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CULTURAL SCIENCE

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Kravchenko A.I.

K78 Culturology: Textbook for universities. - 3rd ed. M: Academic Project, 2002. - 496 p. Series (Gaudeamus).

ISBN 5-8291-0167-X

The textbook examines the subject, method and functions of culture, the main schools of cultural studies, covers the problems of the structure and dynamics of culture, intercultural communication, the development and formation of subcultures, types and forms of culture (folk, mass, elite). A separate section is devoted to the presentation of the history of world culture from antiquity to the present day.

For specialists in the field of cultural studies, teachers and students of non-core universities.
UDC 0.08 BBK 71

© A.I. Kravchenko, 2001.
© V.K. Petrov, chapters 1, 3 Sections [, 2001.
© Academic Project,
ISBN 5-8291-0167-X original layout, design, 2002.

sch Preface

The author of this textbook did not set himself the task of providing comprehensive knowledge about all aspects of culture, that is, writing a book that would be the only guide to cultural studies. Such a task is not only impossible, but also useless. In a school course of educational science there should be one textbook for each subject, but in the cycle of university knowledge one should never rely on one book. In any subject, it is necessary to provide the student and teacher with the right to choose several works, with different positions covering the problem. Fortunately, quite a lot of textbooks and manuals covering the history of art have been published in our country. philosophical problems cultures, anthropological aspects, etc.

Freedom of opinion and breadth of discussion, mandatory and indispensable attributes of university knowledge, suggest that students and teachers will use many aids, expressing and defending different points of view. A fundamental feature of the study of culture presupposes a diversity of visions of the world, the opportunity to look at a familiar subject differently and in one’s own way. However, the diversity of approaches must have some kind of guiding thread. In other words, in order not to get confused by the differences in positions and visions, it is necessary to have a textbook that gives a systematic view of things.

The author has set himself precisely this, as it seems to him, the most urgent task - to try to present a system of knowledge about culture, to reduce the accumulated information to a common standard, without claiming to be an exhaustive presentation of each individual issue.

According to the plan, integrity in the presentation of culture is achieved under the following two conditions. Firstly, culture must be presented not only statically, but also dynamically, so one can find coverage of these and other issues in the work. Secondly, classifying culture into

Preface

High (elite), folk and mass (popular), the author tried not to highlight one of them at the expense of others, believing that the textbook should not be devoted exclusively to the history of world artistic culture, i.e., essentially reduced to a presentation of high culture. The section on world artistic culture turned out to be more extensive only because science has accumulated more materials here than in other areas. Yet it does not cover all forms and eras, and in particular the book says almost nothing about Chinese, Latin American, Indian and North American cultures. The omission is deliberate: the author sought to show, first of all, what played a decisive role in the formation European culture, and through it - in the Russian one. 11a Russian culture was obviously more influenced by Byzantine and early Christian cultures than by ancient Chinese or Latin American cultures. North American culture undoubtedly influenced the development Soviet culture, is partly considered in the section of European culture, in the mainstream of which it, as its branch, was formed.

Another reason that dictated this methodological choice is the understanding of culture, first of all, as a way of life of people, which is revealed through a set of traditions, customs, beliefs, values ​​and norms of behavior.

A textbook is only one element of a coherent system of teaching aids. There are three of them: Study Guide, Reader and Dictionary. And they are all devoted to cultural studies. They are all from different sides, in different shapes and manner they say one thing. But no one is repeating themselves.

The basic one is the Study Guide, which briefly and systematically presents basic information about culture. The reader provides more extensive material. In it you will find articles and chapters from books by serious scientists discussing certain aspects of culture, arguing with each other, offering views different from those that can be found in the Study Guide. But all this is aimed at broadening the reader’s horizons and the formation of variable thinking, capable of seeing the subject from different points of view.

On the contrary, the Dictionary will not lead you anywhere. It has a very pragmatic function. The dictionary will serve as an excellent cheat sheet if, while mastering a new slash, |.|()1.1ln terms from the old one. And anyway, if you forgot...

SECTION I
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CULTURE

SCIENTIFIC STATUS AND SUBJECT OF CULTURAL STUDIES *

1 § 1.Discussions about the subject of cultural studies

There is no consensus on the subject and place of cultural studies in the system of scientific knowledge. There is one point of view: an isolationist position, according to which cultural studies has its own approach, unlike other sciences, and an integrativist position, which is based on the belief that cultural studies is a synthesis of social and 1capital knowledge about culture.

As for the first, isolationist point of view, it consists in the reduction (reduction) and then the replacement of cultural studies with another science, for example, philosophy of culture, art history, sociology of culture or anthropology. Many textbooks published in the 90s under the name of cultural studies represent? ia, in fact, books about world artistic culture, outlining the history of art from primitive times to the Middle Ages and Modern times. But world artistic culture (MHC) is an independent discipline, and being included in cultural studies, it is only one of its subsections. Philosophy of culture, anthropology and sociology of culture are also subsections None of these sciences separately is capable of exhausting the subject of cultural studies in its extreme diversity.

The Oxford Dictionary indicates that the word “Kulturologie” was first used by German scholars.
* Chapters 1, 3 of Section 1 were written in collaboration with V.K. Petrov:.

Ny V. Ostwald in 1913. The term “cullurology” was first used in 1949 by the American anthropologist Leslie White (1900-1975). After this, the term “cultural studies” appeared in the literature only a few times: in 1949, 1956, 1957. In the same dictionary, culturology is interpreted as the science or doctrine of culture 1 . The authoritative Webster's dictionary literally says the following: “Cultural science is the science of culture; more special meaning: a certain methodology associated with the name of the American anthropologist L. White, who considered culture as a self-sufficient process, and cultural traits (institutions, ideologies and technologies) as factors independent of culture (climate, human body, our desires and goals)" 5. We will not find any names, movements, scientific schools and concepts mentioned in sections on more solid and established disciplines, say, sociology or psychology, either in this or in any other reference publication. This apparently indicates that cultural studies does not exist as a science in the West.

Until recently, there was no cultural studies in Russia either. Let us express it more precisely: in the USSR, cultural studies, which has its own status, recognized among other sciences, has its own subject and object of research - H1#I, with my history and traditions, did not exist. They began to talk about it loudly only in the early 90s. Essentially, we are dealing with the youngest, although actively developing, branch of knowledge.

The isolationist approach has another drawback: it reduces cultural studies only to the cycle of humanities, ignoring another component - the social sciences.

Recently, in our literature, more and more often they speak out in favor of another, integrationist approach to cultural studies. Proponents understand cultural studies as a synthetic field of knowledge that arose at the intersection of philosophy of culture, cultural anthropology, sociology of culture, theology of culture.
1 The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. New Edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.

"Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the En-
glish I ..nic|ii
??.?, ethnology, cultural psychology, cultural history - I part 1. Its foundation was laid by W. Windelband, G. Rickert, "). Cassirer, M. Weber, G. Simmel, R. Kroper, E. Troeltsch, K. Mannheim, K. Jaspers, T. Lessipg, E. Husserl and others. 1 “contemporary followers of the integrationist view are against reducing cultural studies exclusively to the philosophy of culture or to the history of art.

"There is an opinion that cultural studies- it's just cultural theory, and the history of culture correlates with it as a specific historical science with theoretical knowledge, and if the history of culture studies mainly the past, then cultural studies - ■■.mania about the current modern cultural life, the structure of culture, its functions, prospects for drinking. But in reality, cultural studies is focused on understanding the common things that connect different forms of cultural existence of people... 11<:>
0 past and modern culture, its structure and functions, development prospects" 1 .

"Culturology- rather, some summary designation of a whole complex of sciences that study the cultural behavior of humans and human communities at different stages of their historical existence” 2 .

Integrationist the approach, in our opinion, has certain advantages over the isolationist one, if only because, by synthesizing different sciences, it is able to provide an increase in new knowledge. On the contrary, the isolationist approach is dangerous in that, under the guise of cultural studies, it will repeat what has long been known in anthropology, philosophy of culture or the history of world artistic culture. The integral-ionist approach, apparently, is also embedded in
" Levit S.Ya. Culturology as an integrative field of knowledge // Culturology. XX century: Anthology. M., 1995.
2 Culture: theories and problems: Proc. manual for undergraduate and graduate students of humanities / Ί.?. Kuznetsova, V.M. Mezhuev, I.O. Shaitanov and others.- M.:

1 1auka, 1995. P. 38.

“State educational standard”, where the cycle of general professional disciplines in the specialization “Culturology” includes the theory of culture, history of culture, philosophy of culture, sociology of culture, aesthetics, art, literature, religion, science, material culture, ethnology, semiotics, rhetoric, ancient language .

Culturology is not a monodiscipline in the sense that its content is not covered by any one science. But if cultural studies is not reducible to anthropology, philosophy or art history, this does not mean at all that the problems of these sciences are not included in the subject field of cultural studies. On the contrary, all of them, and not only them, actively feed it with their methods, theoretical and empirical achievements.

The scientific study of culture, carried out by ethnographers, philologists, and sociologists (it is they who today can primarily lay claim to the title of culturologists), allows us to see in culture not a one-dimensional quantity, but a complex multidimensional formation. Complete knowledge about culture arises at the intersection of anthropological, humanitarian and sociological knowledge 1 .

1 Culture: theories and problems: textbook. manual for undergraduate and graduate students of humanities / T.F. Kuznetsova, V.M. Mezhuev, I.O. Shaitanov and others.- M.: Nauka, 1995. P. 42.

"Man and society. Culturology: Dictionary-reference book. Rostov-i/D., 1996. pp. 258-259.

In cultural studies, the following subsections are distinguished: cultural theory (philosophy of culture), cultural history (world artistic culture), applied and empirical cultural studies (anthropology and sociology of culture). Culturology is still in its infancy, searching for its subject and methods; its scientific status has not been fully determined 2. It belongs both to the field of social knowledge (this is facilitated by cultural sociology and anthropology), which uses quantitative methods of data collection, and to the humanities (thanks to art history and cultural philosophy), which is built on values ​​and qualitative research methods.

j§ 2. Definition of culture

The subject of cultural studies is the concept of culture. The object of cultural studies is living people, creators and bearers of culture, as well as cultural phenomena, processes and institutions. Culture is closely related to society. If society is understood as a set of people, then culture is the totality of the results of their activities.

To date, scientists have more than 500 definitions of culture. They divided them into several groups. The first included descriptive definitions. For example, culture is the sum of all activities, customs, and beliefs. Secondly, those definitions that connect culture with traditions or the social heritage of society. Culture- a socially inherited set of practices and beliefs that determine the foundations of our lives. The third group emphasized the importance for culture of the rules that organize human behavior. In other cases, scientists understood culture as a means of society's adaptation to the natural environment or emphasized that it was a product of human activity. Sometimes it is spoken of as a set of forms of acquired behavior characteristic of a certain group or society and passed on from generation to generation.

Such is the range of disagreements in defining culture and understanding its nature. It can be seen that culture includes everything created by the human mind and hands, - clothes and books, cigarettes and rolling mills, symphonies and customs, weapons and travel tickets - as well as everything that a person does as a rational being: the manner of dressing, moving, eating, working, resting, communicating, etc.

In everyday life, the concept of culture is used in at least three meanings.

Firstly, by culture we mean a certain sphere of social life that has received institutional reinforcement(ministries of culture with an extensive apparatus of officials, secondary specialized and higher educational establishments, training specialists in culture, magazines, societies, clubs, theaters, museums, etc., engaged in the production and dissemination of spiritual values).

Secondly, culture means a set of spiritual values ​​and norms inherent in a large social group, community, people or nation(elite culture, Russian culture, Russian foreign culture, youth culture, working class culture, etc.).

Thirdly, culture expresses high level qualitative development of spiritual achievements(“cultured person” in the sense of well-mannered, “workplace culture” in the sense of “neatly tidy, clean functional space”). We introduce a “level” meaning into the concept of “culture” when we contrast culture with lack of culture - the absence of culture. There is no society, people, group or person devoid of culture.

In Ancient Rome, where this word came from, culture was understood primarily as the cultivation of the land. Cultivation of the soil, agricultural crops - concepts associated with the work of the peasant. Only in XVIII-XIX centuries For Europeans, culture acquired a spiritual connotation. It began to mean the improvement of human qualities. A person who was well-read and refined in his behavior was called cultured.

Although the word “culture” was first recorded in the Pocket Dictionary foreign words"N. Kirillov (1845), but it did not become widespread in Russia in the middle of the 19th century. Instead, similar in meaning expressions “education”, “enlightenment”, “reason”, “good manners” were used. For example, A.S. did not use it. Pushkin, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, and I.V. Kireevsky included in the concept of “enlightenment” everything that today we mean by the word “culture”: issues of religion, science, language, statehood, education. Only in the 60s of the 19th century a new term was included in Russian dictionaries, and in the 80s it was established in scientific and fiction.

It is interesting that in European languages ​​- German, English and French - the word “culture” initially served as an agricultural term (processing, cultivation of the land), and in philosophical, scientific and fiction literature it was used rather

Chapter 1. Varnas” status and subject of cultural studies

Like a metaphor. It took many decades to turn metaphor into a strict scientific concept and philosophical category. And in Russia, where it penetrated along with translated books, it initially related to agriculture.

The word “culture” came to Ovropa almost a century earlier than to Russia. The German educator I.K. was the first to launch it into philosophical, and then scientific and everyday use. Adelunga, who published the book “An Experience in the History of Culture of the Human Race” in 1782. And two years later, the first volume of the book by his outstanding compatriot I.G. was published. Herder (1744-1803) “Ideas for Philosophy and History of Mankind”, where the word « Ku. Hu. re» no longer serves as a metaphor, but is filled with theoretical and philosophical content. Herder preached the national identity of art, asserted the historical originality and equivalence of different eras of culture and poetry. He was the first to propose using the term “culture” in plural, thereby emphasizing the uniqueness of different national cultures.

The concept of culture entered European scientific circulation very slowly. IN late XVIII century, it had two shades: the first - domination over nature with the help of knowledge and crafts, the second - the spiritual wealth of the individual. The fact that the new term has not yet had time to take root is evidenced by the fact that two great German philosopher, Kant (1724-1804) and Hegel (1770-1831), almost did not use the word “culture”. Hegel replaced it with the term “Bildung” (education), and Kant, although he occasionally used it, reduced culture to the discipline of the mind. According to Kant, the essence of culture lies in the dominance of moral duty over manifestations of feelings.

In the 20th century, anthropologists studying primitive peoples gave this word a new meaning. The Australian aborigines or African Bushmen, living according to primitive laws, have neither opera house, nor art gallery. But they have something that unites them with the most civilized peoples world - system norms and values, expressed through appropriate language, songs, dances, customs, traditions and manners of behavior, with the help of which life experience is ordered and the interaction of people is regulated. Taken together, they characterize the way of life of either the entire society or some part of it. A material monuments, surrounding people in everyday life, constitute past culture, or cultural heritage. Both customs and monuments are sacredly protected and passed on from generation to generation.

“In modern language, the term “culture” is often used mainly in two meanings - “broad” and “narrow”. In a broad sense, culture includes all generally accepted, established forms of life in society ■ - customs, norms, institutions, including the state and the economy. In the “narrow sense,” the boundaries of culture coincide with the boundaries of the sphere of spiritual creativity, with art, morality, and intellectual activity” 1 .

Adherents of a narrower approach to understanding culture consider it wrong to extend it to the entire totality of social phenomena. There is a lot of ugly, disgusting things in society that cannot be called culture. Drug addiction, crime, fascism, prostitution, wars, alcoholism - all this is artificially created by man and belongs to the sphere of social phenomena. But do we have the right to attribute this to the sphere of culture?

If something is aimed at destroying the positive values ​​created by man, then this something should be called not culture, but anticulture. The criterion here is the person, the measure of his development. And then culture is only what contributes to the development, and not the degradation, of man.

1 Sokolov E.V. Culturology. Essays on cultural theories: A manual for high school students. M., 1994. P. 22.

It seems that both meanings, broad and narrow, have equal rights, and they should be used depending on the situation and context. The difference between them is this. In the first case, culture includes social problems, in particular, social institutions (religion, science, family, economics, law).

Chapter 1. Paired status I am an object of winging

In the second, it is limited to the history and theory of artistic culture and art. In the first case, greater emphasis is placed on sociological, anthropological, ethnographic methods and data, in the second - on art criticism, philosophical and literary studies.

The second, narrow approach assumes that culture is a) a sphere of society, b) an aspect of society or species social activities. These are different things. With the “spheral” interpretation, the entire society is divided into several spheres - social, economic, political and cultural. Cultural sphere represents one segment of society. With the “aspskt” approach, society is also divided into spheres. For example, Nizhny Novgorod culturologists distinguish eight spheres: economic, environmental, pedagogical, managerial, scientific, artistic, medical, and physical education. But there may be the same four main areas mentioned above. Their quantity here is not as important as quality: “There are as many cultures in society as there are spheres of public life.”

The classic definition of culture is that proposed in 1871 Edward Taylor(1832-1917) - an outstanding English ethnographer, one of the founders of anthropology; Although since then more and more new features have been added to the original definition, the essence of culture remains unchanged. It can be formulated as follows: .

Culture is a complex that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morality, laws, customs, as well as other abilities and skills acquired by a person as a member of society.

This definition organically combines both meanings of culture - broad and narrow.

Culture- a set of symbols, beliefs, values, norms and artifacts. It expresses the characteristic features of a given society, nation, group. Due to this, societies, nations and groups differ
1 Green L.?., Dakhin A.V., Ananyev Yu.V., Kutyrev V.A. Culturology: Textbook. allowance. Nizhny Novgorod, 1993. P. 7.

Precisely by its culture. The culture of a people is its way of life, its clothing, housing, cuisine, folklore, spiritual ideas, beliefs, language and much more.

Culture also includes social and everyday attitudes, socially accepted gestures of politeness and greetings, gait, etiquette, and hygiene habits. Household utensils, clothing, ornaments, folklore - all this has an ethnic tonality and is passed on from generation to generation, forming ethnic style. Inscriptions in the entrance and on fences, which do not always correspond to the norms of the literary language, also express a certain culture, or more precisely, a youth subculture. However, this will be discussed further.
1 § 3. Structure of culture

In cultural studies, as in sociology, there are two main parts - cultural statics And cultural dynamics. The first describes culture in a state of rest, the second - in movement. To cultural statics we include the internal structure of culture - a set of basic elements or traits, and forms of culture - configurations, characteristic combinations of such elements.

Dynamics includes those means, mechanisms and processes that describe the transformation of culture and its change. Culture originates, spreads, is destroyed, is preserved, and many different metamorphoses occur with it.

If we imagine culture in the form of a complex system, and this is exactly what human culture should be, created by thousands of generations of people, then the initial cells, or first bricks, will certainly be found. Such basic units of culture are called elements and traits of culture. They come in two types - tangible and intangible.

Most scientists agree that culture has two dimensions - material And intangible. Material cultural monuments are more durable. Archaeologists excavate sites of ancient people who lived hundreds of thousands and millions of years ago, discover bone remains, primitive tools (so-called choppers) and use them to reconstruct the way of life, beliefs, rituals and ideological world of our ancestors. Modern culture can be judged by the material and intangible elements of culture, but ancient culture - only by material ones. Thus, material monuments are more durable and store more information than intangible ones.

Material culture includes physical objects created by human hands (they are called artifacts): a steam engine, a book, a temple, a tool, a house, a tie, jewelry, a dam, and much more. Artifacts are distinguished by the fact that they are man-made, have a specific symbolic meaning, serve a specific function, and represent a known value to a group or society.

Intangible, or spiritual culture form norms, rules, samples, standards, models and norms of behavior, laws, values, ceremonies, rituals, symbols, myths, knowledge, ideas, customs, traditions, language. They are also the result of human activity, but they were created not by hands, but rather by the mind. Intangible objects cannot be heard, seen, touched, they exist in our consciousness and are supported by human communication.

Bridges or temples last a very long time, but ceremonies or rituals last only as long as they are observed. The wedding ceremony lasts several hours, although people pass through it repeatedly. I (a ceremony, like any other object of intangible culture, needs a material intermediary. Knowledge is expressed through books, the custom of greeting is through a handshake or spoken words. I [wearing a tie is also a ritual or symbolic action, part of secular etiquette. It would be impossible if not for the participation of a material intermediary - a tie.The tie itself is an artifact.

The traditional question for philosophy - what comes first: matter or spirit - is solved differently in cultural studies than is customary. In culture, meaning and symbol are primary, not things and materials. The material from which a book is made is secondary in culture, but the content of transmitted information, reasoning, and thought is primary. They can be conveyed to the audience in other ways besides the book, for example, using radio, television or the Internet.

But this can be said, of course, not about all elements of culture. For example, clothing performs two functions: physical, as it protects the body from the cold, and cultural, as it serves as decoration. For northern peoples quality is more important the material from which the clothing is made. An animal skin, even if not decorated in any way, is quite suitable for utilitarian purposes. U southern peoples- everything is the other way around. It's so warm there that you can easily do without shirts, trousers and coats. Some savage tribes wear shell jewelry and all kinds of beads instead of clothing. Here the primary was cultural function, and the secondary one is material.
1 § 4. Basic functions of culture

4.1. Protective function

The first universal function should be considered protective. It lies in the fact that with the help of artificially created tools and devices - tools, medicines, weapons, vehicles, energy sources - man has incredibly increased his ability to adapt to the world around him, to subjugate the forces of nature. He is not afraid of hunger, floods, epidemics.

But some unfavorable factors eliminated by technical progress are being replaced by others generated by it. Hunger and plague have been defeated, but the soil is being depleted, forests are being cut down, water is being poisoned, the environment is deteriorating, and new diseases are appearing. And not only of natural origin (for example,

AIDS), but also artificial (say, radiation sickness). Thus, material culture and technological progress, on the one hand, reduce the threat to people’s life and health, and on the other, increase it. Function is accompanied by dysfunction.
4.2. Creative function

The second fundamental function of culture is the transformation and development of the world. It is also called the creative function (lat. creatio - creation). Exploring and cataloging species of plants and animals, systematizing types of elementary particles, experimenting with physical phenomena By exploring outer space, people expand their habitat. His curiosity is manifested, and not the desire to protect - gya. Mastery of the forces of external nature goes hand in hand with mastery of the internal forces of the psyche. Mined at Iostok complex systems psychotechnics, meditation, martial arts and concentration of will, unconventional methods medicine, techniques for mastering your body and mind.
4.3. Communication function

The third function of culture is communication. It includes the transfer of information in any form: oral and written communication, communication between people, groups, nations, the use of technical means of communication, etc. 1>Without communication with one’s own kind, neither society nor culture is possible. Information isolation from culture causes irreparable damage to the human being, especially at the early stage of socialization. The so-called feral people serve as Romans.
4.4. Significative function

The significative function of culture (from the English. sign - sign), literally - a function of attributing meanings and values.

What is not involved in the cultural circulation of humanity seems to have no meaning or value. Starry sky above your head primitive man had no significance until he drew him into his circle of mythological ideas, compiled celestial maps to help in navigation, created astronomical theories and sent satellites into space. Since then, the sky has become part of the culture. Each constellation received a name, a legendary history, a name in a scientific catalog, and physical and chemical characteristics.

This happened with any natural phenomenon, which one after another over hundreds of thousands of years was involved in cultural circulation and received a name. The forest remained a collection of trees until it became a shelter, a source of food, an abode of spirits, a state-protected forest park, and a city square. From these positions, a tree in the forest and a tree under your windows are different trees. The first is part of the green spaces, the second is an element of the landscape. They have different functions. The first gives oxygen to the planet and food to animals. The second shades from the sun, decorates the surrounding area, and serves other decorative purposes.

So, expanding the sphere of cultural development of the world, a person simultaneously expands the area of ​​designated objects. As a result, the volume of culture and the volume of objects that have acquired value and meaning always coincide. These are phenomena of equal magnitude. But the matter does not stop there. Having covered a certain area of ​​nature with a grid of meanings, a person constantly renames and re-evaluates something within this area. The same items different nations and in different historical eras they receive different meanings and value. As a result, we can meet such old-timers of the cultural ecumene who have several dozen, if not hundreds, meanings. Taken together, they constitute what can be called a cultural (or historical) biography of things.

Thanks to the significative function, culture appears as a meaningful idea of ​​the world, no matter in what specific form this idea is expressed - in the form of a philosophical system, a poem, a myth, a scientific theory.

The small bricks from which they, these concrete forms, are created are signs, symbols, metaphors, formulas, numbers, rhymes, names, elephants. The bricks are put together into larger associations, and the result is sonnets, poems, hypotheses, empirical facts, mathematical equations, statistical tables, legends, epics, etc. Finally, the buildings are united into villages, cities, megalopolises, countries, continents.
4.5. Normative function

The normative function of culture plays an equally important role. It manifests itself in the fact that it is culture that is responsible for creating norms, standards, rules and recipes for people’s behavior. They have a variety of names: customs and traditions, orders, decrees, regulations, laws, constitutional acts, etiquette, manners, morals. They can be called the first building blocks of the normative function. From these bricks buildings are formed - larger and more complex complexes: law, morality, ideology.

The entire set of norms existing in society - and there are a great number of them, we don’t even suspect how many of them there are in modern society, - can be conditionally arranged along one straight line, at one end of which there will be norms that are strongly associated with values ​​vital to society, and at the other - weakly or not at all associated with them. We will call one pole value-based, and the other rational (non-value-based).

Value Rational

Pole pole

Rice. 1. Continuum cultural norms

Surprisingly, all the sets of norms known to us - morality, law, ideology - are concentrated on the value pole. The rational one was left naked. It is not clear why we needed it at all. But let's not rush to a decision.

There are many rules, norms, and prohibitions that cannot be called moral, legal, or ideological. For example, the rule “go around someone coming towards you from the right” is absolutely non-judgmental. It is difficult to call it moral, legal or ideological. It is pragmatic, utilitarian and practical, but not universal. In England, the movement of cars and pedestrians occurs in a different order. This rule did not exist in a traditional, for example tribal or rural, society, where there is simply no street crowd.

The cultures and countries of the world can be - again conditionally - divided into cultures of intensive saturation with norms and cultures of non-intensive saturation. From European countries Most of the norms, rules, standards, laws, according to the unanimous opinion of experts, exist in modern Germany. At the end are the countries of Eastern Europe, including Russia.

High saturation of norms, customs and traditions oriental cultures. Conventionally speaking, the number of traditions and customs per square kilometer of territory is highest in China, India, and Japan. Here, almost every phenomenon of life, especially a cultural phenomenon, is somehow designated, normalized, evaluated. It is here that the most subtle and developed rules of etiquette are found.

Normative function can be measured not only by the degree of saturation of a culture with customs and traditions. Experts coin the term “normative redundancy” to indicate another aspect of cultural norms—the measure of their rigidity. It is believed that excessive regulation of behavior is characteristic of societies with poor culture.

The opposite state of society is anomie- absence of any norms and laws (lat. anomia - absence of norms). This problem was once deeply studied by E. Durkt, who, in fact, introduced the term itself into scientific circulation. Both extreme positions - normative insufficiency and normative redundancy, rigidity and weakness of norms - have an equally bad effect on modern society.

Regulation of behavior - both soft and hard - which follows from the normative function, inevitably imposes restrictions on a person’s freedom of action. Norms, and their in surrounding life Countless numbers, for every trifle they tell us: this is possible, but this is not possible. Trying to fit into the circle of responsibilities, we necessarily suppress something in ourselves. And any suppression is associated with displeasure, tension, and conflict. 3. Freud developed a theory according to which culture is something repressive and violent.

Maybe, great psychoanalyst went to extremes, reducing culture to suppression and repression. But it is quite obvious that compliance with cultural norms, often contrary to desires and whims, is not easy for the psyche. Any stress requires compensation, and this can only be achieved by relaxation - rest, doing nothing, switching to another activity, leisure.

And here culture comes to the aid of a person. Leisure in modern society is unthinkable without communication with music, theater, painting, cinema, and all kinds of entertainment.
4. G. Relaxation function

The next function of culture is relaxation. Relaxation (from lat. relaxatio - weakening) - the art of physical and mental relaxation, relaxation. Natural means of release are laughter, crying, fits of anger, physical violence, screaming, declarations of love, confession. All of them are classified as individual. They are not enough to relieve collective tension. For such purposes, stylized forms of stress relief are used - entertainment, holidays, festivals, rituals.

Holidays are especially solemn moments when accumulated tension is released in a sublimely aesthetic and emotionally enthusiastic form. These are moments of the greatest joy, and joy that is permitted, regulated, since holidays are announced in advance and the whole society prepares for the holiday.

According to the outstanding Russian culturologist M. Bakhtin, in holidays everything turns upside down. An analysis of the “laughter culture” of the Renaissance convinced him that on holidays it is allowed to do what is prohibited on ordinary days under pain of death - deities and patriotic feelings, ideological ideas and political idols are ridiculed. This is a time for permitted criticism.

Ritual plays a similar role. It is characterized by special solemnity, rhythmic and intonation richness. Play is a means of relaxation. Its essence lies in the satisfaction of drives by symbolic means. While playing, children simultaneously believe and do not believe in the reality of what is happening. They are aware of the “unreal” nature of the game, but they give it their all, as if it were a real competition or action. The symbolism of the game will create a special psychological setting for testing human capabilities: you cannot really kill a person, but in the game you can. The game not only relaxes, it trains skill, the ability to find a way out of critical situations, and increases motivation to achieve. The good thing about the game is that it brings out unconscious impulses hidden inside, secret inclinations and addictions that are prohibited by culture. Thus, during the game you can bypass the rules. Through the game, hidden sexual motives and addictions are realized (games of spin the bottle, “I was born a gardener,” etc.), motives of death (games of war, gladiator fights, bullfights).

Special means of relaxation - horror films, erotic films, disaster films, detective films, action films, adventure novels. And they allow you to symbolically - together with the heroes - perform those actions that are prohibited by culture or impossible due to any conditions. The latest achievement in the entertainment industry is adventure and travel in virtual computer worlds. Tourism, holiday homes, sanatoriums, boarding houses, children's holiday camps have long served as another source of relaxation and rest.

The listed means of relaxation have different effects on a person’s personality. 11 some even have a negative or even destructive effect. In particular, under the influence of the crime screen, the number of teenage crimes in all or most countries of the world has sharply increased. Alcoholism and drug addiction serve mass media relaxation, but they are condemned or prosecuted by law in all civilized countries.

Pornography is prohibited in many countries, just as prostitution is prohibited. Although no one doubts that they are one of the means of relaxation and psychologically give a person a lot of positive things. 11od special control of the state in a civilized

At the other pole of the imaginary scale are positive, socially approved means of relaxation, for example, visiting theaters, museums, contemplating nature, relaxing in nature, etc. Introduction to high art has a creative, rather than destructive, influence on the personality. It has a special name - catharsis (Greek. natharsis - cleansing).

It entered modern culture with the light hand of the great ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who believed that the purpose of tragedy was the purification of the spirit through fear and compassion. Catharsis at the same time means the elevation of the spirit, its liberation from the tutelage of vain everyday life and concentration on what alone deserves attention - on the eternal.

Civilized society persistently seeks ways to eliminate negative forms relaxation, channels for their withdrawal from culture. In some cases, prohibitive sanctions are strengthened for this purpose and punitive measures are taken. For example, in a number of countries in Southeast Asia, those who distribute drugs are subject to the death penalty or life imprisonment. \"> in other cases, they are looking for a functional replacement. 15 In particular, they are expanding the network of entertainment and scientific and cultural institutions that could compete with drunkenness and drug addiction as negative forms of relaxation.
4.7. Unity of functions

It is found in any cultural phenomenon. Indeed, although there are many functions, they are all easily detected in any cultural phenomenon, event, or object. For example, myth for our ancestors replaced science, history, religion, art, politics, and sometimes economics. Not understanding where the souls of the dead go, why drought, thunderstorms, floods occur, ancient man created a completely plausible explanation for what happened from his point of view. Invented gods served as substitutes for the root cause of all things. The creation of a myth calmed our ancestors, made the world more meaningful, orderly, and understandable. The spirits sang and were angry, which means you need to appease them with a sacrifice, prayer or other ritual action.

At the same time, myth performed a communicative function, because 70-90% of the life of primitive man revolved around mythology: in preparation for the hunt, people performed hunting rituals and appeased the god of the hunt, preparing for plowing, sowing, childbirth, moving to a new place, wedding ceremony, construction of an irrigation system. channel and doing much more, primitive people always touched upon myths. And there is no need to talk about the role of myth in the socialization and education of young people, in spending leisure time.

The significative function implies many signs, dates, names, expressions, gestures, ritual dances, round dances and collective dances, each of which carries certain meaning, meaning, emotional charge. Thanks to myth, the environment acquired meaning and order. The entire pedigree of the tribe was recorded only in a myth transmitted orally. The entire history of the tribe, rules of conduct, moral instructions were recorded in mythological form. In difficult life situations, when people did not know what to do, they turned to myth for advice,

Gradually, the myth grew from a small explanatory scheme into a coherent worldview system covering everything primitive society. In an expanded sense, it can be called protoculture.
1

Textbook for universities. 3rd ed. - M.: Academic Project, 2002. - 496 p. — (Gaudeamus). The textbook examines the subject, method and functions of culture, the main schools of cultural studies, highlights the problems of the structure and dynamics of culture, intercultural communication, the development and formation of subcultures, types and forms of culture (folk, mass, elite). A separate section is devoted to the presentation of the history of world culture from antiquity to the present day. Introduction.General categories of culture.
Scientific status and subject of cultural studies.
Discussions about the subject of cultural studies.
Definition of culture.
Structure of culture.
Basic functions of culture.
Traits of culture.
Cultural universals.
Cultural complex.
Agents and cultural institutions.
Civilization and culture.
Culture and ethnicity.
Intercultural communication.
Cultural conventions. Typology of cultures.
The basis of the typology of culture.
Branches of culture.
Types of culture.
Forms of culture.
Complex types of culture.
Types of culture.
Cultural norms.
Cultural norms and their observance.
Functions of cultural norms.
Classification of norms.
Main types of cultural norms.
Normative system of culture.
Regulatory conflicts.
Anomie.
Forms and mechanisms of familiarization with culture.
Socialization and education.
Adaptation.
Enculturation.
Presocialization and resocialization.
Acculturation.
Assimilation.
Cultural renewal.
Cultural dynamics.
The birth of culture.
Discoveries and inventions.
Forms of cultural dissemination.
Cultural reforms and revolutions.
"Cultural Lag".
Cultural transmission.
Cultural accumulation.
Integration and diversification.
Cultural expansion.
Modernization of culture.
Balization of culture. World Art.
The essence and functions of art.
Artistic culture and art.
Main types and genres of art.
Classification of types of art.
Primitive culture.
Prerequisites for occurrence.
Rock painting and miniature sculpture.
Geometric ornament.
Neolithic revolution.
The birth of architecture.
Burials.
Matriarchy and patriarchy.
The art of ancient Eastern civilizations.
Signs of high culture and civilization.
Culture of Mesopotamia.
Culture of the ancient world.
Culture Ancient Greece.
Culture of Ancient Rome.
Artistic culture of the Middle Ages.
Byzantine culture.
Carolingian revival.
Classical Middle Ages.
European Renaissance.
Renaissance in Italy.
Northern Renaissance.
Franco-Flemish painting of the XIV-XVII centuries.
Renaissance in France.
Renaissance in Spain.
Baroque.
Culture of the New Time.
Intellectual trends of the Enlightenment.
Artistic styles of the Enlightenment.
Culture of Europe of the 19th century.
Classicism.
Romanticism.
Realism.
New directions in art.
European culture of the 20th century.
Transition from industrial to.
post-industrial society.
Modernism and postmodernism.
Literature.
The art of the ancient Russian state.
Periodization of Russian culture.
Pre-Christian culture of the Slavs.
Culture of Kievan Rus.
Culture of Moscow Rus'.
Russian Enlightenment.
Russian culture of the 17th century.
Russian culture XVIII century.
Russian culture of the 19th century.
"Silver Age" in Russian art.
Culture of Soviet Russia.
New cultural policy.
New culture of life.
Soviet literature of the first half of the century.
Avant-gardism in painting.
Russian abroad.
Soviet literature of the second half of the century.
Culture in post-Soviet period.

Culturology. Kravchenko A.I.

4th ed. - M Academic Project, Trixta, 2003 - 496 p.

The textbook examines the subject, method and functions of culture, the main schools of cultural studies, covers the problems of the structure and dynamics of culture, intercultural communication, development and formation of subcultures, types and forms of culture (popular mass elite) A separate section is devoted to the presentation of the history of world culture from antiquity to the present day

For specialists in the field of cultural studies, teachers and students of non-core universities

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Size: 3.8 MB

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (page numbering according to the electronic version of the book)
Preface. 7
SECTION I. GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CULTURE... 8
Chapter 1. SCIENTIFIC STATUS AND SUBJECT OF CULTURAL STUDIES. 8
§ 1. Discussions about the subject of cultural studies. 8
§ 2. Definition of culture.. 9
§ 3. Structure of culture.. 12
§ 4. Basic functions of culture.. 13
4.1. Protective function. 13
4.2. Creative function. 13
4.3. Communication function. 13
4.4. Significative function. 13
4.5. Normative function. 14
4.6. Relaxation function. 15
4.7. Unity of functions. 16
§ 5. Traits of culture.. 16
5.1. Universal features of culture.. 17
5.2. General features of culture... 17
5.3. Unique features of culture... 17
5.4. Cultural identity. 18
§ 6. Cultural universals. 18
§ 7. Cultural complex. 19
§ 8. Agents and cultural institutions.. 20
§ 9. Civilization and culture. 21
§ 10. Culture and ethnicity. 22
§ 11. Intercultural communication. 24
§ 12. Cultural conventions. 25
12.1. Spatial conventions. 25
12.2. Cultural distances. 26
12.3. Temporary conventions. 27
Chapter 2. TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES... 29
§ 1. The basis of the typology of culture.. 29
§ 2. Branches of culture.. 29
2.1. Economic culture. 29
2.2. Political culture. thirty
2.3. Professional culture. thirty
2.4. Pedagogical culture. 30
§ 3. Types of culture.. 31
3.1. Dominant culture. Ethnic culture. 31
3.2. Subculture and counterculture. 32
Subculture. 32
Counterculture. 32
3.3. Rural culture. 33
3.4. Urban culture. 34
3.5. Ordinary and specialized culture. 35
§ 4. Forms of culture.. 37
4.1. High culture. 37
4.2. Folk culture. 38
4.3. Mass culture. 38
§ 5. Complex types of culture.. 39
5.1. Art culture. 39
5.2. Physical Culture. 40
§ 6. Types of culture.. 41
Local groups.. 42
Community. 42
Urbanization. 43
Chapter 3. CULTURAL NORMS... 46
§ 1. Cultural norms and their observance. 46
§ 2. Functions of cultural norms. 46
§ 3. Classification of norms. 47
§ 4. Main types of cultural norms. 48
4.1. Habits and manners.. 48
4.2. Etiquette. 49
4.3. Customs, traditions and rituals.. 50
Custom. 50
Tradition. 50
Rite. 51
4.4. Ceremony and ritual. 51
Ceremony. 51
Ritual. 51
4.5. Manners and prohibitions.. 51
Morals.. 51
Taboo. 52
4.6. Law and law. 52
4.7. Fashion and hobbies. 53
4.8. Values. 53
4.9. Beliefs, knowledge and myths... 54
Knowledge. 54
Myth.. 54
§ 5. Normative system of culture.. 54
§ 6. Regulatory conflicts.. 56
§ 7. Anomie. 57
Chapter 4. FORMS AND MECHANISMS OF ACCESSION TO CULTURE. 60
§ 1. Socialization and education. 60
1.1. Components and types of socialization. 60
1.2. Socialization process. 61
1.3. Agents and institutions of socialization. 62
Agents of primary socialization. 62
Primary environment. 62
Agents of secondary socialization. 62
Primary and secondary socialization. 62
1.4. Primary socialization. 62
1.5. Functions of parenting. 63
1.6. Cultural differences in child rearing. 64
1.7. Institute of Education. 65
1.8. Institutes of secondary socialization: school. 65
School. 66
§ 2. Adaptation. 66
§ 3. Enculturation. 67
Socialization. 67
Enculturation 67
§ 4. Desocialization and resocialization. 70
§ 5. Acculturation. 70
§ 6. Assimilation. 71
§ 7. Cultural renewal. 72
Chapter 5. CULTURAL DYNAMICS... 74
§ 1. The origin of culture.. 74
§ 2. Discoveries and inventions. 74
§ 3. Forms of cultural dissemination.. 75
3.1. Cultural borrowings. 75
3.2. Cultural diffusion. 76
3.3. Continuum of forms of cultural dissemination... 78
§ 4. Cultural reforms and revolutions. 79
§ 5. “Cultural lag.” 79
§ 6. Cultural transmission. 80
§ 7. Cultural accumulation. 80
7.1. Museums. 81
7.2. Libraries. 81
§ 8. Integration and diversification. 82
§ 9. Cultural expansion. 82
§ 10. Modernization of culture.. 83
§ 11. Globalization of culture.. 84
SECTION II. WORLD ART CULTURE.. 87
Chapter 1. The essence and functions of art. 87
§ 1. Artistic culture and art. 87
1.1. Definition problem. 87
1.2. Subjects of artistic culture.. 87
Art. 87
1.3. The structure of artistic culture.. 88
§ 2. Main types and genres of art. 89
The term "liberal arts". 90
Aesthetics. 91
§ 3. Classification of types of art. 91
Art and imitation. 92
Painting. 92
Literature. 92
Chapter 2. PRIMITIVE CULTURE... 95
§ 1. Prerequisites for occurrence. 95
Under primitive culture. 95
Primitive art. 95
§ 2. Rock paintings and miniature sculpture. 95
Animal style. 96
Mother cult. 96
§ 3. Geometric ornament. 97
§ 4. Neolithic revolution. 98
§ 5. The origin of architecture.. 98
§ 6. Burials. 99
Mounds.. 99
Megaliths.. 99
§ 7. Matriarchy and patriarchy. 99
Chapter 3. ART OF ANCIENT EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS.. 102
§ 1. Signs of high culture and civilization. 102
Civilization is characterized by the following features: 102
§ 2. Culture Ancient Egypt. 102
2.1. Sacralization of royal power. 103
Sacralization. 103
2.2. Writing and scribes.. 103
Pictographic letter. 103
Hieroglyphs.. 103
Demotics. 103
2.3. Pyramids are masterpieces of Egyptian religious architecture.. 104
2.4. Sculpture and painting. 104
§ 3. Culture of Mesopotamia. 105
3.1. Culture of Sumer and Akkad. 106
3.2. Babylonian culture. 108
3.3. Assyrian culture. 108
Chapter 4. CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD... 111
§ 1. Culture of Ancient Greece. 111
1.1. Pre-classical period. 111
Cretan culture. 111
Mycenaean culture. 112
Culture of the archaic era. 113
1.2. Classic period. 115
1.3. Hellenistic period. 118
§ 2. Culture of Ancient Rome. 120
The history of Ancient Rome is usually divided into three main periods: 120
Enlightenment and science. 121
Literature. 122
Sculpture. 123
Painting. 123
Patrons and conquerors. 124
Religion. 124
Meaning ancient culture.. 125
Chapter 5. ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES... 127
§ 1. Byzantine culture. 127
§ 2. Carolingian Renaissance. 129
The term "Carolingian Revival". 129
§ 3. Classical Middle Ages. 131
The emergence of universities. 131
Roman style. 131
Court literature. 134
Chapter 6. EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE... 136
§ 1. Renaissance in Italy. 136
§ 2. Northern Renaissance. 140
Reformation. 140
§ 3. Franco-Flemish painting of the XIV-XV1I centuries. 141
§ 4. Renaissance in France. 145
§ 5. Renaissance in Spain. 146
§ 6. Baroque. 147
Baroque. 148
Chapter 7. CULTURE OF NEW TIMES.. 149
§ 1. Intellectual trends of the Enlightenment. 149
§ 2. Artistic styles of the Enlightenment. 153
2.1. Classicism. 153
2.2. Rococo art. 155
Chapter 8. EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY... 157
§ 1. Classicism. 157
§ 2. Romanticism. 159
§ 3. Realism. 162
§4. New directions in art. 164
Post-Impressionism. 166
Chapter 9. EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY... 170
§ 1. Transition from industrial to post-industrial society. 170
§ 2. Modernism and postmodernism. 170
Postmodernism. 170
2.1. Modernism. "Modern". 171
2.2. Fauvism. 171
2.3. Expressionism. 172
2.4. Cubism. 172
2.5. Abstractionism. 173
2.6. Futurism. 173
2.7. Dadaism. 174
2.8. Surrealism. 174
§ 3. Literature. 175
3.1. Existentialism. 176
Chapter 10. ART OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE.. 179
§ 1. Periodization of Russian culture.. 179
§ 2. Pre-Christian culture of the Slavs. 179
§ 3. Culture of Kievan Rus. 181
3.1. Byzantine heritage. 181
3.2. Writing and literature. 182
3.3. The role of the Church. 184
3.4. Iconic architecture. 184
3.5. Monumental painting. 186
§ 4. Culture of Moscow Rus'. 186
4.1. Local art schools.. 186
Vladimir-Suzdal school. 187
Novgorod school. 187
Novgorod frescoes. 187
Moscow school. 188
Tatar-Mongol invasion. 188
Stroganov school. 190
4.2. Development of literature and science. 190
Literature. 190
Scientific knowledge. 192
Chapter 11. RUSSIAN ENLIGHTENMENT. 194
§ 1. Russian culture of the 17th century. 194
§ 2. Russian culture of the 18th century. 195
Chapter 12. RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY... 201
Chapter 13. “SILVER AGE” IN RUSSIAN ART. 208
Chapter 14. CULTURE OF SOVIET RUSSIA... 212
§ 1. New cultural policy. 212
§ 2. New culture of life. 214
§ 3. Soviet literature of the first half of the 20th century. 215
§ 4. Avant-gardism in painting. 218
Production art. 220
§ 5. Russian abroad. 222
The first wave of Russian emigration. 222
From the “Silver Age” to the “Bronze Age”. 224
Socialist realism. 225
§ 6. Soviet literature of the second half of the 20th century. 225
§ 7. Culture in the post-Soviet period. 226

Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. – M., 1978.

Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem with styles Western European art XY-XYI centuries – M., 1966.

Schweitzer A. Decline and revival of culture. – M., 1993.

Practical lesson No. 6+7 (4 hours)

Russian culture and its features.

Issues for discussion:

1. The origins of the formation of the Russian original type and the Russian mentality.

2.Cultural and historical development of pre-Christian Rus'. Baptism of Kievan Rus. The originality of the culture of Kievan Rus.

3.Culture of Moscow Rus'.

4. Russian culture of modern times: Peter’s transformations and their cultural assessment. The flourishing of noble culture in Catherine's time.

5. Features of the Russian Enlightenment.

6. Contradictions and the rise of Russian culture of the “Silver Age”.

Topics of reports and abstracts

1. Spirituality of Russian culture.

2. Features of Russian national character in the understanding of domestic and foreign thinkers.

3. Monasteries in Russian Orthodox culture.

4. Russian Renaissance. Iconography.

5. The world of the noble estate and its educational mission.

6. Russian everyday life of various social strata.

7. Traditions, customs and beliefs of the Russian people.

.Self-control tests

1. Which of the following does not reflect the specifics of the formation of ancient Russian culture: a) close interaction with the cultures of the West and East; b) the presence of social inequality; c) the formation of a state and ethnic group on the border of steppe and forest-steppe; d) the presence of two cultural centers Ancient Rus' - Kyiv and Novgorod

2. A feature of the spiritual life of Rus' during the period of the establishment of Christian teaching is: a) monism; b) dual faith; c) fatalism; d) polytheism

3. Which of the Russian thinkers revealed the dual and contradictory nature of the Russian soul: a) N.O. Lossky; b) N.A. Berdyaev; c) L.N. Tolstoy; d) K.S. Aksakov

4. In the value system of Russian culture, one can consider its spiritual core: a) Orthodoxy; b) autocracy; c) nationality; d) conciliarity

5. Where Nestor created the “Tale of Bygone Years” chronicles: a) in Novgorod; b) in Vladimir; c) in Kyiv; d) in Rostov the Great

6. Which of the listed monuments of Russian architecture was erected in the 11th century: a) Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin; b) Tithe Church in Kyiv; c) Church of the Savior on the Nerl; d) St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

7. What architectural style spread in Russia in the 18th century: a) Naryshkin Baroque; b) “terem” style; c) classicism; d) rococo

8. Which of the following names is redundant: a) Simon Ushakov; b) Theophanes the Greek; c) Andrey Rublev; d) Simeon of Polotsk

9. What period in the development of Russian culture is called the “Silver Age”: a) XYIII century; b) XVII century; c) mid-19th century; d) turn of the 19th – 20th centuries.

10. The creator of the first professional theater is: a) I. Sumarokov; b) F. Volkov; c) V. Meyerhold; d) K.S. Stanislavsky

Literature:

Main

Additional

Berdyaev N.A. The fate of Russia, - M., 1990.

Bychkov V.V. Aesthetic consciousness of Ancient Rus'. – M., 1988.

Wagner G.K., Vladyshevskaya T.F. Art of Ancient Rus'. – M., 1993.

Gumilev L.N. Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. – M., 1989.

Danilevsky N, Y. Russia and Europe. – M., 1991.

Ilyin V.V., Akhiezer A.S. Russian civilization: content, boundaries, possibilities.

Ipatov A.N. Orthodoxy and Russian culture. – M., 1985.

Likhachev D.S. culture of the Russian people. IX – XYII centuries. M., L., 1961.

Lossky N.O. The character of the Russian people. M., 1991.

Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture. – St. Petersburg, 1994.

Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. – M., 1994.

Rybakov B.A. Paganism of the ancient Slavs. – M., 1981.

Kravchenko A.I. Reader on cultural studies: textbook. – M., 2007.

Culture and cultural studies: Dictionary. /Compiled-ed. Kravchenko A.I. – M.: Academic project, 2003.

A thousand years of Russian art. – M., 1999.

Practical lesson No. 8

Domestic culture of the XX – XXI centuries.

1. The culture of Soviet society: contradictions and achievements.

2.Current sociocultural situation.

3.Problems and prospects for the cultural development of Russia in the context of world culture.

Topics of reports and abstracts

1. Mass culture of the Soviet period: forms, features, ideological goals.

2. Eastern and Western features of Russian culture. Eurasianism.

3. Ecology of domestic culture in the process of its integration into the world.

4. Modern Russian education: characteristics and prospects.

5. Culture of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War and in the first post-war years.

6. The art of the “sixties” period of Khrushchev’s “Thaw”.

7. Post-Soviet culture and its features.

Self-control tests

1. The culture of the Soviet period is traditionally called: a) 1917 – 1936; b) 1918 – 1985; d) 1917 – 1991

2. Which name is superfluous in the listed series: a) S.N. Bulgakov; b) S.L. Franc; to you. Bitter; d) I.A. Ilyin

4. When the term “socialist realism” appeared in the USSR: a) in 1935; b) 1939; c) 1932; d) 1936

6. Underground is: a) official culture; b) an artistic movement that is in opposition to official art; c) socialist realism; d) “Vekhi” magazine published abroad

7. To the figures dissident movement does not apply: a) A.D. Sakharov; b) Y. Daniel; c) A. Sinyavsky; d) K. Simonov

Literature:

Main

Bagasaryan N.G., Litvintseva A.V., Chuchaikina I.E. Culturology. Textbook for universities. – M.: graduate School, 2007.

Bachinin V.A. Culturology. Encyclopedic Dictionary. – M.: 2005.

Gorelov A.A. Culturology. – M.: YURAIT-M, 2002.

Gurevich P.S. Culturology: Textbook. – M.: Gardariki, 2007.

Drach G.V. Culturology. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2006.

Karmin A.S. Culturology. – St. Petersburg, 2004.

Additional

Neklyudova M.G. Traditions and innovation in Russian art late XIX– beginning XX centuries – M., 1991.

Kononenko B.I. Large explanatory dictionary of cultural studies. – M.: AST; Veche, 2003.

Culture and cultural studies: Dictionary. /Compiled-ed. Kravchenko A.I. – M.: Academic project, 2003.

World Art. XX century. art and design / Scientific. hands project L.V. Schoolboy. – M., St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007.

Sorokin P. Main features of the Russian nation in the twentieth century // About Russia and Russian philosophical culture. – M., 1990.

Practical lesson No. 9

Main development trends modern culture.

Issues for discussion:

1. Postmodernism as a cultural phenomenon of the twentieth century.

2. The nature of modern culture.

3. Information society and its characteristics.

4. Mass and high culture of our time.

5. Diversity of cultures and media.

6. Global problems of our time in the information society.

7. Ecology and ecological culture.

Topics of reports and abstracts

1. The main contradictions in the cultural process of the twentieth century.

2. The influence of scientific and technological revolution on the culture of the 2nd half of the twentieth century.

3. The main directions of art of the twentieth century.

4. The media and their role in modern society.

5. Problems of modern education.

Self-control tests

1. What is the main thing essential characteristic information society6 a) information determines the progress of science and production; b) the role of the media in society is increasing; c) information is the basis, the basis of all social changes; d) the state of the biosphere is deteriorating

2. What connections does social ecology study as a science: a) between living organisms; b) between society and environment; c) between living organisms and the environment; d) between society and scientific and technological progress

3. The global problems of our time do not include: a) fashion; b) limited natural resources; c) terrorism; d) demographic problem

4. The phenomenon of the “global village” is: a) the emergence of a single information space for all people on Earth; b) outflow of population from cities; c) the “green” movement; d) the screen nature of culture

5. Anti-globalism is: a) a movement against the subordination of the whole world to the interests of leading states; b) a form of protest against the process of globalization; c) national movement; d) anti-terrorist organization

6. What in modern culture is denoted by the concept of “kitsch”: a) any avant-gardeism; b) amateur, non-professional art; c) phenomena in culture and art associated with taste disturbances; d) a short eulogy

7. Which regions of the world in our time belong to the West: a) all of Europe; b) Western Europe only; c) Western Europe and North America; d) Western Europe, North America, Australia

8. In what concept is the connection that is not lost, despite his activity, recorded? modern man with nature: a) anthroposphere; b) biosphere; c) agrosphere; d) sociosphere

9. The factors in the formation of modern world culture are not: a) the destruction of political borders; b) formation of new powerful communication channels; c) an increase in the level of culture of the population, which is manifested in knowledge of languages; d) the increasing role of mass culture in modern society

10. Moving the world towards universal education means: a) introducing universal primary education in all countries of the world; b) elimination of illiteracy; c) introduction of universal compulsory secondary education; d) a tendency towards the unification of education and the development of uniform general principles basics educational system different countries

Literature:

Main

Bagasaryan N.G., Litvintseva A.V., Chuchaikina I.E. Culturology. Textbook for universities. – M.: Higher School, 2007.

Bachinin V.A. Culturology. Encyclopedic Dictionary. – M.: 2005.

Gorelov A.A. Culturology. – M.: YURAIT-M, 2002.

Gurevich P.S. Culturology: Textbook. – M.: Gardariki, 2007.

Drach G.V. Culturology. – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2006.

Additional

Kononenko B.I. Large explanatory dictionary on cultural studies. – M.: AST; Veche, 2003.

Kravchenko A.I. Reader on cultural studies: textbook. – M., 2007.

Culture and cultural studies: Dictionary. /Compiled-ed. Kravchenko A.I. – M.: Academic project, 2003.

Postmodernism and culture. – M., 1991.

Self-awareness of European culture of the twentieth century. – M., 1991.

Silichev D.A. Postmodernism: Economics. Policy. Culture: Textbook. – M., 1998.

Civilization and cultures. Vol. 1 – 4. – M., 1994 – 1997.

SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS FOR TESTING

1. Genesis and essence of the concept of “culture”.

2. Subject and structure of cultural studies.

3. Basic approaches to understanding culture.

4. Functions of culture.

5. Culture and civilization: the relationship of concepts.

6. Cultural picture the world in different historical eras.

7. Dynamics of culture.

8. Language of culture: concept, problem of the language of culture. Classification of cultural languages.

9. Main cultural schools

10. Criteria for typology of cultures.

11. Basic cultural schools.

12. Culture and society.

13. Culture and personality.

14. Culture and nature.

15. Culture and religion.

16. Social institutions culture.

17. Inculturation of personality in various historical eras

18. Primitive culture: features and characteristics.

19. Theories of the origin of culture.

20. Concept of culture by O. Spengler.

21. Concept of culture by N. Danilevsky.

22. The concept of “axial” cultures by K. Jaspers.

23. The concept of culture A. Toynbee.

24. Primitive culture and its features.

25. The main features of the culture of Ancient Egypt: the role of religion, magic, mythology. The cult of the dead, the sacralization of the power of the pharaohs, scientific discoveries.

26. The main features of the culture of Mesopotamia and its cultural heritage.

27. The culture of Ancient Greece and its heritage.

28. The culture of Ancient Rome and its heritage.

29. Culture of medieval Europe: origins and main features.

30. Byzantine culture and its achievements.

31. Arab-Muslim culture of the Middle Ages.

32. culture of the European Renaissance: origins, characteristics, achievements.

33. Culture of Enlightenment: origins, characteristics and achievements.

34. Russian culture: origins, features and characteristics.

35. Culture of Ancient Rus'.

36. Culture of Russia in modern times.

37. Russian culture of the “Silver Age”: achievements and contradictions.

38. Main trends in the development of modern world culture.

39. The sociocultural situation in modern Russia in the context of world culture.

40. Culture and global problems of our time.

41. Art in the context of culture. Functions of art.

42. Comparative characteristics Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

43. Eastern and Western types of culture: comparative characteristics.

44. Characteristics of the modern information society.

45. Modern education: trends, characteristics and features.

Appendix No. 1. Sample of filling out the title page.

Moscow Department of Education

State budgetary educational institution

INSTITUTE OF HUMANITIES

UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

ABSTRACT

Completed:

Bachelor ___ year of study

Ivanov Ivan Ivanovich

Supervisor -

Full name, academic degree, academic title

Moscow Department of Education

State budgetary educational institution

higher vocational education Moscow cities

"Moscow City Pedagogical University"

Institute humanities

University Department of History

to pass the milestone certifications:

16 points(of them required points: attending classes (item 1) at least 4 points; performance at practical classes (item 2) at least 4 points; preparation of materials for practical classes (item 3) at least 5 points; report or message at a practical lesson (item 4) at least 3 points).

Required minimum points and work formsfor admission to intermediate certifications:

26 points(of them required points: for testing No. 1 (item 5) at least 3 points; attending classes (item 1) at least 5 points; performance in practical classes (item 2) at least 6 points; preparation of materials for practical classes (item 3) at least 6 points; report or message at a practical lesson (item 4) at least 6 points).

Types and forms of work for admission to complete the Additional block: passing the milestone certification: 16 points.

A student who has not completed the required minimum work will not be allowed to attend the session.

Full name of teacher: Associate Professor Boeva ​​Lyubov Aleksandrovna

Approved at the department meeting _____________________ dated “___” _________ 2012.

Protocol No.__

Deputy Head Department __________________ Kirillov V.V.

Culturology. Kravchenko A.I.

4th ed. - M Academic Project, Trixta, 2003 - 496 p.

The textbook examines the subject, method and functions of culture, the main schools of cultural studies, covers the problems of the structure and dynamics of culture, intercultural communication, development and formation of subcultures, types and forms of culture (popular mass elite) A separate section is devoted to the presentation of the history of world culture from antiquity to the present day

For specialists in the field of cultural studies, teachers and students of non-core universities

Format: pdf/zip

Size: 3.8 MB

/Download file

TABLE OF CONTENTS (page numbering according to the electronic version of the book)
Preface. 7
SECTION I. GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CULTURE... 8
Chapter 1. SCIENTIFIC STATUS AND SUBJECT OF CULTURAL STUDIES. 8
§ 1. Discussions about the subject of cultural studies. 8
§ 2. Definition of culture.. 9
§ 3. Structure of culture.. 12
§ 4. Basic functions of culture.. 13
4.1. Protective function. 13
4.2. Creative function. 13
4.3. Communication function. 13
4.4. Significative function. 13
4.5. Normative function. 14
4.6. Relaxation function. 15
4.7. Unity of functions. 16
§ 5. Traits of culture.. 16
5.1. Universal features of culture.. 17
5.2. General features of culture... 17
5.3. Unique features of culture... 17
5.4. Cultural identity. 18
§ 6. Cultural universals. 18
§ 7. Cultural complex. 19
§ 8. Agents and cultural institutions.. 20
§ 9. Civilization and culture. 21
§ 10. Culture and ethnicity. 22
§ 11. Intercultural communication. 24
§ 12. Cultural conventions. 25
12.1. Spatial conventions. 25
12.2. Cultural distances. 26
12.3. Temporary conventions. 27
Chapter 2. TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES... 29
§ 1. The basis of the typology of culture.. 29
§ 2. Branches of culture.. 29
2.1. Economic culture. 29
2.2. Political culture. thirty
2.3. Professional culture. thirty
2.4. Pedagogical culture. thirty
§ 3. Types of culture.. 31
3.1. Dominant culture. Ethnic culture. 31
3.2. Subculture and counterculture. 32
Subculture. 32
Counterculture. 32
3.3. Rural culture. 33
3.4. Urban culture. 34
3.5. Ordinary and specialized culture. 35
§ 4. Forms of culture.. 37
4.1. High culture. 37
4.2. Folk culture. 38
4.3. Mass culture. 38
§ 5. Complex types of culture.. 39
5.1. Art culture. 39
5.2. Physical Culture. 40
§ 6. Types of culture.. 41
Local groups.. 42
Community. 42
Urbanization. 43
Chapter 3. CULTURAL NORMS... 46
§ 1. Cultural norms and their observance. 46
§ 2. Functions of cultural norms. 46
§ 3. Classification of norms. 47
§ 4. Main types of cultural norms. 48
4.1. Habits and manners.. 48
4.2. Etiquette. 49
4.3. Customs, traditions and rituals.. 50
Custom. 50
Tradition. 50
Rite. 51
4.4. Ceremony and ritual. 51
Ceremony. 51
Ritual. 51
4.5. Manners and prohibitions.. 51
Morals.. 51
Taboo. 52
4.6. Law and law. 52
4.7. Fashion and hobbies. 53
4.8. Values. 53
4.9. Beliefs, knowledge and myths... 54
Knowledge. 54
Myth.. 54
§ 5. Normative system of culture.. 54
§ 6. Regulatory conflicts.. 56
§ 7. Anomie. 57
Chapter 4. FORMS AND MECHANISMS OF ACCESSION TO CULTURE. 60
§ 1. Socialization and education. 60
1.1. Components and types of socialization. 60
1.2. Socialization process. 61
1.3. Agents and institutions of socialization. 62
Agents of primary socialization. 62
Primary environment. 62
Agents of secondary socialization. 62
Primary and secondary socialization. 62
1.4. Primary socialization. 62
1.5. Functions of parenting. 63
1.6. Cultural differences in child rearing. 64
1.7. Institute of Education. 65
1.8. Institutes of secondary socialization: school. 65
School. 66
§ 2. Adaptation. 66
§ 3. Enculturation. 67
Socialization. 67
Enculturation 67
§ 4. Desocialization and resocialization. 70
§ 5. Acculturation. 70
§ 6. Assimilation. 71
§ 7. Cultural renewal. 72
Chapter 5. CULTURAL DYNAMICS... 74
§ 1. The origin of culture.. 74
§ 2. Discoveries and inventions. 74
§ 3. Forms of cultural dissemination.. 75
3.1. Cultural borrowings. 75
3.2. Cultural diffusion. 76
3.3. Continuum of forms of cultural dissemination... 78
§ 4. Cultural reforms and revolutions. 79
§ 5. “Cultural lag.” 79
§ 6. Cultural transmission. 80
§ 7. Cultural accumulation. 80
7.1. Museums. 81
7.2. Libraries. 81
§ 8. Integration and diversification. 82
§ 9. Cultural expansion. 82
§ 10. Modernization of culture.. 83
§ 11. Globalization of culture.. 84
SECTION II. WORLD ART CULTURE.. 87
Chapter 1. The essence and functions of art. 87
§ 1. Artistic culture and art. 87
1.1. Definition problem. 87
1.2. Subjects of artistic culture.. 87
Art. 87
1.3. The structure of artistic culture.. 88
§ 2. Main types and genres of art. 89
The term "liberal arts". 90
Aesthetics. 91
§ 3. Classification of types of art. 91
Art and imitation. 92
Painting. 92
Literature. 92
Chapter 2. PRIMITIVE CULTURE... 95
§ 1. Prerequisites for occurrence. 95
Under primitive culture. 95
Primitive art. 95
§ 2. Rock paintings and miniature sculpture. 95
Animal style. 96
Mother cult. 96
§ 3. Geometric ornament. 97
§ 4. Neolithic revolution. 98
§ 5. The origin of architecture.. 98
§ 6. Burials. 99
Mounds.. 99
Megaliths.. 99
§ 7. Matriarchy and patriarchy. 99
Chapter 3. ART OF ANCIENT EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS.. 102
§ 1. Signs of high culture and civilization. 102
Civilization is characterized by the following features: 102
§ 2. Culture of Ancient Egypt. 102
2.1. Sacralization of royal power. 103
Sacralization. 103
2.2. Writing and scribes.. 103
Pictographic letter. 103
Hieroglyphs.. 103
Demotics. 103
2.3. Pyramids are masterpieces of Egyptian religious architecture.. 104
2.4. Sculpture and painting. 104
§ 3. Culture of Mesopotamia. 105
3.1. Culture of Sumer and Akkad. 106
3.2. Babylonian culture. 108
3.3. Assyrian culture. 108
Chapter 4. CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD... 111
§ 1. Culture of Ancient Greece. 111
1.1. Pre-classical period. 111
Cretan culture. 111
Mycenaean culture. 112
Culture of the archaic era. 113
1.2. Classic period. 115
1.3. Hellenistic period. 118
§ 2. Culture of Ancient Rome. 120
The history of Ancient Rome is usually divided into three main periods: 120
Enlightenment and science. 121
Literature. 122
Sculpture. 123
Painting. 123
Patrons and conquerors. 124
Religion. 124
The meaning of ancient culture.. 125
Chapter 5. ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES... 127
§ 1. Byzantine culture. 127
§ 2. Carolingian Renaissance. 129
The term "Carolingian Revival". 129
§ 3. Classical Middle Ages. 131
The emergence of universities. 131
Roman style. 131
Court literature. 134
Chapter 6. EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE... 136
§ 1. Renaissance in Italy. 136
§ 2. Northern Renaissance. 140
Reformation. 140
§ 3. Franco-Flemish painting of the XIV-XV1I centuries. 141
§ 4. Renaissance in France. 145
§ 5. Renaissance in Spain. 146
§ 6. Baroque. 147
Baroque. 148
Chapter 7. CULTURE OF NEW TIMES.. 149
§ 1. Intellectual trends of the Enlightenment. 149
§ 2. Artistic styles of the Enlightenment. 153
2.1. Classicism. 153
2.2. Rococo art. 155
Chapter 8. EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY... 157
§ 1. Classicism. 157
§ 2. Romanticism. 159
§ 3. Realism. 162
§4. New directions in art. 164
Post-Impressionism. 166
Chapter 9. EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY... 170
§ 1. Transition from industrial to post-industrial society. 170
§ 2. Modernism and postmodernism. 170
Postmodernism. 170
2.1. Modernism. "Modern". 171
2.2. Fauvism. 171
2.3. Expressionism. 172
2.4. Cubism. 172
2.5. Abstractionism. 173
2.6. Futurism. 173
2.7. Dadaism. 174
2.8. Surrealism. 174
§ 3. Literature. 175
3.1. Existentialism. 176
Chapter 10. ART OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE.. 179
§ 1. Periodization of Russian culture.. 179
§ 2. Pre-Christian culture of the Slavs. 179
§ 3. Culture of Kievan Rus. 181
3.1. Byzantine heritage. 181
3.2. Writing and literature. 182
3.3. The role of the Church. 184
3.4. Iconic architecture. 184
3.5. Monumental painting. 186
§ 4. Culture of Moscow Rus'. 186
4.1. Local art schools... 186
Vladimir-Suzdal school. 187
Novgorod school. 187
Novgorod frescoes. 187
Moscow school. 188
Tatar-Mongol invasion. 188
Stroganov school. 190
4.2. Development of literature and science. 190
Literature. 190
Scientific knowledge. 192
Chapter 11. RUSSIAN ENLIGHTENMENT. 194
§ 1. Russian culture of the 17th century. 194
§ 2. Russian culture of the 18th century. 195
Chapter 12. RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE 19TH CENTURY... 201
Chapter 13. “SILVER AGE” IN RUSSIAN ART. 208
Chapter 14. CULTURE OF SOVIET RUSSIA... 212
§ 1. New cultural policy. 212
§ 2. New culture of life. 214
§ 3. Soviet literature of the first half of the 20th century. 215
§ 4. Avant-gardism in painting. 218
Production art. 220
§ 5. Russian abroad. 222
The first wave of Russian emigration. 222
From the “Silver Age” to the “Bronze Age”. 224
Socialist realism. 225
§ 6. Soviet literature of the second half of the 20th century. 225
§ 7. Culture in the post-Soviet period. 226