “Fidelio” and the overtures “Egmont”, etc. The winning of freedom as a result of persistent struggle is the main idea of ​​his work.

All mature creative life Beethoven is connected with Vienna, where as a young man he delighted Mozart with his playing, studied with Haydn, and here became famous as a pianist. The spontaneous power of dramatic collisions, the sublimity of philosophical lyrics, the rich, sometimes rude humor - all this can be found in the infinitely rich world of his sonatas (he wrote 32 sonatas in total). The lyrical and dramatic images of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Sonatas reflected the composer’s despair during the most difficult period of his life, when Beethoven was close to suicide due to hearing loss. But the crisis was overcome: the appearance of the Third Symphony marked the victory of human will. In the period from 1803 to 1813. he created most of the symphonic works. Diversity creative quests truly limitless. The composer was attracted and chamber genres. Beethoven strives to penetrate the innermost depths of man's inner world.

The apotheosis of his work is the Ninth Symphony and the Solemn Mass. The Ninth Symphony includes an excerpt from Schiller's "Years of Joy", chosen as the anthem of Europe.

Bibliography

1. Culturologists: Textbook. A manual for universities. - A.N. Markova

2. History of world culture: A.N. Markova, L.A. Nikitich, N.S. Krivtsova

3. History of Russia A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Historical conditions development of culture in the second half of the 19th century, features of this period. State of enlightenment fiction, musical art, fine arts and architecture. The contribution of Russian culture to the world.

course work, added 06/05/2014


France as the hegemon of spiritual life Europe XVIII century. Chronological and territorial framework of the Age of Enlightenment. Evolution philosophical ideas enlighteners and their embodiment in the fine arts. The influence of the Enlightenment on the development of theatrical art.

course work, added 03/31/2013


Culture of the period of Peter's reforms. Features of the Russian Enlightenment era of the 18th century, including the development of social thought, philosophy, literature and artistic culture and its influence on modern culture. Historical portrait Novikova N.I.

abstract, added 12/18/2010


Familiarization with the cultural heritage of the 18th century. Consideration of the main values ​​of the Enlightenment. Features of the Enlightenment in European countries. Style and genre features art. The age of great discoveries and great misconceptions; cult of nature.

course work, added 08/09/2014


The concept of the Age of Enlightenment. Its characteristic features are in the economic, socio-political and spiritual spheres. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, its representatives in literature (Denis Diderot, J. Swift, D. Defoe). Gardens and parks as its embodiment in architecture.

presentation, added 06/07/2011


Character traits the Age of Enlightenment, the distinctive features of its development in England, France and Germany. Philosophical thought of the Enlightenment. Style and genre features of architecture, painting, music, literature of a given period of time, its brightest representatives.

test, added 06/11/2009


The progress of Russian culture, accompanied by the development of education, science, literature and art, in the first half of the 19th century. Prominent representatives of culture in this period in the field of architecture, painting, theater and music, as well as Russian journalism.

presentation, added 12/03/2012


Spiritual culture of St. Petersburg during the Enlightenment era and its features. The establishment of classicism in the artistic culture of St. Petersburg. The origins of portraiture and Russian historical painting. New principles of city development, features of classicism in architecture.

course work, added 03/12/2010


The main features of the Age of Enlightenment, their reflection in the development of Russian culture. Stages and genres of Russian literature. The development of book publishing, the confrontation between public journalism and government policy. The evolution of the Russian language. Catherine II as a writer.

thesis, added 12/08/2013


The Age of Enlightenment and its progressive role V aesthetic development society. Aesthetics in various forms of Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment is one of the brightest in the development of spiritual culture in Europe. It was connected with the Renaissance by many threads.

At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. Key Features At this time free-thinking and rationalism began to emerge. The culture of the Enlightenment took shape, which gave the world

Philosophy

The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual appearance of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

The Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality is not born on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first and foremost consist in the equality of all before the law.

The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social unrest be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and cognition.

During the Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic one) grew. Among educated believers, the idea of ​​God as a kind of absolute mechanic who brought order to the originally existing world spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and mysteries and miracles are a thing of the past.

Art movements

In addition to philosophy, there was also the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. It is embodied in literature, music, and fine arts. This direction implied following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict compliance with form.

Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.

Experimental styles also appeared. An important phenomenon became sentimentalism. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with its help that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like European culture, had its own vibrant works that belonged to the movement of sentimentalism. This was the story of Nikolai Karamzin “Poor Liza”.

Cult of nature

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. Thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of the beautiful and good that humanity should strive for. The parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time turned out to be the embodiment of a better world. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, and theaters.

The Enlightenmentists believed that the new "natural man" must return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) gave Peterhof to its contemporaries. They worked on its construction famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

Painting

In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where it had previously felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting replaced the mood landscape, and the intimate portrait replaced the formal portrait.

In the first half of the 18th century, French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of the artists of this movement were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures of ancient mythology, and the main subjects were love ones.

A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king.” He drow theater scenery, illustrations for books, paintings for rich houses and palaces. His most famous paintings: “Toilet of Venus”, “Triumph of Venus”, etc.

Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by their spirituality, spiritual sophistication and poetry.

The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative of the Venetian school. The capital of the famous trading republic also gave rise to the veduta - the everyday cityscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

Theater

The 18th century is the golden age of theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the height of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, “The Trip to Scarborough,” “The School for Scandal,” and “The Rivals,” satirized the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous “Tavern”, Carlo Goldoni, worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

Most famous comedy The 18th century was “The Marriage of Figaro”, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. This play embodied the mood of society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and first performances of the comedy, a revolution occurred in France that overthrew the old regime.

European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own art arose national characteristics. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. Moreover, the theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.

Johann Goethe was not only a wonderful poet and playwright. It is not without reason that he is called a “universal genius” - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy "Faust" and the play "Egmont". Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Cunning and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

Fiction

Main literary genre The 18th century became a novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture came, replacing the old feudal ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With its help, thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, put into his work many allusions to the vices of his contemporary society. He also wrote “The Tale of the Butterfly.” In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church order and strife.

The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced by the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. This was, for example, Johann Goethe’s sentimental work “The Sorrows of Young Werther,” in which the main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu’s “Persian Letters.” Documentary novels appeared in the genre of travelogues or travel descriptions (“Travels in France and Italy” by Tobias Smollett).

In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, the poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, and Antioch Cantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with “Poor Liza” and “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites so that at the beginning of the new XIX century domestic literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, experienced its golden age.

Music

It was during the Enlightenment that the modern musical language emerged. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (opera was the exception). Bach is still considered an unsurpassed master of polyphony today. Another German composer, George Handel, wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical stories(characteristic titles of the works: “Israel in Egypt”, “Saul”, “Messiah”).

Another important musical phenomenon of that time was Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed academic orchestras and today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig Van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who rethought previous musical forms and genres.

Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. The culture of the Enlightenment, or any other period of human history, has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn wrote 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 keyboard sonatas.

Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassedly, mastering these instruments in the most early childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). Mozart's main works are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year, 1788 (number 39, 40, 41).

Another great classic, Beethoven, was fond of heroic subjects, which was reflected in the overtures “Egmont”, “Coriolanus” and the opera “Fidelio”. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. Most The composer created his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the Kreutzer Sonata is the most famous).

Beethoven suffered from severe hearing loss. The composer was inclined towards suicide and in despair wrote his legendary “Moon” sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the artist’s will. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

English Enlightenment

England was the birthplace of the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus cultural development. England has become a clear example social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment era was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was exactly like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

Thinkers of France

French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

The 35-volume Encyclopedia became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed of the main thinkers of the “Age of Reason”. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making publication was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other outstanding intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.

Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder of bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author satirical poems, philosophical novels, political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, and even more times he had to go on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.

German Enlightenment

German culture of the 18th century existed in conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Progressive minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.

Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of an autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia it was Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the progressive ideals of his time, although he did not renounce his unlimited power. This system was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The main Enlightenment figure in Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work “Critique of Pure Reason”. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge and studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms of changing social and political system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.

Target: To form an idea of ​​the features of Russian culture, expressed in the monuments of art of this era.
Plan:
1.Features of the art of the Russian Enlightenment.
2.Petersburg is the capital of new Russia.

In the culture of the Russian Enlightenment, the birth of secular art in Russia took place, and in all the diversity of its types and genres. Even at the end of the 17th century it was impossible to even think about sculptural and pictorial portraits of real living people, theatrical productions and secular literature. In the sphere of artistic culture, the same radical and large-scale reform is being carried out as in the entire culture of Russia of this period.

The reform of versification was undertaken by V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov. A.P. Sumarokov lays the foundation for a new type of Russian drama. A new Russian theater is emerging, an example of this is the theater of F. Volkov. The formation of national sculpture and architecture is based on Western experience.