Russian heroic epic. Vladimir Propp - Russian folklorist

“RUSSIAN HEROIC EPIC IN THE WORKS OF V.YA. PROPPA"
Abstract of a student of group 244 of the faculty (JNF)
Novikov Boris Yurievich
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
State educational institution of higher professional education
St. Petersburg State Institute of Precision Mechanics and Optics
(Technical University)
Faculty of Humanities
Department of Cultural Studies
Saint Petersburg
2000
I. Introduction
The works of the famous professor at Leningrad University, specialist in Russian folklore Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970), created by him in the first half and mid-twentieth century, are considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of Russian folklore studies. I am a little interested in Russian folklore and I have long wanted to get acquainted with them. These fundamental studies are accessible even to readers without special philological training. They explore not only folklore, its genres and manifestations in rites and rituals, but also its meaning for the people, its poetics, its influence on modern culture. Book by V.Ya. Propp's “Russian Heroic Epic” is the first and still remains the only monograph dedicated to Russian epics. It first appeared in 1955, the second revised edition was published in 1958. The scientist’s works “Morphology of a Fairy Tale” (1928) and “Historical Roots of a Fairy Tale” (1946) had already been published, influencing the nature of this research. The author has examined all the varied plots, so it is possible to use the book as a reference book on the epic. Each thought is first formulated, and then developed and proven. The most important judgments are duplicated. Pedagogical experience allowed V.Ya. Propp organizes sections and topics most clearly, presents facts and their analysis in accessible and lively language. The reader is not tired of unnecessary details, but is not left without numerous references and explanations. The ordered material and the description of the methods for processing it convince us of the correctness of the conclusions made by the author. The monograph “Russian Heroic Epic” received the first university prize. In the future, it will be considered specifically; all references, except those specifically stated, will refer to the publication indicated in the list of references.
II. main part
II-1. VIEWS OF VARIOUS SCIENTISTS ON THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA
After the publication of the work “Russian Heroic Epic,” an impulse arose for polemics on many issues of epic studies. The main dispute among V.Ya. Proppa turned around with B.A. Rybakov, an influential supporter of the historical school in the folklore community (Rybakov B.A. Historical view of Russian epics // History of the USSR. 1961. No. 5. pp. 141-166; No. 6. pp. 80-96; Propp V.Ya. On the historicism of the Russian epic (response to academician B.A. Rybakov) // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. pp. 98-111; see also: On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study // Propp V.Ya. Poetics folklore. M., 1998. pp. 185-208). Scientists B.N. Putilov, Yu.I. Yudin and I.Ya. Froyanov developed and supplemented the ideas of V.Ya. Proppa. Subsequently, a tendency arose both to apply the scientist’s methodology in the analysis of the epic plot, and to identify the historical basis of the epic. When researching epics, modern folklorists conduct a scientific search, invariably using the achievements of V. Ya Propp.
II-2. METHODOLOGICAL PREREQUISITES FOR ANALYSIS
In his work “Russian Heroic Epic” V.Ya. Propp shows talent as a researcher and skills as a teacher. Before starting to consider the material, the author determines the subject of study itself. He considers the most decisive features of an epic to be, of course, the heroic nature of its content, as well as the musical form of performance, poetic and special metrical structures. It is important for him here to separate the heroic epic proper both from some prose genres, for example, fairy tales and some types of old stories, and in general from works of epic poetic size, such as epic spiritual poems, ballad and buffoon songs. Also, historical songs closely related to it are separated from the epic, and the author stands here in opposition to the historical and neo-historical schools dominant at that time [see: pp. 6-12]. Supporters of this trend sought to discover in the epic a reflection of a specific historical event and to find historical prototypes for its heroes. At the same time, the general concept of the song and its main idea were not taken into account. From here followed illegitimate and debunked attempts to deduce the epic characters from the chronicles, to correlate the appearance of the epic with the formation of Kievan Rus, to attribute the authorship of the epics not to the people, but to the elite elite. The author strongly objects to this. He himself stands on the fact that the epic, part of folklore, is an exclusively folk creation, expresses folk ideals and therefore is kept in the people's memory. From this point of view, the scientist successfully explains almost all epic plots, only in rare cases resorting to references to ideological or authorial influence.
After establishing the scope of consideration of V.Ya. Propp explores issues of epic methodology in pre-revolutionary and Soviet science. He shows the inconsistency of most of the directions, trying to focus attention on the need to study the epic without breaking away from the historical or artistic sides. Much attention is paid to the merits of Russian revolutionary democrats (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky and, especially, V.G. Bellinsky, the author of many articles on folk poetry), as well as A.M. Gorky. This is undoubtedly due to the situation of the struggle against cosmopolitanism and the chauvinistic spread of ideas of the superiority and originality of everything Russian, characteristic of the time the monograph was created. Of course, the indisputable and mentioned at every opportunity opinions of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and other social democrats are also not determined by the orientation of V.Ya. Propp, but the dominant ideology. The author himself insists on defining the ideas of epics, for which you need to understand them correctly and delve into all the details. He studies and compares various records to provide a complete picture of the plot. Here he does not compile a consolidated version and does not identify the most frequently encountered options, does not look for regional differences, but by analyzing the author’s additions and alterations introduced over time, he tries to reveal the meaning that was originally invested. The resulting picture may not be confirmed by any of the specific versions of the epic, but it always allows us to identify the collective plan of the people. Various entries in relation to this plan are only particular artistic cases of its implementation. V.Ya. Propp sees the epic as reflecting the age-old ideals of the people; its creation dates back to all the centuries, during which it was polished and acquired new or lost old features. He denies the mythologization of the history of the people by the epic, because on the contrary, the epic in its development discards the remnants of mythology. He sees the process of relationship between epic and history as dependent not on events, but on different eras. It is in this direction that he conducts his research [see: pp. 12-28].
An undoubted advantage is the brief information included in the appendices about the analysis of each of the epics under consideration by other researchers [see: pp. 558-591]. In the event that there is too much literature on a given song to mention it all, the author selects the most significant works. He singles out works with which he completely disagrees, leaving the rest without comment.
II-3. FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC OF DIFFERENT ERAS
Primitive communal system. V.Ya. Propp is convinced that the heroic epic began to take shape long before the start of feudal relations. Since there are no direct traces of the existence of such a phenomenon, he cites as an example the numerous peoples who inhabited the territory of the USSR, who were delayed in development at the level of decomposition of the primitive communal system. They all have heroic epics. Using the comparison method, the scientist reveals in the epic songs of the peoples of Siberia and the Far North the development of the epic from mythology; the transition of heroic deeds from the struggle for the family unit (lyrical feelings do not play a role) to the defense of the native people or battles against oppressors; transformation of elemental hosts into hostile monsters; common to all heroes is a high moral spirit and a willingness to forget their interests for the common good (often they are leaders); hyperbolic appearance and actions of heroes and their enemies. The epic testifies to the beginning of the struggle for a new social order: the family is a factor that destroys tribal relations, and the hero’s knighthood is not a sign of the past, where support was implied by itself, but a reaction to the emergence of class inequality and exploitation. In the Russian epic, the hero's collisions in different worlds took a place in fairy tales, but were not preserved in epics. Heroic texts reflect the ideals that lie in the future, the aspirations of the era. This is the key to their longevity. The conclusions drawn are used by the author in the study of the Russian epic, making it possible to highlight its most ancient elements, which makes it easier to consider its development. The author reveals a very interesting feature of Russian epic songs. While the external form of songs of other peoples is multi-component and the plot develops not due to complication, but by adding new, identical links, Russian epics are essentially one-part and monolithic. Only the songs about Sadko and Potyka retained the features of their former multi-composition. Possible merging of two plots into one (contamination), according to V.Ya. Propp, this is a secondary phenomenon, and simplicity, brevity and indivisibility are the result of long-term improvement of the epic [see. details: pp. 29-58].
Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. The epic of Kievan Rus is not considered as a continuation of the epic that developed during the era of the tribal system. State relations required not the development of previous ideas, but the approval of new ones, therefore the epic does not trace the remnants of the old in the new, but the conflict of worldviews belonging to these two always opposing times. Having originated in the communal system, the traditions were not interrupted. Old stories were preserved, but filled with new content. Some of them were used and reworked in order to establish the ideals of the young state, some acquired a semi-fairytale character. Such a clash of ideals can be traced in the most ancient Russian epics, epics of the era of Kievan Rus [see. details: pp. 59-61].
The entire Russian epic by V.Ya. Propp considers Vladimirov or the Kiev cycle as one, and not regional epics. However, not all epics belong to the Vladimirov cycle. Some epics were formed even before the formation of Kievan Rus, and their content did not lend itself to the process of cyclization. Such, for example, are the epics about Volkh and Svyatogor. Others were created after the formation of the cycle was completed. These are, for example, epics about the Lithuanian raid or about Khoten Bludovich, which appeared in the Moscow period. Some are semi-fairy-tale in nature and reflect narrower ideals than the interests of the state. Among them, for example, is the epic about Gleb Volodyevich or about Soloman and Vasily Okulovich. Finally, the cycle does not include epics of a distinctly local character, like those from Novgorod. The author denies the concept of dividing epics into two cycles: the Kiev and Novgorod. The picture of the existence and distribution of epics in the contemporary North shows the universal popularity of the main characters and plots, and the national ideas reflected in the epics could hardly have worried only the residents of a particular region. The rest are local formations that are not widespread [see. details: pp. 66-69].
The author divides the development of the early state Russian epic into two periods: the Kiev period and feudal fragmentation, when the significance of Kyiv was obscured among the many local centers. In new and revised old songs, the people reflected the intense struggle against foreign invaders and created images of heroic defenders of the homeland. The epics of the Kyiv or Vladimirov cycle are united by a common center - Kiev, the head of which, Prince Vladimir (“Red Sun”), is served by heroes. The image of Vladimir is twofold. From the period of progressive development of the state, he inherited the role of the people's leader, while class stratification later creates a social conflict between the heroes and the prince, who has become the head of his class. The secondary image of Vladimir’s wife, Princess Eupraxia (Opraxa), changes somewhat differently. From the clan system, she, as a woman, may get the role of the enemy’s helper, as, for example, in the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, later she is endowed with the features of a heroic woman, in particular, saving Ilya Muromets from her husband’s wrath. Epic Kyiv served the people as a banner of unity, although it was not one. Bogatyrs from various regions become heroes of the epic only from the moment they arrive in Kyiv. They serve the Motherland and always come to the Stolno-Kyiv prince voluntarily. Specific wars are not reflected at all in the Russian epic, because they were not popular. The service of heroes to appanage princes is also not reflected [see. details: pp. 61-70].
The period of the centralized state. With the creation in the 10th century. of the new powerful state, the people's aspirations for unification and national independence came true. Previous epics began to receive the name “old”, but they are not forgotten, but belong to the realm of the heroic past. Military functions are transferred to historical song. With the increase in class antagonism, epics about social struggle come to the fore. We have encountered such songs before, but now they are losing their monumentality, while gaining in realism, they more broadly describe life and classes, class conflicts become the main theme. Women begin to play a new role, and new positive images of them emerge. The types of mighty heroes stop in their development, ceasing to enter into new songs. The epic begins to move closer to the ballad, but its spirit remains heroic [see. details: pp. 369-374].
New time (capitalism). Under capitalism, the active development of the epic ceases. Its geographic range is shrinking from its once widespread distribution to remote areas of the North. V.Ya. Propp argues with numerous theories seeking the causes of this extinction, everywhere defending the creative independence of the people. He explains the extinction of the epic by social relations and contradictions that have developed in modern times, and its preservation by private reasons found in the North: the slow penetration of exploitation, the specific labor of the peasantry and natural features [see. details: pp. 505-510]. From the middle of the nineteenth century. science became interested in epics. Only from then can one judge the performance of the epics. The author delicately approaches the definition of the role of the performer when singing epics. By examining the degree and nature of a singer’s talent, one can establish the role of individual singers and the role of the entire people in the creation of the epic [see. details: pp. 510-516]. Much attention is paid to the poetic language of epics: its richness, expressiveness, accuracy of descriptions, rhythm. The epics reflected the affectionate attitude of the people towards their heroic defenders, hatred of invaders, admiration for the beauty of their native land, ideas about many things that are relevant to the people [see. details: pp. 516-540]. Generally speaking, the dying of the epic by V.Ya. Propp associates it with the historically natural transition to new forms of folk art [see. details: pp. 540-545].
Soviet time. The expeditions of Soviet scientists showed not only the existence of the epic in its last stronghold, the Russian North, but also the gradual cessation of the epic tradition [see. details: pp. 546-548]. Nevertheless, we can talk about a new epic epic. The author discusses this problem using the example of the famous singer M.S. Kryukova. Her talent was discovered in 1934. In Soviet times, she was actually the only performer who consciously devoted herself not only to preserving the existing heritage, but also to creating songs with qualitatively new content. Kryukova herself creates new themes based on the material of old epics and fairy tales, and draws from fiction, popular science literature and the media. She overcame the isolation of the old epic, but the life of her contemporaries never became the subject of glorification. The new content did not fit well into the old forms, often affecting the transmitted information. The epic form of the epic has become obsolete; it has become part of the heritage of national culture. The epic continues to exist in a different form, its best achievements influencing the heroic poetry and literature traditions [see. details: pp. 549-557].
II-4. ANALYSIS OF EPICS
All considered by V.Ya. Propp divided the epics into thematic groups based on both the era whose ideals it reflects and the main theme. Within the group, they are arranged in conditionally chronological order, starting with those that contain the most ancient elements or layers.
Epics of the period of Kievan Rus and feudal fragmentation. Before starting the Kyiv cycle, the author examines the surviving ancient heroes [see: part 2, ch. II], whose images were formed so long before the formation of the state that it turned out to be difficult to attract them to the new ideology. Among them he places Volkh (or Volga Vseslavlavich or Svyatoslavovich) and Svyatogor, who carry not only primitive views, but also artistic techniques rejected by modern times. The stories about Volkh preserved the most ancient totemistic and magical ideas. Behind his overseas campaign for the defense of Kyiv is the glorified predatory raid, initially in search of hunting grounds, and later for the purpose of stealing livestock. The combination of old and new, fantastic and pseudo-historical, however, did not help the epic song about him to survive and it belongs to the rarest in the Russian epic. Subsequently, the image of Volga is used as a purely negative one and is contrasted with Mikula Selyaninovich [see. details: pp. 70-76].
Unlike Volkh, the image of Svyatogor is very popular, although it is also noticeably erased. Its main features - enormous strength and size - characteristic of the primitive epic, are not as important in modern times as the method of using this force. He cannot accomplish the feat, Svyatogor’s strength is a burden, and not only to him. Both epic plots associated with him - about Mikula’s handbag and about the prepared coffin - are associated with the death of the hero. Svyatogor carries death within himself. The time of the chthonic world order has passed, hard work is needed to master it, and fate sends it, if not death, then eternal sleep [see. details: pp. 76-87].
The hero's matchmaking is presented in the Russian epic in various versions [see: part 2, ch. III]. In such epics, the glorification of matchmaking itself and the rejection of such glorification by the state collide. It is interesting that the woman in them, if not a hero, is almost always a witch or a creature of evil spirits. Through the death of the latter, the people support healthy family foundations. In the epic about Sadko that has come down to us, the main motive is the conflict between a person from the lower classes and the social elite who do not accept him. The song is a Novgorod creation, it is full of vivid realities of life, but at the same time it is fabulous and fantastic. Its unique feature is its multi-component nature. In the first part, the poor guslar Sadko is helped by the sea king, a spontaneous master, to get rich and move to higher social strata. The second one is already completely realistic. Sadko is trying to establish himself on an equal footing among the higher merchants and comes into conflict with them, but it is clear that he is in conflict with the great Novgorod and the city remains the winner. In the most archaic third part, the hero overcomes the temptation of marriage with a sea princess for the sake of his native Novgorod. The real world triumphs over the mythical [see. details: pp. 87-111].
Another multi-part and in some places even more archaic epic is the song about Mikhailo Potyk. In terms of plot, it is one of the most complex, and for me, one of the most interesting. Marya the white swan, having appeared to Potyk, who had left Kiev, offers herself as a wife and easily marries him, setting the condition: after the death of one of the spouses, both will be buried. Soon Mikhailo goes to the grave with her, but finds a way to revive her and return himself. The deception allows Marya to make several more attempts to kill him, and when she has already cheated on him. Unholy marriage to a stranger is condemned by everyone, but nevertheless, it is thanks to human and higher help that Potyk remains alive after all the vicissitudes. Fighting for his wife, he does not accomplish a feat, but comes to a shameful fall. Fascinated by witchcraft passion, Mikhailo alone is unable to understand the infernal nature of the chosen one. For the Russian epic, the motive of marriage ceases to be heroic, a struggle is being waged against it [see. details: pp. 111-128]. Personally, in this epic, in the image of Marya, I see the development of the concept of evil spirits, merging with the opposition of Russian to foreign, and not just an enemy. She chooses Potyk as her husband in order to use him as a chance to come to life, but when Marya later tries to get rid of Mikhailo, he does not die. The time for people like her is over. Evil spirits have influence on a person, but cannot shape his destiny as it pleases.
Ivan Godinovich is deliberately looking for a foreign bride. At the first opportunity, she prefers to betray the Kyiv hero in order to return to the pagan world. The people do not allow the Russian hero to die at the hands of strangers, they give him the opportunity to take revenge, thereby destroying the hostile evil spirits, but at the same time they mock him [see. details: pp. 128-136].
The dramatic and highly artistic epic about the Danube and Nastasya is not without reason considered one of the best in Russian epic. In this song, the source of all evil is the proud hero who strayed from Kyiv, and not his alien wife, and in his shame he is not worthy of people’s pity. Danube, previously in the service of a foreign king, goes to him for his daughter, a bride for Prince Vladimir, whom he takes by force. On the way back, he encounters a warrior in battle, defeats her, but at the last moment he recognizes in the heroine another daughter of his former master, with whom he had been in a close relationship for a long time. A double wedding according to the laws of the epic is overshadowed by conflict. Danube's boasting of his strength (a real hero is modest) leads to a shooting competition between him and Nastasya, who showed him the acceptable degree of politeness and the real price of a hero. Angered by his failures, the Danube kills his wife, knowing that she is pregnant, and when, having spread out her womb, he sees a wonderful baby, the future great hero, he throws himself on a spear next to the corpse [see. details: pp. 136-156].
The epic song about Kozarin is semi-ballad in nature and only due to the motive of saving a woman can it be classified as an epic about matchmaking. The hero, noble in character and rejected by his own family, saves from the hands of the Tatars, who here play the role of kidnappers rather than conquerors, a girl who turns out to be his sister. Having returned her to the family, he again sets off into the open field. The Russian hero does not seek approval for his exploits, but performs them because he cannot do otherwise [see. details: pp. 156-169].
The idyllic epic of a completely ballad nature about Nightingale Budimirovich also belongs to the realm of epic. After the gradual reduction of the bride’s alienation from a representative of evil spirits to a Russian witch (see below the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka), a song about the hero’s happy marriage naturally appeared. The happy epic, closely connected with ritual wedding poetry, completes a large stage of Russian epic, paving the way for the development of other forms of heroic songs [see. details: pp. 169-181].
A group of epics about the hero’s struggle with monsters (see: Part 2, Chapter IV) brings together the names of the people’s favorite heroes. The appearance of the enemy changed depending on the real historical struggle of the Russian people. The most widespread epic in Russian epic about Dobrynya and the Snake pits the most cultural and diplomatic hero against a vivid artistic embodiment of natural elements. The first battle with the Serpent at the Puchai River lies outside the Kiev cycle and cannot be completed so that, freeing Zabava Putyatishna on the orders of her uncle Vladimir, the hero could, having fought the Serpent a second time, lead many Russian people out of his lair into freedom. . The ancient motive of kidnapping helps turn a feat performed on the orders of the prince into a feat of defense of Rus'. Rejection of the Good Hand The fun and peculiarities of some versions of the song draw attention to the hidden antagonism of heroes, folk heroes, and the upper classes [see. details: pp. 181-208]. This conflict nature is emphasized more than once in the Russian epic, and the author, in view of the prevailing ideological attitudes, pays great attention to social confrontation.
The song about Alyosha and Tugarin is very close to the epic about Dobrynya's snake-fighting. However, here a cheerful, witty and sometimes not very strong hero, with the help of ingenuity, deals with a clumsy, rude and ill-mannered opponent, in whom fantastic features are partially replaced by those close to reality. The enemy brazenly positioned himself in Vladimir’s chambers, he behaves defiantly and behaves freely with Princess Eupraxia, demonstrating their close relationship. However, no one protests (the heroes are absent at this time). This is discovered by Alyosha, who modestly arrived. He mocks Tugarin’s dishonest behavior, challenges him to battle and destroys the shame of the Russian prince’s groveling before the invaders [see. details: pp. 208-227].
The central figure of the Russian heroic epic is Ilya Muromets. In him, the people combined selfless love for the Motherland, the highest moral qualities and maturity that respectfully distinguished the hero. In the epic about Idolishche, most likely derived from the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, an almost anthropomorphic monster, bearing some Tatar features, surrounds Kyiv with troops, and itself goes to the prince’s palace, where it also commits outrages. Having learned about this from the “walker,” Ilya hurries to the rescue. Arriving in the clothes of beggars persecuted by the new owner of the city, he kills the enemy without unnecessary preludes. In another existing version, when Idolishche settles in Constantinople and prohibits Orthodoxy there, a later church influence is clearly felt. The people who preserve this epic themselves mock the Kalika-messenger and the pilgrimage image of Elijah [see. details: pp. 227-239].
Stories about the healing of Ilya of Muromets and his conquest of the Nightingale the Robber are often combined into an epic song about Ilya’s first trip. In the first narrative, references to peasant origin, Ilya’s long illness from youth to adulthood, and the heroic power bestowed on him by miraculous wanderers are constant. The archaic plot here acquires realistic features. The people bring their beloved hero closer not only to a conceivable ideal, but also to themselves, to reality. In the second, Ilya, going to serve his Motherland in Kyiv, destroys the hostile army near Chernigov, captures the Nightingale the Robber, who was blocking the straight path with his outpost, and destroys his unclean brood. Along the way, he pavers swamps and clears an abandoned road from the forest. His main merit was in paving the way to Kyiv. Fractured Rus' is beginning to unite. Already at the first meeting, conflict is visible between Ilya and Vladimir, which will only increase in the future. The prince and the boyars are made to look ridiculous when they try to give orders to the proud Nightingale, who understands the role of Muromets more than Vladimir [see. details: pp. 239-260].
The fairy tale is a more ancient genre than the epic; it retains much of prehistoric antiquity. The epic becomes more complex and discards or transforms what does not meet the increasing requirements. However, there is a group of epics that are very close to fairy tales. They are not typical for heroic epics, they are often personal and entertaining in nature, but nevertheless, due to the presence of heroic motives by V.Ya. Propp explores them too [see: part 2, ch. IV]. One of the most interesting plots is the battle between Ilya Muromets and his son. Ilya’s temporary marriage with the “woodpile” he defeated and his abandonment of his pregnant wife are the most archaic. At the same time, their son is teased by his peers and sets out to avenge his mother’s dishonor. Muromets encounters his son as a trespasser, recognizes him and introduces him to the circle of heroes. But when he again tries to kill his father at night, Ilya, without hesitation, kills the doubly traitor [see. details: pp. 263-266].
In the epic about Ilya’s three journeys, the hero follows from the crossroads of three roads in directions where, according to the roadstone, death, marriage and wealth await him. His calm choice of the first road and the destruction of the danger lurking there are close to a heroic epic, while the rest of the adventures are of a fairy-tale and ecclesiastical nature [see. details: pp. 260-270].
I like the song about Dobrynya and Marinka. And so, the hero who has high moral qualities appears morally completely pure, and the witch who harms him appears as a seductive enchantress. Marinka, trying to seduce the hero, evokes only disgust in his chaste soul. Then the evil sorceress bewitches him, and when he, exhausted by witchcraft powers, comes to her against his will, she turns him into a tour. Dobrynya’s mother, who herself is sometimes a pure sorceress, helps save her son, and he, having agreed to a symbolic marriage with Marinka, brutally deals with his enemy as a husband [see. details: pp. 270-279].
The epic about Dobrynya's departure and Alyosha's failed marriage is one of the most widespread in Russian epic. Due to Dobrynya's long absence, his wife is about to marry Alyosha, who brought the news of her husband's death, when Dobrynya returns unharmed and Alyosha is left in an uncomfortable position. The intriguing conflict of two very different temperamental heroes, united by the defense of the Motherland, cannot achieve the dark, bloody outcome characteristic of the epic. The ancient plot takes on a comic tone in the finale, the heroes make peace, and the woman says goodbye. This song gave many scientists the opportunity to try to portray Alyosha Popovich in a negative and immoral form, as a seducer of honest women, although the only thing he can be accused of here is false news. Generally speaking, in the epic Alyosha appears temperamental and mischievous, but not in any way immoral. Prince Vladimir, who in some cases forced Dobrynya’s wife into marriage, is sharply condemned [see. details: pp. 279-288].
Epics about repelling the Tatars. The heavy yoke of the Mongol conquerors, which hampered the development of Rus', simultaneously contributed to a new stage in the development of the Russian epic, the emergence of a number of patriotic epics praising the military overthrow of oppression. The songs were filled with new ideological content, acquired new artistic features and broke with ancient traditions. For a long time, the only content of the epics was the theme of the struggle for independence, honor and freedom of the Motherland [see: part 3]. In the song about Ilya’s rebellion against Vladimir, we see a seemingly contradiction to the main idea of ​​the Russian epic, service to Kyiv, however, here the social difference between a hero from the people and a rich prince finally results in a clash. Muromets, not invited to the feast, comes there without permission. The prince does not recognize him, once again demonstrating how little he values ​​the hero’s services. Insulted, Ilya defiantly leaves and arranges his own feast for all the poor. Following the slander of the boyars, Vladimir puts him in a cellar here to starve to death. Sometimes, this instruction is carried out; in other cases, Vladimir is forced to reconcile with the hero and arrange a feast especially for him, or Ilya and all the heroes leave Kyiv. In any case, in the future the prince will be put to shame, but the hero will triumph. This epic demonstrates how an insurmountable gulf opened up between the people and the class power before the invasion of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 291-303].
Almost all epics about repelling the Tatars speak about the appearance of the Tatars near Kiev and their dispersal by Russian troops. A circle of songs about Ilya Muromets and Tsar Kalina, organically connected with one another, V.Ya. Propp considers in totality [see: part 3, ch. II, paragraph 2]. This allows us to get a picture of the invasion drawn by the people step by step and find out the deep national aspirations in each song. The poetic chorus that opens one of the epics of the cycle under consideration tells of a sign foretelling the death of Kyiv. Since this is the only case where faith in signs is found in the epic, Kyiv does not perish at all, but is saved and there is a separate antiquity with a similar plot on a completely religious theme, the author with all grounds sees here a motif unreasonably attached to the military epic [see. details: pp. 306-310]. The appearance of the Tatars is described with a high degree of historicity: huge enemy hordes, clear organization of troops, autocratic command, siege tactics of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 310-314]. The Tatar ambassador, who arrived in Kyiv with the khan's label, always behaves defiantly, emphasizing the ultimatum conditions of surrender and contempt for the Russians [see. details: pp. 314-316]. Many of the cruel demands and threats of the Tatars are also historical [see. details: pp. 316-318]. Vladimir, in the face of impending danger, does nothing to actively defend the city. He prays, thinks about surrendering the city, about accepting the Tatar conditions [see. details: pp. 318-321]. There are no heroes in Kyiv at this time. Sometimes they are gone on business, but more often they are in disgrace with the prince, which he regrets [see. details: pp. 321-322]. The main defender of the city, Ilya Muromets, condemned to starvation in a cellar, was secretly supplied with food through the efforts of Princess Eupraxia, and now Vladimir is trying to persuade him to defend not the authorities, but the Fatherland. The hero agrees, often after reprisal against the boyars guilty of slander [see. details: pp. 322-326]. Having soberly assessed the enemy's strength [see. details: pp. 326-327], Ilya himself goes to the camp to Kalinin, where he asks for a reprieve and receives it [see. details: pp. 327-328]. By entrusting someone with the fortification of the city [see. details: pp. 328-329], Muromets undertakes to look for heroes. He finds them at Samson's headquarters, a new camp where the wars have spent their time in idleness since the time of disgrace. Oddly enough for an epic, the heroes refuse to go. But this desire arises due to proximity to folk, and not princely-boyar, Rus'. They will strike at the decisive moment [see. details: pp. 329-331]. In deserted Kiev, the young hero Ermak (not a historical figure, but a character of the same name introduced into the epic for his merits) appears to Vladimir and asks for permission to fight his enemies. Having failed to fulfill the prince's instructions, Ermak goes to the heroic headquarters. Muromets sends him to count the enemy force, but the hot Ermak rushes into battle and dies. This exceptional case of the death of a hero in the Russian epic is a consequence of violation of Ilya’s order [see. details: pp. 332-334]. The battle is always described briefly. If there is no heroic support, then Muromets rushes into battle alone. If there is one, he intelligently manages the distribution of forces [see. details: pp. 334-337]. Sometimes Ilya is captured by cunning and brought to Kalin, who tries to lure the hero to his side [see. details: pp. 337-338]. The enemy's proposal infuriates Muromets so much that he breaks his chains and, waving the first Tatar he comes across and calling Samson and other heroes with a spoken arrow, finally finishes off the Tatars. When leaving, the enemy takes an oath never to return [see. details: pp. 338-339]. Along with the final defeat of the enemy, there is another ending to this song, called the epic about the Kama (Mamaev) massacre, or about how since when there were no knights in Rus'. In one version, two brothers who did not participate in the battle begin to boast emptyly and the Tatars come to life, and it is not possible to chop down the living dead, their number only increases. Prayer destroys the unearthly power, and the heroes disperse to monasteries. This song has a religious-church orientation, it is due to sermons about humility. In another version, the heroes, proud of their victory, themselves challenge the “heavenly powers.” They fearlessly destroy the revived force. The character of this epic, on the contrary, is atheistic, and it expresses popular thoughts [see. details: pp. 339-344]. In addition to this song, many later songs based on it also tell about the fight against the Tatars, for example, the epic about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyga. Before the impending invasion, Vladimir goes to the tavern to ask for help from the only remaining hero, Vasily, who has been drinking for several years now and has wasted absolutely everything. Having gotten drunk, he kills Batu’s associates with cursed arrows, who sends a demand to hand over the culprit. In one case, the hero himself goes to the enemy camp and, having tricked the Tatar army into the wilderness, destroys it. In another, the council of boyars immediately betrays Vasily. Now he really concludes an agreement with the enemy in order to lead him against the city’s rich, still sparing Prince Vladimir. The Tatars plunder the city without respecting the treaty, and Vasily personally expels them. One way or another, the enemy is exterminated, and the rebellious aspirations of the peasants are looking for ways to get rid of the hostile leaders, although they rely on the people [see. details: pp. 344-355].
The epic about Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich shows us the liberation struggle in other forms, when the invasion ended in a long yoke. Vladimir sends Batu tribute. The faithful servant Vasily undertakes its delivery, a task unworthy of a hero, and he is accompanied by Dobrynya, who is the main character. When Batu tests the heroes in order to execute them as a failure, Dobrynya turns out to be more skillful than the Tatars. Having entered into a rage during the fight, he deals with the Tatar army. The people believe in victory even under the strongest oppression [see. details: pp. 355-368].
An epic of the era of the formation of a centralized Russian state. In the epic about Volga and Mikula, the main character is a farmer, which is unusual for a Russian epic, although it is the peasantry who are the custodians of the songs. The warrior Volga, on the way to the cities granted to him by the prince, meets the plowman Mikula and invites him with him. It soon becomes clear that the oratai (plowman, orat - plow, oro - plow) is superior to the hero in everything: in the wealth of clothing, in strength, in prowess, even his inconspicuous filly turns out to be better than the magnificent Volgin horse. Mikula is proud of his class and his work. Such a song could only emerge when the peasantry realized its importance. In the person of Mikula it exalts itself [see. details: pp. 374-387].
In this historical period, Kyiv and Vladimir are losing their significance as symbols of a united Rus'. The image of the former Red Sun, the main representative of the feudal and social elite, is finally debunked, and social injustice is depicted in the epic as a moral evil, which helped the people educate themselves accordingly [see: part 4, ch. III]. The hidden opposition between the hero and the prince in the epic about Sukhman ends in the suicide of the hero, offended by the despotic behavior of Vladimir. The knight goes hunting for a swan for the prince's table. Such an assignment for a hero is a voluntary exile or disgrace if sent by a prince. The hunt is unsuccessful, just as peaceful relations between the antagonists are impossible. On the way back near the Dnieper, Sukhman encounters the advancing Tatars and destroys the entire army. In battle, he receives a wound, which prepares the tragic denouement of the song, which he begins with a poppy leaf. The hero’s story about his feat is not taken seriously by Vladimir and the hero faces punishment. When the truth becomes clear, Sukhman proudly rejects attempts at reconciliation and, pulling out leaves from the wound, bleeds, showing what is best for him [see. details: pp. 387-397].
In the song about Danilo Lovchanin, the prince is presented as an outright scoundrel and criminal. Vladimir is looking for a wife for himself, and for the people - an empress. Mishata Putyatin tells him to take possession of Danilo Lovchanin’s wife Vasilisa, and send him on a deadly mission. The warrior completes the assignment, but on the way back he encounters an army sent from Kyiv to kill him. Although Danilo tearsly beats the entire Russian army, he still dies from the treacherous hand of Mishata. Without hesitation, the prince sends matchmakers to Vasilisa. The faithful woman, who anxiously let go of her husband, first asks to be taken to Danila’s body and kills herself over his corpse. As in the previous epic, the enemy’s victory is temporary, the future belongs to the heroes [see. details: pp. 397-407].
Although with the new tactics of war that developed after the overthrow of the yoke, the military epic gave way to historical song, nevertheless its attenuation was gradual. The basis of the last epic of military content, the epic about the raid of the Lithuanians, was originally based on the motif of the abduction of a woman characteristic of the epic, but it was later replaced by patriotic ideas. The nephews of the Lithuanian king, the Livik brothers, invade Russia with predatory and ruinous purposes. They also kidnap the sister of Prince Roman Dmitrievich. The prince chases after them with his army and defeats the foreign army. Although the song is full of archaic details, nevertheless, the epic is no longer talking about ideal heroes, but about living people [see. details: pp. 407-418].
At this time, later epics about matchmaking still appeared [see: part 4, ch. IV], but the struggle for the bride in them has the character of a social struggle. The song about Alyosha Popovich and Elena Petrovichna really touched me. The Petrovich brothers, nicknamed Zbrodovich, boast at the feast that they keep their sister Elena in seclusion. Alyosha teases them, hinting that he is seeing Elena and that she has long belonged to him. The brothers' anger turns on their sister, whom they sentence to public execution. They condemn the very system that allowed such oppression. At the last moment, Alyosha appears and takes the girl away, often straight to church. Here the hero no longer fights mythical, but human monsters [see. details: pp. 418-426].
In the epic about Khoten Bludovich, rich in various details, the bride and groom are separated solely by class differences. At the feast, the poor Bludova widow wooed the wealthy Clock Widow, sometimes even a relative of Vladimir, with her daughter China for her son the hero Khoten, who often does not know about it. The watch widow only cruelly insults the entire Bludov family. Khoten responds by destroying the Sentinel courtyard, threateningly repeating the matchmaking with the same bad temper as her mother China and challenging her brothers to battle. After the hero deals with the sons of the Clock Widow and the army sent against him, China’s proud mother herself offers her daughter. Khoten refuses, but at the request of his rival, the Fornicating Widow, who is satisfied with the humiliation, he agrees, and the song ends with a cheerful wedding [see. details: pp. 426-441].
The pinnacle of epic songs about social struggle can be considered the epics about Vasily Buslaevich’s rebellion against Novgorod and his death [see: part 4, ch. VI]. I don’t quite agree with V.Ya. Propp, who believes that Vasily, despite all his actions, is not an earworm. In my opinion, this is exactly what the hero is like, although, of course, this does not affect the meaning of his image in any way. Since childhood, Vasily bullied the children of rich parents, and his heroic strength already allowed him to cripple them. Having grown up, Vasily recruited a squad for himself, as was wiser during the brutal internal political struggle of Novgorod at that time. His selected detachment consists of people of the lower strata, handicraft workers. When a fight breaks out at a bratchina (a feast organized by pool on church holidays) and the entire squad is drawn into it, Vasily challenges the whole of Novgorod to a fight. The mother locks the hero and tries to stop the conflict, asking her son’s opponents to call off the bloodshed, to which they do not agree. While Vasily comes running to the battle, his squad manages to suffer greatly. Having released her, he defends himself alone, destroys the houses of the rich and defeats the old pilgrim, symbolizing the old system. The idea of ​​“Mr. Great Novgorod” collapsed in the popular consciousness long ago. Only the mother stops the dispersed hero [see. details: pp. 441-464].
Having not completed the conflict, Vasily does not resign himself, but transforms it into new forms. He begs his mother for a blessing to travel to Jerusalem for repentance, but in fact, although he performs external religious rituals on the spot, he is full of challenge to otherworldly forces. He neglects the prophecy of the skull he kicked, sneers at the misfortune predicted for swimming naked in the Jordan, and when he finds a stone that does not recommend jumping over it, he begins to have fun, violating the ban. His death was caused by the untimeliness of the struggle. The tragedy is in the awareness of the destruction of the old way of life, but the impossibility of achieving this for now [see. details: pp. 464-475].
Despite the sharply satirical nature of the epic About Duke Stepanovich and his competition with Churila, it is free from buffoon influence, its action is prompted by ridicule of the wealthy boyar class. The incredibly rich dandy Duke arrives in Kyiv to show himself off. After Dobrynya, sent by Vladimir for inspection, confirms the enormous fortune of the boastful fellow (dandy, dude), Duke’s rivalry with the main dude of Kyiv, Churila, begins in the beauty of clothes, in which Duke wins, but always has mercy on his opponent. Like all the heroes of the epic, Duke Stepanovich is endowed with the highest quality things, however, unlike the heroes, for whom quality served as a sign of idealization and greatness, in Duke we see unnecessary pomp and foppish demonstrativeness. Chain mail and arrows made of expensive materials are not used for military purposes, but for ostentation. Duke's sophistication gives him a reason to criticize the lack of sophistication and simplicity; wealth allows him to be proud and boast. He smugly opposes his country and his own economy to Kyiv [see. details: pp. 475-504].
III. Conclusion
The main content of V.Ya.’s songs Propp defines the struggle for the highest ideals of the people and victory in the name of their implementation. The epics are imbued with patriotism and educational spirit. The people invest their aspirations in the epic; the content of the songs sets them up to a high moral level. The epic reflects the development and self-awareness of the people. The scientist rejects the theory of the foreign origin of epics and emphasizes the connection of the epic with Russian history, with Russian reality and life. The descriptions and realities of epic songs are historical. People understand the epic as part of their history. Epics are a sign of a harmonious inner life and the liberation aspirations of the people, the struggle for the opportunity to live independently and be happy.
Acquaintance with the monograph by V.Ya. Propp's "Russian Heroic Epic" gave me great pleasure. I was able to familiarize myself with the development of the epic from ancient times to the present day, encountering valuable and very detailed explanations. The epic stories were colored with high meaning for me, allowing me to feel pride in the patriotism and morality of my people. It is a pity that the author did not examine in detail the mythological basis of the epic; this was probably caused by attacks on the previous works of the scientist, but the data he presented is very interesting in itself, and is also necessary if you want to understand the creative aspirations and ideological views of the Russian people.
Bibliography
1) V.Ya. Propp “Russian heroic epic” (Collected works of V.Ya. Propp). Commentary article by N.A. Krichnina. Compilation, scientific editing, name index by S.P. Bushkevich. - M., 1999. - 640 pp.
2) Propp V.Ya. “On the historicism of the Russian epic” // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. Page. 98-111.
3) Propp V.Ya. “The Poetics of Folklore” (article “On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study”). Page 185-208. - M., 1998.
4) Putilov B.N. “Rereading and rethinking Propp” // Living Antiquity. 1995. No. 3. Page. 2-7.

The works of the famous professor at Leningrad University, specialist in Russian folklore Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970), created by him in the first half and mid-twentieth century, are considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of Russian folklore studies. I am a little interested in Russian folklore and I have long wanted to get acquainted with them. These fundamental studies are accessible even to readers without special philological training. They explore not only folklore, its genres and manifestations in rites and rituals, but also its meaning for the people, its poetics, its influence on modern culture. Book by V.Ya. Proppa VlRussian heroic epic "tAU" is the first and still remains the only monograph dedicated to Russian epics. It first appeared in 1955, the second revised edition was published in 1958. The works of the scientist “Morphology of a fairy tale” (1928) and “Historical roots of a fairy tale” (1946) have already seen the light, influencing the nature of this research. The author has examined all the varied plots, so it is possible to use the book as a reference book on the epic. Each thought is first formulated, and then developed and proven. The most important judgments are duplicated. Pedagogical experience allowed V.Ya. Propp organizes sections and topics most clearly, presents facts and their analysis in accessible and lively language. The reader is not tired of unnecessary details, but is not left without numerous references and explanations. The ordered material and the description of the methods for processing it convince us of the correctness of the conclusions made by the author. The monograph “VlRussian heroic epic” received the first university prize. In the future, it will be considered specifically; all references, except those specifically stated, will refer to the publication indicated in the list of references.

II. main part

II-1. VIEWS OF VARIOUS SCIENTISTS ON THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA

After the publication of the work VlRussian Heroic Epic, an impulse arose for polemics on many issues of epic studies. The main dispute among V.Ya. Proppa turned around with B.A. Rybakov, an influential supporter of the historical school in the folklore community (Rybakov B.A. Historical view of Russian epics // History of the USSR. 1961. No. 5. pp. 141-166; No. 6. pp. 80-96; Propp V.Ya. On the historicism of the Russian epic (response to academician B.A. Rybakov) // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. pp. 98-111; see also: On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study // Propp V.Ya. Poetics folklore. M., 1998. pp. 185-208). Scientists B.N. Putilov, Yu.I. Yudin and I.Ya. Froyanov developed and supplemented the ideas of V.Ya. Proppa. Subsequently, a tendency arose both to apply the scientist’s methodology in the analysis of the epic plot, and to identify the historical basis of the epic. When researching epics, modern folklorists conduct a scientific search, invariably using the achievements of V. Ya Propp.

II-2. METHODOLOGICAL PREREQUISITES FOR ANALYSIS

In his work “VlRussian heroic epic” V.Ya. Propp shows talent as a researcher and skills as a teacher. Before starting to consider the material, the author determines the subject of study itself. He considers the most decisive features of an epic to be, of course, the heroic nature of its content, as well as the musical form of performance, poetic and special metrical structures. It is important for him here to separate the heroic epic proper both from some prose genres, for example, fairy tales and some types of old stories, and in general from works of epic poetic size, such as epic spiritual poems, ballad and buffoon songs. Also, historical songs closely related to it are separated from the epic, and the author stands here in opposition to the historical and neo-historical schools dominant at that time [see: pp. 6-12]. Supporters of this trend sought to discover in the epic a reflection of a specific historical event and to find historical prototypes for its heroes. At the same time, the general concept of the song and its main idea were not taken into account. From here followed illegitimate and debunked attempts to deduce the epic characters from the chronicles, to correlate the appearance of the epic with the formation of Kievan Rus, to attribute the authorship of the epics not to the people, but to the elite elite. The author strongly objects to this. He himself stands on the fact that the epic, part of folklore, is an exclusively folk creation, expresses folk ideals and therefore is kept in the people's memory. From this point of view, the scientist successfully explains almost all epic plots, only in rare cases resorting to references to ideological or authorial influence.

After establishing the scope of consideration of V.Ya. Propp explores issues of epic methodology in pre-revolutionary and Soviet science. He shows the inconsistency of most of the directions, trying to focus attention on the need to study the epic without breaking away from the historical or artistic sides. Much attention is paid to the merits of Russian revolutionary democrats (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky and, especially, V.G. Bellinsky, the author of many articles on folk poetry), as well as A.M. Gorky. This is undoubtedly due to the situation of the struggle against cosmopolitanism and the chauvinistic spread of ideas of the superiority and originality of everything Russian, characteristic of the time the monograph was created. Of course, the indisputable and mentioned at every opportunity opinions of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and other social democrats are also not determined by the orientation of V.Ya. Propp, but the dominant ideology. The author himself insists on defining the ideas of epics, for which you need to understand them correctly and delve into all the details. He studies and compares various records to provide a complete picture of the plot. Here he does not compile a consolidated version and does not identify the most frequently encountered options, does not look for regional differences, but by analyzing the author’s additions and alterations introduced over time, he tries to reveal the meaning that was originally invested. The resulting picture may not be confirmed by any of the specific versions of the epic, but it always allows us to identify the collective plan of the people. Various entries in relation to this TAU plan are only particular artistic cases of its implementation. V.Ya. Propp sees the epic as reflecting the age-old ideals of the people; its creation dates back to all the centuries, during which it was polished and acquired new or lost old features. He denies the mythologization of the history of the people by the epic, because on the contrary, the epic in its development discards the remnants of mythology. He sees the process of relationship between epic and history as dependent not on events, but on different eras. It is in this direction that he conducts his research [see: pp. 12-28].

An undoubted advantage is the brief information included in the appendices about the analysis of each of the epics under consideration by other researchers [see: pp. 558-591]. In the event that there is too much literature on a given song to mention it all, the author selects the most significant works. He singles out works with which he completely disagrees, leaving the rest without comment.

II-3. FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC OF DIFFERENT ERAS

Primitive communal system. V.Ya. Propp is convinced that the heroic epic began to take shape long before the start of feudal relations. Since there are no direct traces of the existence of such a phenomenon, he cites as an example the numerous peoples who inhabited the territory of the USSR, who were delayed in development at the level of decomposition of the primitive communal system. They all have heroic epics. Using the comparison method, the scientist reveals in the epic songs of the peoples of Siberia and the Far North the development of the epic from mythology; the transition of heroic deeds from the struggle for the family unit (lyrical feelings do not play a role) to the defense of the native people or battles against oppressors; transformation of elemental hosts into hostile monsters; common to all heroes is a high moral spirit and a willingness to forget their interests for the common good (often they are leaders); hyperbolic appearance and actions of heroes and their enemies. The epic testifies to the beginning of the struggle for a new social order: the family is a factor that destroys tribal relations, and the hero’s knighthood is not a sign of the past, where support was implied by itself, but a reaction to the emergence of class inequality and exploitation. In the Russian epic, the hero's collisions in different worlds took a place in fairy tales, but were not preserved in epics. Heroic texts reflect the ideals that lie in the future, the aspirations of the era. This is the key to their longevity. The conclusions drawn are used by the author in the study of the Russian epic, making it possible to highlight its most ancient elements, which makes it easier to consider its development. The author reveals a very interesting feature of Russian epic songs. While the external form of songs of other peoples is multi-component and the plot develops not due to complication, but by adding new, identical links, Russian epics are essentially one-part and monolithic. Only the songs about Sadko and Potyka retained the features of their former multi-composition. Possible merging of two plots into one (contamination), according to V.Ya. Propp, this is a secondary phenomenon, and simplicity, brevity and indivisibility are the result of long-term improvement of the epic [see. details: pp. 29-58].

Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. The epic of Kievan Rus is not considered as a continuation of the epic that developed during the era of the tribal system. State relations required not the development of previous ideas, but the approval of new ones, therefore the epic does not trace the remnants of the old in the new, but the conflict of worldviews belonging to these two always opposing times. Having originated in the communal system, the traditions were not interrupted. Old stories were preserved, but filled with new content. Some of them were used and reworked in order to establish the ideals of the young state, some acquired a semi-fairytale character. Such a clash of ideals can be traced in the most ancient Russian epics, epics of the era of Kievan Rus [see. details: pp. 59-61].

The entire Russian epic by V.Ya. Propp considers Vladimirov or the Kiev cycle as one, and not regional epics. However, not all epics belong to the Vladimirov cycle. Some epics were formed even before the formation of Kievan Rus, and their content did not lend itself to the process of cyclization. Such, for example, are the epics about Volkh and Svyatogor. Others were created after the formation of the cycle was completed. These are, for example, epics about the Lithuanian raid or about Khoten Bludovich, which appeared in the Moscow period. Some are semi-fairy-tale in nature and reflect narrower ideals than the interests of the state. Among them, for example, is the epic about Gleb Volodyevich or about Soloman and Vasily Okulovich. Finally, the cycle does not include epics of a distinctly local character, like those from Novgorod. The author denies the concept of dividing epics into two cycles: the Kiev and Novgorod. The picture of the existence and distribution of epics in the contemporary North shows the universal popularity of the main characters and plots, and the national ideas reflected in the epics could hardly have worried only the residents of a particular region. The rest are local formations that are not widespread [see. details: pp. 66-69].

The author divides the development of the early state Russian epic into two periods: the Kiev period and feudal fragmentation, when the significance of Kyiv was obscured among the many local centers. In new and revised old songs, the people reflected the intense struggle against foreign invaders and created images of heroic defenders of the homeland. The epics of the Kyiv or Vladimirov cycle are united by a common center - Kiev, the head of which, Prince Vladimir (VlKrasno Solnyshkov"), is served by heroes. The image of Vladimir is twofold. From the period of progressive development of the state, he inherited the role of the people's leader, while class stratification later creates a social conflict between the heroes and the prince, who has become the head of his class. The secondary image of Vladimir’s wife, Princess Eupraxia (Opraxa), changes somewhat differently. From the clan system, she, as a woman, may get the role of the enemy’s helper, as, for example, in the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, later she is endowed with the features of a heroic woman, in particular, saving Ilya Muromets from her husband’s wrath. Epic Kyiv served the people as a banner of unity, although it was not one. Bogatyrs from various regions become heroes of the epic only from the moment they arrive in Kyiv. They serve the Motherland and always come to the Stolno-Kyiv prince voluntarily. Specific wars are not reflected at all in the Russian epic, because they were not popular. The service of heroes to appanage princes is also not reflected [see. details: pp. 61-70].

The period of the centralized state. With the creation in the 10th century. of the new powerful state, the people's aspirations for unification and national independence came true. Previous epics began to receive the names VlstarinV,” but they are not forgotten, but belong to the area of ​​​​the heroic past. Military functions are transferred to historical song. With the increase in class antagonism, epics about social struggle come to the fore. We have encountered such songs before, but now they are losing their monumentality, while gaining in realism, they more broadly describe life and classes, class conflicts become the main theme. Women begin to play a new role, and new positive images of them emerge. The types of mighty heroes stop in their development, ceasing to enter into new songs. The epic begins to move closer to the ballad, but its spirit remains heroic [see. details: pp. 369-374].

New time (capitalism). Under capitalism, the active development of the epic ceases. Its geographic range is shrinking from its once widespread distribution to remote areas of the North. V.Ya. Propp argues with numerous theories seeking the causes of this extinction, everywhere defending the creative independence of the people. He explains the extinction of the epic by social relations and contradictions that have developed in modern times, and its preservation by private reasons found in the North: the slow penetration of exploitation, the specific labor of the peasantry and natural features [see. details: pp. 505-510]. From the middle of the nineteenth century. science became interested in epics. Only from then can one judge the performance of the epics. The author delicately approaches the definition of the role of the performer when singing epics. By examining the degree and nature of a singer’s talent, one can establish the role of individual singers and the role of the entire people in the creation of the epic [see. details: pp. 510-516]. Much attention is paid to the poetic language of epics: its richness, expressiveness, accuracy of descriptions, rhythm. The epics reflected the affectionate attitude of the people towards their heroic defenders, hatred of invaders, admiration for the beauty of their native land, ideas about many things that are relevant to the people [see. details: pp. 516-540]. Generally speaking, the dying of the epic by V.Ya. Propp associates it with the historically natural transition to new forms of folk art [see. details: pp. 540-545].

Soviet time. The expeditions of Soviet scientists showed not only the existence of the epic in its last stronghold, the Russian North, but also the gradual cessation of the epic tradition [see. details: pp. 546-548]. Nevertheless, we can talk about a new epic epic. The author discusses this problem using the example of the famous singer M.S. Kryukova. Her talent was discovered in 1934. In Soviet times, she was actually the only performer who consciously devoted herself not only to preserving the existing heritage, but also to creating songs with qualitatively new content. Kryukova herself creates new themes based on the material of old epics and fairy tales, and draws from fiction, popular science literature and the media. She overcame the isolation of the old epic, but the life of her contemporaries never became the subject of glorification. The new content did not fit well into the old forms, often affecting the transmitted information. The epic form of the epic has become obsolete; it has become part of the heritage of national culture. The epic continues to exist in a different form, its best achievements influencing the heroic poetry and literature traditions [see. details: pp. 549-557].

II-4. ANALYSIS OF EPICS

All considered by V.Ya. Propp divided the epics into thematic groups based on both the era whose ideals it reflects and the main theme. Within the group, they are arranged in conditionally chronological order, starting with those that contain the most ancient elements or layers.

Epics of the period of Kievan Rus and feudal fragmentation. Before starting the Kyiv cycle, the author examines the surviving ancient heroes [see: part 2, ch. II], whose images were formed so long before the formation of the state that it turned out to be difficult to attract them to the new ideology. Among them he places Volkh (or Volga Vseslavlavich or Svyatoslavovich) and Svyatogor, who carry not only primitive views, but also artistic techniques rejected by modern times. The stories about Volkh preserved the most ancient totemistic and magical ideas. Behind his overseas campaign for the defense of Kyiv is the glorified predatory raid, initially in search of hunting grounds, and later for the purpose of stealing livestock. The combination of old and new, fantastic and pseudo-historical, however, did not help the epic song about him to survive and it belongs to the rarest in the Russian epic. Subsequently, the image of Volga is used as a purely negative one and is contrasted with Mikula Selyaninovich [see. details: pp. 70-76].

Unlike Volkh, the image of Svyatogor is very popular, although it is also noticeably erased. Its main features - the enormous strength and magnitude - characteristic of the primitive epic, are not as important in modern times as the method of using this force. He cannot accomplish the feat, Svyatogor’s strength is a burden, and not only to him. Both related epic stories of TAU about Mikula’s handbag and about the prepared coffin of TAU are associated with the death of the hero. Svyatogor carries death within himself. The time of the chthonic world order has passed, hard work is needed to master it, and fate sends it, if not death, then eternal sleep [see. details: pp. 76-87].

The hero's matchmaking is presented in the Russian epic in various versions [see: part 2, ch. III]. In such epics, the glorification of matchmaking itself and the rejection of such glorification by the state collide. It is interesting that the woman in them, if not a hero, is almost always a witch or a creature of evil spirits. Through the death of the latter, the people support healthy family foundations. In the epic about Sadko that has come down to us, the main motive is the conflict between a person from the lower classes and the social elite who do not accept him. The song is a Novgorod creation, it is full of vivid realities of life, but at the same time it is fabulous and fantastic. Its unique feature is its multi-component nature. In the first part, the poor guslar Sadko is helped by the sea king, a spontaneous master, to get rich and move to higher social strata. The second TAU is already completely realistic. Sadko is trying to establish himself on an equal footing among the higher merchants and comes into conflict with them, but it is clear that he is in conflict with the great Novgorod and the city remains the winner. In the most archaic third part, the hero overcomes the temptation of marriage with a sea princess for the sake of his native Novgorod. The real world triumphs over the mythical [see. details: pp. 87-111].

Another multi-part and in some places even more archaic epic is the song about Mikhailo Potyk. In terms of plot, it is one of the most complex, and for me, one of the most interesting. Marya the white swan, having appeared to Potyk, who had left Kiev, offers herself as a wife and easily marries him, setting the condition: after the death of one of the spouses, both will be buried. Soon Mikhailo goes to the grave with her, but finds a way to revive her and return himself. The deception allows Marya to make several more attempts to kill him, and when she has already cheated on him. Unholy marriage to a stranger is condemned by everyone, but nevertheless, it is thanks to human and higher help that Potyk remains alive after all the vicissitudes. Fighting for his wife, he does not accomplish a feat, but comes to a shameful fall. Fascinated by witchcraft passion, Mikhailo alone is unable to understand the infernal nature of the chosen one. For the Russian epic, the motive of marriage ceases to be heroic, a struggle is being waged against it [see. details: pp. 111-128]. Personally, in this epic, in the image of Marya, I see the development of the concept of evil spirits, merging with the opposition of Russian to foreign, and not just an enemy. She chooses Potyk as her husband in order to use him as a chance to come to life, but when Marya later tries to get rid of Mikhailo, he does not die. The time for people like her is over. Evil spirits have influence on a person, but cannot shape his destiny as it pleases.

Ivan Godinovich is deliberately looking for a foreign bride. At the first opportunity, she prefers to betray the Kyiv hero in order to return to the pagan world. The people do not allow the Russian hero to die at the hands of strangers, they give him the opportunity to take revenge, thereby destroying the hostile evil spirits, but at the same time they mock him [see. details: pp. 128-136].

The dramatic and highly artistic epic about the Danube and Nastasya is not without reason considered one of the best in Russian epic. In this song, the source of all evil is the proud hero who strayed from Kyiv, and not his alien wife, and in his shame he is not worthy of people’s pity. Danube, previously in the service of a foreign king, goes to him for his daughter, a bride for Prince Vladimir, whom he takes by force. On the way back, he encounters a warrior in battle, defeats her, but at the last moment he recognizes in the heroine another daughter of his former master, with whom he had been in a close relationship for a long time. A double wedding according to the laws of the epic is overshadowed by conflict. Danube's boasting of his strength (a real hero is modest) leads to a shooting competition between him and Nastasya, who showed him the acceptable degree of politeness and the real price of a hero. Angered by his failures, the Danube kills his wife, knowing that she is pregnant, and when, having spread out her womb, he sees a wonderful baby, the future great hero, he throws himself on a spear next to the corpse [see. details: pp. 136-156].

The epic song about Kozarin is semi-ballad in nature and only due to the motive of saving a woman can it be classified as an epic about matchmaking. The hero, noble in character and rejected by his own family, saves from the hands of the Tatars, who here play the role of kidnappers rather than conquerors, a girl who turns out to be his sister. Having returned her to the family, he again sets off into the open field. The Russian hero does not seek approval for his exploits, but performs them because he cannot do otherwise [see. details: pp. 156-169].

The idyllic epic of a completely ballad nature about Nightingale Budimirovich also belongs to the realm of epic. After the gradual reduction of the bride’s alienation from a representative of evil spirits to a Russian witch (see below the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka), a song about the hero’s happy marriage naturally appeared. The happy epic, closely connected with ritual wedding poetry, completes a large stage of Russian epic, paving the way for the development of other forms of heroic songs [see. details: pp. 169-181].

A group of epics about the hero’s struggle with monsters (see: Part 2, Chapter IV) brings together the names of the people’s favorite heroes. The appearance of the enemy changed depending on the real historical struggle of the Russian people. The most widespread epic in Russian epic about Dobrynya and the Snake pits the most cultural and diplomatic hero against a vivid artistic embodiment of natural elements. The first battle with the Serpent at the Puchai River lies outside the Kiev cycle and cannot be completed so that, freeing Zabava Putyatishna on the orders of her uncle Vladimir, the hero could, having fought the Serpent a second time, lead many Russian people out of his lair into freedom. . The ancient motive of kidnapping helps turn a feat performed on the orders of the prince into a feat of defense of Rus'. Rejection of the Good Hand The fun and peculiarities of some versions of the song draw attention to the hidden antagonism of heroes, folk heroes, and the upper classes [see. details: pp. 181-208]. This conflict nature is emphasized more than once in the Russian epic, and the author, in view of the prevailing ideological attitudes, pays great attention to social confrontation.

The song about Alyosha and Tugarin is very close to the epic about Dobrynya's snake-fighting. However, here a cheerful, witty and sometimes not very strong hero, with the help of ingenuity, deals with a clumsy, rude and ill-mannered opponent, in whom fantastic features are partially replaced by those close to reality. The enemy brazenly positioned himself in Vladimir’s chambers, he behaves defiantly and behaves freely with Princess Eupraxia, demonstrating their close relationship. However, no one protests (the heroes are absent at this time). This is discovered by Alyosha, who modestly arrived. He mocks Tugarin’s dishonest behavior, challenges him to battle and destroys the shame of the Russian prince’s groveling before the invaders [see. details: pp. 208-227].

The central figure of the Russian heroic epic TAU Ilya Muromets. In him, the people combined selfless love for the Motherland, the highest moral qualities and maturity that respectfully distinguished the hero. In the epic about Idolishche, most likely derived from the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, an almost anthropomorphic monster, bearing some Tatar features, surrounds Kyiv with troops, and itself goes to the prince’s palace, where it also commits outrages. Having learned about this from the passer-by Vlkalika, Ilya hurries to the rescue. Arriving in the clothes of beggars persecuted by the new owner of the city, he kills the enemy without unnecessary preludes. In another existing version, when Idolishche settles in Constantinople and prohibits Orthodoxy there, a later church influence is clearly felt. The people who preserve this epic themselves mock the Kalika-messenger and the pilgrimage image of Elijah [see. details: pp. 227-239].

Stories about the healing of Ilya of Muromets and his conquest of the Nightingale the Robber are often combined into an epic song about Ilya’s first trip. In the first narrative, references to peasant origin, Ilya’s long illness from youth to adulthood, and the heroic power bestowed on him by miraculous wanderers are constant. The archaic plot here acquires realistic features. The people bring their beloved hero closer not only to a conceivable ideal, but also to themselves, to reality. In the second TAU, Ilya, going to serve his Motherland in Kyiv, destroys the hostile army near Chernigov, captures Nightingale the Robber, who was blocking the straight path with his outpost, and destroys his unclean brood. Along the way, he pavers swamps and clears an abandoned road from the forest. His main merit was in paving the way to Kyiv. Fractured Rus' is beginning to unite. Already at the first meeting, conflict is visible between Ilya and Vladimir, which will only increase in the future. The prince and the boyars are made to look ridiculous when they try to give orders to the proud Nightingale, who understands the role of Muromets more than Vladimir [see. details: pp. 239-260].

The fairy tale is a more ancient genre than the epic; it retains much of prehistoric antiquity. The epic becomes more complex and discards or transforms what does not meet the increasing requirements. However, there is a group of epics that are very close to fairy tales. They are not typical for heroic epics, they are often personal and entertaining in nature, but nevertheless, due to the presence of heroic motives by V.Ya. Propp explores them too [see: part 2, ch. IV]. One of the most interesting stories is the battle between Ilya Muromets and his son. Ilya’s temporary marriage with Vlpolenitsa, whom he defeated, and his abandonment of his pregnant wife are the most archaic. At the same time, their son is teased by his peers and sets out to avenge his mother’s dishonor. Muromets encounters his son as a trespasser, recognizes him and introduces him to the circle of heroes. But when he again tries to kill his father at night, Ilya, without hesitation, kills the doubly traitor [see. details: pp. 263-266].

In the epic about Ilya’s three journeys, the hero follows from the crossroads of three roads in directions where, according to the roadstone, death, marriage and wealth await him. His calm choice of the first road and the destruction of the danger lurking there are close to a heroic epic, while the rest of the adventures are of a fairy-tale and ecclesiastical nature [see. details: pp. 260-270].

I like the song about Dobrynya and Marinka. And so, the hero who has high moral qualities appears morally completely pure, and the witch who harms him is a seductive enchantress. Marinka, trying to seduce the hero, evokes only disgust in his chaste soul. Then the evil sorceress bewitches him, and when he, exhausted by witchcraft powers, comes to her against his will, she turns him into a tour. Dobrynya’s mother, who herself is sometimes a pure sorceress, helps save her son, and he, having agreed to a symbolic marriage with Marinka, brutally deals with his enemy as a husband [see. details: pp. 270-279].

The epic about Dobrynya's departure and Alyosha's failed marriage is one of the most widespread in Russian epic. Due to Dobrynya's long absence, his wife is about to marry Alyosha, who brought the news of her husband's death, when Dobrynya returns unharmed and Alyosha is left in an uncomfortable position. The intriguing conflict of two very different temperamental heroes, united by the defense of the Motherland, cannot achieve the dark, bloody outcome characteristic of the epic. The ancient plot takes on a comic tone in the finale, the heroes make peace, and the woman says goodbye. This song gave many scientists the opportunity to try to portray Alyosha Popovich in a negative and immoral form, as a seducer of honest women, although the only thing he can be accused of here is false news. Generally speaking, in the epic Alyosha appears temperamental and mischievous, but not in any way immoral. Prince Vladimir, who in some cases forced Dobrynya’s wife into marriage, is sharply condemned [see. details: pp. 279-288].

Epics about repelling the Tatars. The heavy yoke of the Mongol conquerors, which hampered the development of Rus', simultaneously contributed to a new stage in the development of the Russian epic, the emergence of a number of patriotic epics praising the military overthrow of oppression. The songs were filled with new ideological content, acquired new artistic features and broke with ancient traditions. For a long time, the only content of the epics was the theme of the struggle for independence, honor and freedom of the Motherland [see: part 3]. In the song about Ilya’s rebellion against Vladimir, we see a seemingly contradiction to the main idea of ​​the Russian epic, service to Kyiv, however, here the social difference between a hero from the people and a rich prince finally results in a clash. Muromets, not invited to the feast, comes there without permission. The prince does not recognize him, once again demonstrating how little he appreciates all the merits of the hero. Insulted, Ilya defiantly leaves and arranges his own feast for all the poor. Following the slander of the boyars, Vladimir puts him in a cellar here to starve to death. Sometimes, this instruction is carried out; in other cases, Vladimir is forced to reconcile with the hero and arrange a feast especially for him, or Ilya and all the heroes leave Kyiv. In any case, in the future the prince will be put to shame, but the hero will triumph. This epic demonstrates how an insurmountable gulf opened up between the people and the class power before the invasion of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 291-303].

Almost all epics about repelling the Tatars speak about the appearance of the Tatars near Kiev and their dispersal by Russian troops. A circle of songs about Ilya Muromets and Tsar Kalina, organically connected with one another, V.Ya. Propp considers in totality [see: part 3, ch. II, paragraph 2]. This allows us to get a picture of the invasion drawn by the people step by step and find out the deep national aspirations in each song. The poetic chorus that opens one of the epics of the cycle under consideration tells of a sign foretelling the death of Kyiv. Since this is the only case where faith in signs is found in the epic, Kyiv does not perish at all, but is saved and there is a separate antiquity with a similar plot on a completely religious theme, the author with all grounds sees here a motif unreasonably attached to the military epic [see. details: pp. 306-310]. The appearance of the Tatars is described with a high degree of historicity: huge enemy hordes, clear organization of troops, autocratic command, siege tactics of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 310-314]. The Tatar ambassador, who arrived in Kyiv with the khan's label, always behaves defiantly, emphasizing the ultimatum conditions of surrender and contempt for the Russians [see. details: pp. 314-316]. Many of the cruel demands and threats of the Tatars are also historical [see. details: pp. 316-318]. Vladimir, in the face of impending danger, does nothing to actively defend the city. He prays, thinks about surrendering the city, about accepting the Tatar conditions [see. details: pp. 318-321]. There are no heroes in Kyiv at this time. Sometimes they are gone on business, but more often they are in disgrace with the prince, which he regrets [see. details: pp. 321-322]. The main defender of the city, Ilya Muromets, condemned to starvation in a cellar, was secretly supplied with food through the efforts of Princess Eupraxia, and now Vladimir is trying to persuade him to defend not the authorities, but the Fatherland. The hero agrees, often after reprisal against the boyars guilty of slander [see. details: pp. 322-326]. Having soberly assessed the enemy's strength [see. details: pp. 326-327], Ilya himself goes to the camp to Kalinin, where he asks for a reprieve and receives it [see. details: pp. 327-328]. By entrusting someone with the fortification of the city [see. details: pp. 328-329], Muromets undertakes to look for heroes. He finds them at Samson's headquarters, a new camp where the wars have spent their time in idleness since the time of disgrace. Oddly enough for an epic, the heroes refuse to go. But this desire arises due to proximity to folk, and not princely-boyar, Rus'. They will strike at the decisive moment [see. details: pp. 329-331]. In deserted Kiev, the young hero Ermak (not a historical figure, but a character of the same name introduced into the epic for his merits) appears to Vladimir and asks for permission to fight his enemies. Having failed to fulfill the prince's instructions, Ermak goes to the heroic headquarters. Muromets sends him to count the enemy force, but the hot Ermak rushes into battle and dies. This exceptional case of the death of a hero in the Russian epic is a consequence of violation of Ilya’s order [see. details: pp. 332-334]. The battle is always described briefly. If there is no heroic support, then Muromets rushes into battle alone. If there is one, he intelligently manages the distribution of forces [see. details: pp. 334-337]. Sometimes Ilya is captured by cunning and brought to Kalin, who tries to lure the hero to his side [see. details: pp. 337-338]. The enemy's proposal infuriates Muromets so much that he breaks his chains and, waving the first Tatar he comes across and calling Samson and other heroes with a spoken arrow, finally finishes off the Tatars. When leaving, the enemy takes an oath never to return [see. details: pp. 338-339]. Along with the final defeat of the enemy, there is another ending to this song, called the epic about the Kama (Mamaev) massacre, or about how since when there were no knights in Rus'. In one version, two brothers who did not participate in the battle begin to boast emptyly and the Tatars come to life, and it is not possible to chop down the living dead, their number only increases. Prayer destroys the unearthly power, and the heroes disperse to monasteries. This song has a religious-church orientation, it is due to sermons about humility. In another version, the heroes, proud of their victory, themselves challenge the “Heavenly forces.” They fearlessly destroy the revived force. The character of this epic, on the contrary, is atheistic, and it expresses popular thoughts [see. details: pp. 339-344]. In addition to this song, many later songs based on it also tell about the fight against the Tatars, for example, the epic about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyga. Before the impending invasion, Vladimir goes to the tavern to ask for help from the only remaining hero, Vasily, who has been drinking for several years and has squandered absolutely all his goods. Having gotten drunk, he kills Batu’s associates with cursed arrows, who sends a demand to hand over the culprit. In one case, the hero himself goes to the enemy camp and, having tricked the Tatar army into the wilderness, destroys it. In another, the council of boyars immediately betrays Vasily. Now he really concludes an agreement with the enemy in order to lead him against the city’s rich, still sparing Prince Vladimir. The Tatars plunder the city without respecting the treaty, and

They look at it together.

Vladimir Propp is a famous scientist, researcher of Russian folk tales. He is the author of unique works on philology. Modern researchers consider him the founder of text theory.

Parents of the philologist

Vladimir Propp is a native Petersburger, he was born in April 1895. His real name is Herman Voldemar. His father was a wealthy peasant from the Volga region, a native of the Volgograd region. By education he was a philologist, a specialist in Russian and German literature. Graduated from Petrograd University.

Propp's father taught German to students at St. Petersburg higher educational institutions. When the First World War began, he took a direct part in it, working as an orderly and a brother of mercy.

Childhood and youth

After the October Revolution, the family moved temporarily to live on a farm. However, Vladimir Propp visited his parents only a few times. In 1919, his father died after a long illness. Vladimir came to the funeral, and then stayed for a while to work on the land in the farm itself. Not finding himself in peasant labor, he got a job as a school teacher in the village of Goly Karamysh, which was located 70 kilometers from the farm. Now this is the city of Krasnoarmeysk in the Saratov region. But soon Vladimir Propp returned to Leningrad.

In 1929, the Propp family was dispossessed. All property, the main owner of which at that time was his mother, Anna Fridrikhovna, was transferred as an ultimatum to the collective farm named after Stalin.

Teaching work

In 1932, Propp went to work at Leningrad University, after 5 years he became an associate professor, and in 1938 a professor. At this time he was working at the department of Romance-Germanic philology, folklore and Russian literature. From 1963 to 1964 he worked as head of the department. He also taught at the Faculty of History for about three years; his lectures were a success at the Department of Ethnography and Anthropology.

Morphology of a fairy tale

Vladimir Propp entered Russian philology as the author of a literary work. "Morphology of a Fairy Tale" was published in 1928. In it, the author examines in detail the structure of a magical work. This is perhaps the most popular study of Russian folklore in the 20th century. In his work, Propp breaks down the tale into its component parts and explores the relationship of each of them to each other. Studying folk art, he notes the presence of constant and variable quantities in fairy tales; the former include the functions inherent in the main characters, as well as the sequence in which they are implemented.

What is Vladimir Propp trying to say in his work? "Morphology of a Fairy Tale" formulates several basic principles. First, the main constituent parts are formed by permanent elements. They serve as functions for the actors. Secondly, the number of such functions in a fairy tale is strictly limited. Thirdly, they all develop in the same sequence. True, such a pattern is present only in folklore works, and modern works do not follow it. Fourthly, fairy tales are of the same type in their structure. Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp refers to variable quantities as the quantity and methods by which functions are realized. As well as the language style and attributes of the characters.

Functions of a fairy tale

Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp argues that the functions of a fairy tale ultimately constitute a single composition, the core for the entire genre. Only the details of the plots differ. As a result of enormous work, Propp identifies 31 functions. All of them are present in Russian folk tales. Most of them are located in pairs, for example, a prohibition is always opposed by its violation, a struggle is always opposed to a victory, and after persecution there is always a happy salvation.

The number of characters in Russian fairy tales is also limited. There are always no more than 7 of them. Propp includes the main character, the saboteur (his antipode), the sender, the donor, the assistant to the main character, the princess and the false hero. Taking into account all these factors, in the end we get a classic work that has a name - a Russian fairy tale. Propp insists that they are all versions of a fairy tale.

Fairy tale

In 1946, another book by Propp, “Historical Roots of a Fairy Tale,” was published by the Leningrad publishing house. In it, he dwells in detail on the hypothesis expressed by the French ethnographer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Emile Nurri. According to it, in folk tales there are often references to the performance of a sacrament to which the main character undergoes, in other words, initiation. The very structure of most Russian folk tales has the same character.

Also, analyzing the “Historical roots of a fairy tale, Propp considers the meaning of the premises, looks for references to the social institutions of the past in the works, and finds a rethinking of many rituals. The Russian folklorist notes that the main task is to establish what the rituals described in the fairy tale refer to - to a specific stage of development of society, or they are not associated with a specific historical period.

Examples of initiations

The classic example Propp gives is totemic initiations. They were completely inaccessible to women, but at the same time, in Russian fairy tales such initiation occurs with Baba Yaga, an old witch, one of the main negative characters of folklore. Thus, this character fits into the hypothesis about the ritual genesis of Russian fairy tales. Baba Yaga in this case acts as an initiating hero.

Propp concludes that fairy tales do not have a specific historical or cultural period. Styles and cycles in folk art constantly collide and mix with each other. At the same time, only classical patterns of behavior that could be present in many historical eras are preserved.

Evidence that fairy tales originate from oral traditions, which are passed down by word of mouth during initiation rites, is that the motives and functions of the characters are identical in the cultures of completely different peoples, often living thousands of kilometers from each other.

In addition, Propp cites ethnographic data as evidence. He was also directly related to this science. He demonstrates how oral traditions, passed from father to son, over time took shape into the tales we know so well. Thus, based on these ideas, he comes to the conclusion about the unity of the origin of all fairy tales among all peoples of the world. A striking example of this conclusion is Russian folk fairy tales.

Another important work for understanding the significance of Propp in Russian philology is “Russian Agrarian Holidays.” In this monograph, the author examines most Slavic holidays, customs and beliefs, coming to the conclusion that almost all of them are agricultural in nature.

Heroic epic

In 1955, Propp published a monograph entitled “Russian This is a very interesting and original study, which, however, was not republished for a long time after 1958. The work became available to a wide range of readers only in the 2000s. This is one of the author’s largest works in terms of volume Moreover, critics note not only its scientific, but also its moral significance.It was relevant at that time, and remains the same today.

"Russian heroic epic" is a comparison of the features of epics from different eras, a detailed analysis of epics. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that the basis of such works is the struggle for the spiritual ideals of the people themselves. A distinctive feature of epic works is their saturation with patriotic spirit and educational motives.

Authors from the people put the most important thing into epic works - morality, folk epic. It is a direct reflection of the moral consciousness of the society in which it was created. Propp insists that the basis of Russian epics is not foreign, but exclusively domestic stories and legends.

Another important aspect of the epic is its poetry. Thanks to her, the works are interesting and perceived by listeners and readers with any level of education. In a broad sense, for a people, epic is an integral part of its history. The epics personify the inner experiences of the people, their desire to live freely, independently and happily.

Propp's monograph allows you to get acquainted in detail with epic works, starting from ancient times. All unclear points are explained in detail here.

Major works

In addition to the above, among the main works of Vladimir Propp, literary scholars highlight the monograph “Russian Fairy Tale,” published only in 1984, a decade and a half after the author’s death.

It is also worth noting the work “Folklore and Reality”, published in the journal “Science” in 1989 and published in 1999 in the capital’s publishing house “Labyrinth”. In addition, the publication "Problems of comedy and laughter. Ritual laughter in folklore" was published. This work provides a detailed and thorough analysis of the tale of Nesmeyan with an unexpected literary interpretation.

At the end of life

Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970) is an outstanding philologist, Doctor of Science, who managed to do a lot during his life and is still considered the largest and most authoritative researcher of Russian fairy tales. His works and monographs are published in universities; literary scholars take them as a basis when creating their own studies and dissertations. Vladimir Propp lived all his life in Leningrad. He died in the city on the Neva on August 22, 1970 at the age of 75. After himself, he left many students and followers who still appreciate and remember his achievements. Among them: Cherednikova, Shakhnovich and Becker.

“RUSSIAN HEROIC EPIC IN THE WORKS OF V.YA. PROPPA"

Abstract of a student of group 244 of the faculty (JNF)

Novikov Boris Yurievich

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

St. Petersburg State Institute of Precision Mechanics and Optics

(Technical University)

Faculty of Humanities

Department of Cultural Studies

Saint Petersburg

I. Introduction

The works of the famous professor at Leningrad University, specialist in Russian folklore Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (1895-1970), created by him in the first half and mid-twentieth century, are considered one of the most significant contributions to the development of Russian folklore studies. I am a little interested in Russian folklore and I have long wanted to get acquainted with them. These fundamental studies are accessible even to readers without special philological training. They explore not only folklore, its genres and manifestations in rites and rituals, but also its meaning for the people, its poetics, its influence on modern culture. Book by V.Ya. Propp's “Russian Heroic Epic” is the first and still remains the only monograph dedicated to Russian epics. It first appeared in 1955, the second revised edition was published in 1958. The scientist’s works “Morphology of a Fairy Tale” (1928) and “Historical Roots of a Fairy Tale” (1946) had already been published, influencing the nature of this research. The author has examined all the varied plots, so it is possible to use the book as a reference book on the epic. Each thought is first formulated, and then developed and proven. The most important judgments are duplicated. Pedagogical experience allowed V.Ya. Propp organizes sections and topics most clearly, presents facts and their analysis in accessible and lively language. The reader is not tired of unnecessary details, but is not left without numerous references and explanations. The ordered material and the description of the methods for processing it convince us of the correctness of the conclusions made by the author. The monograph “Russian Heroic Epic” received the first university prize. In the future, it will be considered specifically; all references, except those specifically stated, will refer to the publication indicated in the list of references.

II. main part

II-1. VIEWS OF VARIOUS SCIENTISTS ON THE WORKS OF V.Ya. PROPPA

After the publication of the work “Russian Heroic Epic,” an impulse arose for polemics on many issues of epic studies. The main dispute among V.Ya. Proppa turned around with B.A. Rybakov, an influential supporter of the historical school in the folklore community (Rybakov B.A. Historical view of Russian epics // History of the USSR. 1961. No. 5. pp. 141-166; No. 6. pp. 80-96; Propp V.Ya. On the historicism of the Russian epic (response to academician B.A. Rybakov) // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. pp. 98-111; see also: On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study // Propp V.Ya. Poetics folklore. M., 1998. pp. 185-208). Scientists B.N. Putilov, Yu.I. Yudin and I.Ya. Froyanov developed and supplemented the ideas of V.Ya. Proppa. Subsequently, a tendency arose both to apply the scientist’s methodology in the analysis of the epic plot, and to identify the historical basis of the epic. When researching epics, modern folklorists conduct a scientific search, invariably using the achievements of V. Ya Propp.

II-2. METHODOLOGICAL PREREQUISITES FOR ANALYSIS

In his work “Russian Heroic Epic” V.Ya. Propp shows talent as a researcher and skills as a teacher. Before starting to consider the material, the author determines the subject of study itself. He considers the most decisive features of an epic to be, of course, the heroic nature of its content, as well as the musical form of performance, poetic and special metrical structures. It is important for him here to separate the heroic epic proper both from some prose genres, for example, fairy tales and some types of old stories, and in general from works of epic poetic size, such as epic spiritual poems, ballad and buffoon songs. Also, historical songs closely related to it are separated from the epic, and the author stands here in opposition to the historical and neo-historical schools dominant at that time [see: pp. 6-12]. Supporters of this trend sought to discover in the epic a reflection of a specific historical event and to find historical prototypes for its heroes. At the same time, the general concept of the song and its main idea were not taken into account. From here followed illegitimate and debunked attempts to deduce the epic characters from the chronicles, to correlate the appearance of the epic with the formation of Kievan Rus, to attribute the authorship of the epics not to the people, but to the elite elite. The author strongly objects to this. He himself stands on the fact that the epic, part of folklore, is an exclusively folk creation, expresses folk ideals and therefore is kept in the people's memory. From this point of view, the scientist successfully explains almost all epic plots, only in rare cases resorting to references to ideological or authorial influence.

After establishing the scope of consideration of V.Ya. Propp explores issues of epic methodology in pre-revolutionary and Soviet science. He shows the inconsistency of most of the directions, trying to focus attention on the need to study the epic without breaking away from the historical or artistic sides. Much attention is paid to the merits of Russian revolutionary democrats (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky and, especially, V.G. Bellinsky, the author of many articles on folk poetry), as well as A.M. Gorky. This is undoubtedly due to the situation of the struggle against cosmopolitanism and the chauvinistic spread of ideas of the superiority and originality of everything Russian, characteristic of the time the monograph was created. Of course, the indisputable and mentioned at every opportunity opinions of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin and other social democrats are also not determined by the orientation of V.Ya. Propp, but the dominant ideology. The author himself insists on defining the ideas of epics, for which you need to understand them correctly and delve into all the details. He studies and compares various records to provide a complete picture of the plot. Here he does not compile a consolidated version and does not identify the most frequently encountered options, does not look for regional differences, but by analyzing the author’s additions and alterations introduced over time, he tries to reveal the meaning that was originally invested. The resulting picture may not be confirmed by any of the specific versions of the epic, but it always allows us to identify the collective plan of the people. Various entries in relation to this plan are only particular artistic cases of its implementation. V.Ya. Propp sees the epic as reflecting the age-old ideals of the people; its creation dates back to all the centuries, during which it was polished and acquired new or lost old features. He denies the mythologization of the history of the people by the epic, because on the contrary, the epic in its development discards the remnants of mythology. He sees the process of relationship between epic and history as dependent not on events, but on different eras. It is in this direction that he conducts his research [see: pp. 12-28].

An undoubted advantage is the brief information included in the appendices about the analysis of each of the epics under consideration by other researchers [see: pp. 558-591]. In the event that there is too much literature on a given song to mention it all, the author selects the most significant works. He singles out works with which he completely disagrees, leaving the rest without comment.

II-3. FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC OF DIFFERENT ERAS

Primitive communal system. V.Ya. Propp is convinced that the heroic epic began to take shape long before the start of feudal relations. Since there are no direct traces of the existence of such a phenomenon, he cites as an example the numerous peoples who inhabited the territory of the USSR, who were delayed in development at the level of decomposition of the primitive communal system. They all have heroic epics. Using the comparison method, the scientist reveals in the epic songs of the peoples of Siberia and the Far North the development of the epic from mythology; the transition of heroic deeds from the struggle for the family unit (lyrical feelings do not play a role) to the defense of the native people or battles against oppressors; transformation of elemental hosts into hostile monsters; common to all heroes is a high moral spirit and a willingness to forget their interests for the common good (often they are leaders); hyperbolic appearance and actions of heroes and their enemies. The epic testifies to the beginning of the struggle for a new social order: the family is a factor that destroys tribal relations, and the hero’s knighthood is not a sign of the past, where support was implied by itself, but a reaction to the emergence of class inequality and exploitation. In the Russian epic, the hero's collisions in different worlds took a place in fairy tales, but were not preserved in epics. Heroic texts reflect the ideals that lie in the future, the aspirations of the era. This is the key to their longevity. The conclusions drawn are used by the author in the study of the Russian epic, making it possible to highlight its most ancient elements, which makes it easier to consider its development. The author reveals a very interesting feature of Russian epic songs. While the external form of songs of other peoples is multi-component and the plot develops not due to complication, but by adding new, identical links, Russian epics are essentially one-part and monolithic. Only the songs about Sadko and Potyka retained the features of their former multi-composition. Possible merging of two plots into one (contamination), according to V.Ya. Propp, this is a secondary phenomenon, and simplicity, brevity and indivisibility are the result of long-term improvement of the epic [see. details: pp. 29-58].

Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. The epic of Kievan Rus is not considered as a continuation of the epic that developed during the era of the tribal system. State relations required not the development of previous ideas, but the approval of new ones, therefore the epic does not trace the remnants of the old in the new, but the conflict of worldviews belonging to these two always opposing times. Having originated in the communal system, the traditions were not interrupted. Old stories were preserved, but filled with new content. Some of them were used and reworked in order to establish the ideals of the young state, some acquired a semi-fairytale character. Such a clash of ideals can be traced in the most ancient Russian epics, epics of the era of Kievan Rus [see. details: pp. 59-61].

The entire Russian epic by V.Ya. Propp considers Vladimirov or the Kiev cycle as one, and not regional epics. However, not all epics belong to the Vladimirov cycle. Some epics were formed even before the formation of Kievan Rus, and their content did not lend itself to the process of cyclization. Such, for example, are the epics about Volkh and Svyatogor. Others were created after the formation of the cycle was completed. These are, for example, epics about the Lithuanian raid or about Khoten Bludovich, which appeared in the Moscow period. Some are semi-fairy-tale in nature and reflect narrower ideals than the interests of the state. Among them, for example, is the epic about Gleb Volodyevich or about Soloman and Vasily Okulovich. Finally, the cycle does not include epics of a distinctly local character, like those from Novgorod. The author denies the concept of dividing epics into two cycles: the Kiev and Novgorod. The picture of the existence and distribution of epics in the contemporary North shows the universal popularity of the main characters and plots, and the national ideas reflected in the epics could hardly have worried only the residents of a particular region. The rest are local formations that are not widespread [see. details: pp. 66-69].

The author divides the development of the early state Russian epic into two periods: the Kiev period and feudal fragmentation, when the significance of Kyiv was obscured among the many local centers. In new and revised old songs, the people reflected the intense struggle against foreign invaders and created images of heroic defenders of the homeland. The epics of the Kyiv or Vladimirov cycle are united by a common center - Kiev, the head of which, Prince Vladimir (“Red Sun”), is served by heroes. The image of Vladimir is twofold. From the period of progressive development of the state, he inherited the role of the people's leader, while class stratification later creates a social conflict between the heroes and the prince, who has become the head of his class. The secondary image of Vladimir’s wife, Princess Eupraxia (Opraxa), changes somewhat differently. From the clan system, she, as a woman, may get the role of the enemy’s helper, as, for example, in the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, later she is endowed with the features of a heroic woman, in particular, saving Ilya Muromets from her husband’s wrath. Epic Kyiv served the people as a banner of unity, although it was not one. Bogatyrs from various regions become heroes of the epic only from the moment they arrive in Kyiv. They serve the Motherland and always come to the Stolno-Kyiv prince voluntarily. Specific wars are not reflected at all in the Russian epic, because they were not popular. The service of heroes to appanage princes is also not reflected [see. details: pp. 61-70].

The period of the centralized state. With the creation in the 10th century. of the new powerful state, the people's aspirations for unification and national independence came true. Previous epics began to receive the name “old”, but they are not forgotten, but belong to the realm of the heroic past. Military functions are transferred to historical song. With the increase in class antagonism, epics about social struggle come to the fore. We have encountered such songs before, but now they are losing their monumentality, while gaining in realism, they more broadly describe life and classes, class conflicts become the main theme. Women begin to play a new role, and new positive images of them emerge. The types of mighty heroes stop in their development, ceasing to enter into new songs. The epic begins to move closer to the ballad, but its spirit remains heroic [see. details: pp. 369-374].

New time (capitalism). Under capitalism, the active development of the epic ceases. Its geographic range is shrinking from its once widespread distribution to remote areas of the North. V.Ya. Propp argues with numerous theories seeking the causes of this extinction, everywhere defending the creative independence of the people. He explains the extinction of the epic by social relations and contradictions that have developed in modern times, and its preservation by private reasons found in the North: the slow penetration of exploitation, the specific labor of the peasantry and natural features [see. details: pp. 505-510]. From the middle of the nineteenth century. science became interested in epics. Only from then can one judge the performance of the epics. The author delicately approaches the definition of the role of the performer when singing epics. By examining the degree and nature of a singer’s talent, one can establish the role of individual singers and the role of the entire people in the creation of the epic [see. details: pp. 510-516]. Much attention is paid to the poetic language of epics: its richness, expressiveness, accuracy of descriptions, rhythm. The epics reflected the affectionate attitude of the people towards their heroic defenders, hatred of invaders, admiration for the beauty of their native land, ideas about many things that are relevant to the people [see. details: pp. 516-540]. Generally speaking, the dying of the epic by V.Ya. Propp associates it with the historically natural transition to new forms of folk art [see. details: pp. 540-545].

Soviet time. The expeditions of Soviet scientists showed not only the existence of the epic in its last stronghold, the Russian North, but also the gradual cessation of the epic tradition [see. details: pp. 546-548]. Nevertheless, we can talk about a new epic epic. The author discusses this problem using the example of the famous singer M.S. Kryukova. Her talent was discovered in 1934. In Soviet times, she was actually the only performer who consciously devoted herself not only to preserving the existing heritage, but also to creating songs with qualitatively new content. Kryukova herself creates new themes based on the material of old epics and fairy tales, and draws from fiction, popular science literature and the media. She overcame the isolation of the old epic, but the life of her contemporaries never became the subject of glorification. The new content did not fit well into the old forms, often affecting the transmitted information. The epic form of the epic has become obsolete; it has become part of the heritage of national culture. The epic continues to exist in a different form, its best achievements influencing the heroic poetry and literature traditions [see. details: pp. 549-557].

II-4. ANALYSIS OF EPICS

All considered by V.Ya. Propp divided the epics into thematic groups based on both the era whose ideals it reflects and the main theme. Within the group, they are arranged in conditionally chronological order, starting with those that contain the most ancient elements or layers.

Epics of the period of Kievan Rus and feudal fragmentation. Before starting the Kyiv cycle, the author examines the surviving ancient heroes [see: part 2, ch. II], whose images were formed so long before the formation of the state that it turned out to be difficult to attract them to the new ideology. Among them he places Volkh (or Volga Vseslavlavich or Svyatoslavovich) and Svyatogor, who carry not only primitive views, but also artistic techniques rejected by modern times. The stories about Volkh preserved the most ancient totemistic and magical ideas. Behind his overseas campaign for the defense of Kyiv is the glorified predatory raid, initially in search of hunting grounds, and later for the purpose of stealing livestock. The combination of old and new, fantastic and pseudo-historical, however, did not help the epic song about him to survive and it belongs to the rarest in the Russian epic. Subsequently, the image of Volga is used as a purely negative one and is contrasted with Mikula Selyaninovich [see. details: pp. 70-76].

Unlike Volkh, the image of Svyatogor is very popular, although it is also noticeably erased. Its main features - enormous strength and size - characteristic of the primitive epic, are not as important in modern times as the method of using this force. He cannot accomplish the feat, Svyatogor’s strength is a burden, and not only to him. Both epic plots associated with him - about Mikula’s handbag and about the prepared coffin - are associated with the death of the hero. Svyatogor carries death within himself. The time of the chthonic world order has passed, hard work is needed to master it, and fate sends it, if not death, then eternal sleep [see. details: pp. 76-87].

The hero's matchmaking is presented in the Russian epic in various versions [see: part 2, ch. III]. In such epics, the glorification of matchmaking itself and the rejection of such glorification by the state collide. It is interesting that the woman in them, if not a hero, is almost always a witch or a creature of evil spirits. Through the death of the latter, the people support healthy family foundations. In the epic about Sadko that has come down to us, the main motive is the conflict between a person from the lower classes and the social elite who do not accept him. The song is a Novgorod creation, it is full of vivid realities of life, but at the same time it is fabulous and fantastic. Its unique feature is its multi-component nature. In the first part, the poor guslar Sadko is helped by the sea king, a spontaneous master, to get rich and move to higher social strata. The second one is completely realistic. Sadko is trying to establish himself on an equal footing among the higher merchants and comes into conflict with them, but it is clear that he is in conflict with the great Novgorod and the city remains the winner. In the most archaic third part, the hero overcomes the temptation of marriage with a sea princess for the sake of his native Novgorod. The real world triumphs over the mythical [see. details: pp. 87-111].

Another multi-part and in some places even more archaic epic is the song about Mikhailo Potyk. In terms of plot, it is one of the most complex, and for me, one of the most interesting. Marya the white swan, having appeared to Potyk, who had left Kiev, offers herself as a wife and easily marries him, setting the condition: after the death of one of the spouses, both will be buried. Soon Mikhailo goes to the grave with her, but finds a way to revive her and return himself. The deception allows Marya to make several more attempts to kill him, and when she has already cheated on him. Unholy marriage to a stranger is condemned by everyone, but nevertheless, it is thanks to human and higher help that Potyk remains alive after all the vicissitudes. Fighting for his wife, he does not accomplish a feat, but comes to a shameful fall. Fascinated by witchcraft passion, Mikhailo alone is unable to understand the infernal nature of the chosen one. For the Russian epic, the motive of marriage ceases to be heroic, a struggle is being waged against it [see. details: pp. 111-128]. Personally, in this epic, in the image of Marya, I see the development of the concept of evil spirits, merging with the opposition of Russian to foreign, and not just an enemy. She chooses Potyk as her husband in order to use him as a chance to come to life, but when Marya later tries to get rid of Mikhailo, he does not die. The time for people like her is over. Evil spirits have influence on a person, but cannot shape his destiny as it pleases.

Ivan Godinovich is deliberately looking for a foreign bride. At the first opportunity, she prefers to betray the Kyiv hero in order to return to the pagan world. The people do not allow the Russian hero to die at the hands of strangers, they give him the opportunity to take revenge, thereby destroying the hostile evil spirits, but at the same time they mock him [see. details: pp. 128-136].

The dramatic and highly artistic epic about the Danube and Nastasya is not without reason considered one of the best in Russian epic. In this song, the source of all evil is the proud hero who strayed from Kyiv, and not his alien wife, and in his shame he is not worthy of people’s pity. Danube, previously in the service of a foreign king, goes to him for his daughter, a bride for Prince Vladimir, whom he takes by force. On the way back, he encounters a warrior in battle, defeats her, but at the last moment he recognizes in the heroine another daughter of his former master, with whom he had been in a close relationship for a long time. A double wedding according to the laws of the epic is overshadowed by conflict. Danube's boasting of his strength (a real hero is modest) leads to a shooting competition between him and Nastasya, who showed him the acceptable degree of politeness and the real price of a hero. Angered by his failures, the Danube kills his wife, knowing that she is pregnant, and when, having spread out her womb, he sees a wonderful baby, the future great hero, he throws himself on a spear next to the corpse [see. details: pp. 136-156].

The epic song about Kozarin is semi-ballad in nature and only due to the motive of saving a woman can it be classified as an epic about matchmaking. The hero, noble in character and rejected by his own family, saves from the hands of the Tatars, who here play the role of kidnappers rather than conquerors, a girl who turns out to be his sister. Having returned her to the family, he again sets off into the open field. The Russian hero does not seek approval for his exploits, but performs them because he cannot do otherwise [see. details: pp. 156-169].

The idyllic epic of a completely ballad nature about Nightingale Budimirovich also belongs to the realm of epic. After the gradual reduction of the bride’s alienation from a representative of evil spirits to a Russian witch (see below the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka), a song about the hero’s happy marriage naturally appeared. The happy epic, closely connected with ritual wedding poetry, completes a large stage of Russian epic, paving the way for the development of other forms of heroic songs [see. details: pp. 169-181].

A group of epics about the hero’s struggle with monsters (see: Part 2, Chapter IV) brings together the names of the people’s favorite heroes. The appearance of the enemy changed depending on the real historical struggle of the Russian people. The most widespread epic in Russian epic about Dobrynya and the Snake pits the most cultural and diplomatic hero against a vivid artistic embodiment of natural elements. The first battle with the Serpent at the Puchai River lies outside the Kiev cycle and cannot be completed so that, freeing Zabava Putyatishna on the orders of her uncle Vladimir, the hero could, having fought the Serpent a second time, lead many Russian people out of his lair into freedom. . The ancient motive of kidnapping helps turn a feat performed on the orders of the prince into a feat of defense of Rus'. Rejection of the Good Hand The fun and peculiarities of some versions of the song draw attention to the hidden antagonism of heroes, folk heroes, and the upper classes [see. details: pp. 181-208]. This conflict nature is emphasized more than once in the Russian epic, and the author, in view of the prevailing ideological attitudes, pays great attention to social confrontation.

The song about Alyosha and Tugarin is very close to the epic about Dobrynya's snake-fighting. However, here a cheerful, witty and sometimes not very strong hero, with the help of ingenuity, deals with a clumsy, rude and ill-mannered opponent, in whom fantastic features are partially replaced by those close to reality. The enemy brazenly positioned himself in Vladimir’s chambers, he behaves defiantly and behaves freely with Princess Eupraxia, demonstrating their close relationship. However, no one protests (the heroes are absent at this time). This is discovered by Alyosha, who modestly arrived. He mocks Tugarin’s dishonest behavior, challenges him to battle and destroys the shame of the Russian prince’s groveling before the invaders [see. details: pp. 208-227].

The central figure of the Russian heroic epic is Ilya Muromets. In him, the people combined selfless love for the Motherland, the highest moral qualities and maturity that respectfully distinguished the hero. In the epic about Idolishche, most likely derived from the epic about Alyosha and Tugarin, an almost anthropomorphic monster, bearing some Tatar features, surrounds Kyiv with troops, and itself goes to the prince’s palace, where it also commits outrages. Having learned about this from the “walker,” Ilya hurries to the rescue. Arriving in the clothes of beggars persecuted by the new owner of the city, he kills the enemy without unnecessary preludes. In another existing version, when Idolishche settles in Constantinople and prohibits Orthodoxy there, a later church influence is clearly felt. The people who preserve this epic themselves mock the Kalika-messenger and the pilgrimage image of Elijah [see. details: pp. 227-239].

Stories about the healing of Ilya of Muromets and his conquest of the Nightingale the Robber are often combined into an epic song about Ilya’s first trip. In the first narrative, references to peasant origin, Ilya’s long illness from youth to adulthood, and the heroic power bestowed on him by miraculous wanderers are constant. The archaic plot here acquires realistic features. The people bring their beloved hero closer not only to a conceivable ideal, but also to themselves, to reality. In the second, Ilya, going to serve his Motherland in Kyiv, destroys the hostile army near Chernigov, captures the Nightingale the Robber, who was blocking the straight path with his outpost, and destroys his unclean brood. Along the way, he pavers swamps and clears an abandoned road from the forest. His main merit was in paving the way to Kyiv. Fractured Rus' is beginning to unite. Already at the first meeting, conflict is visible between Ilya and Vladimir, which will only increase in the future. The prince and the boyars are made to look ridiculous when they try to give orders to the proud Nightingale, who understands the role of Muromets more than Vladimir [see. details: pp. 239-260].

The fairy tale is a more ancient genre than the epic; it retains much of prehistoric antiquity. The epic becomes more complex and discards or transforms what does not meet the increasing requirements. However, there is a group of epics that are very close to fairy tales. They are not typical for heroic epics, they are often personal and entertaining in nature, but nevertheless, due to the presence of heroic motives by V.Ya. Propp explores them too [see: part 2, ch. IV]. One of the most interesting plots is the battle between Ilya Muromets and his son. Ilya’s temporary marriage with the “woodpile” he defeated and his abandonment of his pregnant wife are the most archaic. At the same time, their son is teased by his peers and sets out to avenge his mother’s dishonor. Muromets encounters his son as a trespasser, recognizes him and introduces him to the circle of heroes. But when he again tries to kill his father at night, Ilya, without hesitation, kills the doubly traitor [see. details: pp. 263-266].

In the epic about Ilya’s three journeys, the hero follows from the crossroads of three roads in directions where, according to the roadstone, death, marriage and wealth await him. His calm choice of the first road and the destruction of the danger lurking there are close to a heroic epic, while the rest of the adventures are of a fairy-tale and ecclesiastical nature [see. details: pp. 260-270].

I like the song about Dobrynya and Marinka. And so, the hero who has high moral qualities appears morally completely pure, and the witch who harms him appears as a seductive enchantress. Marinka, trying to seduce the hero, evokes only disgust in his chaste soul. Then the evil sorceress bewitches him, and when he, exhausted by witchcraft powers, comes to her against his will, she turns him into a tour. Dobrynya’s mother, who herself is sometimes a pure sorceress, helps save her son, and he, having agreed to a symbolic marriage with Marinka, brutally deals with his enemy as a husband [see. details: pp. 270-279].

The epic about Dobrynya's departure and Alyosha's failed marriage is one of the most widespread in Russian epic. Due to Dobrynya's long absence, his wife is about to marry Alyosha, who brought the news of her husband's death, when Dobrynya returns unharmed and Alyosha is left in an uncomfortable position. The intriguing conflict of two very different temperamental heroes, united by the defense of the Motherland, cannot achieve the dark, bloody outcome characteristic of the epic. The ancient plot takes on a comic tone in the finale, the heroes make peace, and the woman says goodbye. This song gave many scientists the opportunity to try to portray Alyosha Popovich in a negative and immoral form, as a seducer of honest women, although the only thing he can be accused of here is false news. Generally speaking, in the epic Alyosha appears temperamental and mischievous, but not in any way immoral. Prince Vladimir, who in some cases forced Dobrynya’s wife into marriage, is sharply condemned [see. details: pp. 279-288].

Epics about repelling the Tatars. The heavy yoke of the Mongol conquerors, which hampered the development of Rus', simultaneously contributed to a new stage in the development of the Russian epic, the emergence of a number of patriotic epics praising the military overthrow of oppression. The songs were filled with new ideological content, acquired new artistic features and broke with ancient traditions. For a long time, the only content of the epics was the theme of the struggle for independence, honor and freedom of the Motherland [see: part 3]. In the song about Ilya’s rebellion against Vladimir, we see a seemingly contradiction to the main idea of ​​the Russian epic, service to Kyiv, however, here the social difference between a hero from the people and a rich prince finally results in a clash. Muromets, not invited to the feast, comes there without permission. The prince does not recognize him, once again demonstrating how little he appreciates all the merits of the hero. Insulted, Ilya defiantly leaves and arranges his own feast for all the poor. Following the slander of the boyars, Vladimir puts him in a cellar here to starve to death. Sometimes, this instruction is carried out; in other cases, Vladimir is forced to reconcile with the hero and arrange a feast especially for him, or Ilya and all the heroes leave Kyiv. In any case, in the future the prince will be put to shame, but the hero will triumph. This epic demonstrates how an insurmountable gulf opened up between the people and the class power before the invasion of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 291-303].

Almost all epics about repelling the Tatars speak about the appearance of the Tatars near Kiev and their dispersal by Russian troops. A circle of songs about Ilya Muromets and Tsar Kalina, organically connected with one another, V.Ya. Propp considers in totality [see: part 3, ch. II, paragraph 2]. This allows us to get a picture of the invasion drawn by the people step by step and find out the deep national aspirations in each song. The poetic chorus that opens one of the epics of the cycle under consideration tells of a sign foretelling the death of Kyiv. Since this is the only case where faith in signs is found in the epic, Kyiv does not perish at all, but is saved and there is a separate antiquity with a similar plot on a completely religious theme, the author with all grounds sees here a motif unreasonably attached to the military epic [see. details: pp. 306-310]. The appearance of the Tatars is described with a high degree of historicity: huge enemy hordes, clear organization of troops, autocratic command, siege tactics of the Tatars [see. details: pp. 310-314]. The Tatar ambassador, who arrived in Kyiv with the khan's label, always behaves defiantly, emphasizing the ultimatum conditions of surrender and contempt for the Russians [see. details: pp. 314-316]. Many of the cruel demands and threats of the Tatars are also historical [see. details: pp. 316-318]. Vladimir, in the face of impending danger, does nothing to actively defend the city. He prays, thinks about surrendering the city, about accepting the Tatar conditions [see. details: pp. 318-321]. There are no heroes in Kyiv at this time. Sometimes they are gone on business, but more often they are in disgrace with the prince, which he regrets [see. details: pp. 321-322]. The main defender of the city, Ilya Muromets, condemned to starvation in a cellar, was secretly supplied with food through the efforts of Princess Eupraxia, and now Vladimir is trying to persuade him to defend not the authorities, but the Fatherland. The hero agrees, often after reprisal against the boyars guilty of slander [see. details: pp. 322-326]. Having soberly assessed the enemy's strength [see. details: pp. 326-327], Ilya himself goes to the camp to Kalinin, where he asks for a reprieve and receives it [see. details: pp. 327-328]. By entrusting someone with the fortification of the city [see. details: pp. 328-329], Muromets undertakes to look for heroes. He finds them at Samson's headquarters, a new camp where the wars have spent their time in idleness since the time of disgrace. Oddly enough for an epic, the heroes refuse to go. But this desire arises due to proximity to folk, and not princely-boyar, Rus'. They will strike at the decisive moment [see. details: pp. 329-331]. In deserted Kiev, the young hero Ermak (not a historical figure, but a character of the same name introduced into the epic for his merits) appears to Vladimir and asks for permission to fight his enemies. Having failed to fulfill the prince's instructions, Ermak goes to the heroic headquarters. Muromets sends him to count the enemy force, but the hot Ermak rushes into battle and dies. This exceptional case of the death of a hero in the Russian epic is a consequence of violation of Ilya’s order [see. details: pp. 332-334]. The battle is always described briefly. If there is no heroic support, then Muromets rushes into battle alone. If there is one, he intelligently manages the distribution of forces [see. details: pp. 334-337]. Sometimes Ilya is captured by cunning and brought to Kalin, who tries to lure the hero to his side [see. details: pp. 337-338]. The enemy's proposal infuriates Muromets so much that he breaks his chains and, waving the first Tatar he comes across and calling Samson and other heroes with a spoken arrow, finally finishes off the Tatars. When leaving, the enemy takes an oath never to return [see. details: pp. 338-339]. Along with the final defeat of the enemy, there is another ending to this song, called the epic about the Kama (Mamaev) massacre, or about how since when there were no knights in Rus'. In one version, two brothers who did not participate in the battle begin to boast emptyly and the Tatars come to life, and it is not possible to chop down the living dead, their number only increases. Prayer destroys the unearthly power, and the heroes disperse to monasteries. This song has a religious-church orientation, it is due to sermons about humility. In another version, the heroes, proud of their victory, themselves challenge the “heavenly powers.” They fearlessly destroy the revived force. The character of this epic, on the contrary, is atheistic, and it expresses popular thoughts [see. details: pp. 339-344]. In addition to this song, many later songs based on it also tell about the fight against the Tatars, for example, the epic about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyga. Before the impending invasion, Vladimir goes to the tavern to ask for help from the only remaining hero, Vasily, who has been drinking for several years and has squandered absolutely all his goods. Having gotten drunk, he kills Batu’s associates with cursed arrows, who sends a demand to hand over the culprit. In one case, the hero himself goes to the enemy camp and, having tricked the Tatar army into the wilderness, destroys it. In another, the council of boyars immediately betrays Vasily. Now he really concludes an agreement with the enemy in order to lead him against the city’s rich, still sparing Prince Vladimir. The Tatars plunder the city without respecting the treaty, and Vasily personally expels them. One way or another, the enemy is exterminated, and the rebellious aspirations of the peasants are looking for ways to get rid of the hostile leaders, although they rely on the people [see. details: pp. 344-355].

The epic about Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich shows us the liberation struggle in other forms, when the invasion ended in a long yoke. Vladimir sends Batu tribute. The faithful servant Vasily undertakes its delivery, a task unworthy of a hero, and he is accompanied by Dobrynya, who is the main character. When Batu tests the heroes in order to execute them as a failure, Dobrynya turns out to be more skillful than the Tatars. Having entered into a rage during the fight, he deals with the Tatar army. The people believe in victory even under the strongest oppression [see. details: pp. 355-368].

An epic of the era of the formation of a centralized Russian state. In the epic about Volga and Mikula, the main character is a farmer, which is unusual for a Russian epic, although it is the peasantry who are the custodians of the songs. The warrior Volga, on the way to the cities granted to him by the prince, meets the plowman Mikula and invites him with him. It soon becomes clear that the oratai (plowman, orat - plow, oro - plow) is superior to the hero in everything: in the wealth of clothes, in strength, in prowess, even his inconspicuous filly turns out to be better than the magnificent Volga horse. Mikula is proud of his class and his work. Such a song could only emerge when the peasantry realized its importance. In the person of Mikula it exalts itself [see. details: pp. 374-387].

In this historical period, Kyiv and Vladimir are losing their significance as symbols of a united Rus'. The image of the former Red Sun, the main representative of the feudal and social elite, is finally debunked, and social injustice is depicted in the epic as a moral evil, which helped the people educate themselves accordingly [see: part 4, ch. III]. The hidden opposition between the hero and the prince in the epic about Sukhman ends in the suicide of the hero, offended by the despotic behavior of Vladimir. The knight goes hunting for a swan for the prince's table. Such an assignment for a hero is a voluntary exile or disgrace if sent by a prince. The hunt is unsuccessful, just as peaceful relations between the antagonists are impossible. On the way back near the Dnieper, Sukhman encounters the advancing Tatars and destroys the entire army. In battle, he receives a wound, which prepares the tragic denouement of the song, which he begins with a poppy leaf. The hero’s story about his feat is not taken seriously by Vladimir and the hero faces punishment. When the truth becomes clear, Sukhman proudly rejects attempts at reconciliation and, pulling out leaves from the wound, bleeds, showing what is best for him [see. details: pp. 387-397].

In the song about Danilo Lovchanin, the prince is presented as an outright scoundrel and criminal. Vladimir is looking for a wife for himself, and for the people - an empress. Mishata Putyatin tells him to take possession of Danilo Lovchanin’s wife Vasilisa, and send him on a deadly mission. The warrior completes the assignment, but on the way back he encounters an army sent from Kyiv to kill him. Although Danilo tearsly beats the entire Russian army, he still dies from the treacherous hand of Mishata. Without hesitation, the prince sends matchmakers to Vasilisa. The faithful woman, who anxiously let go of her husband, first asks to be taken to Danila’s body and kills herself over his corpse. As in the previous epic, the enemy’s victory is temporary, the future belongs to the heroes [see. details: pp. 397-407].

Although with the new tactics of war that developed after the overthrow of the yoke, the military epic gave way to historical song, nevertheless its attenuation was gradual. The basis of the last epic of military content, the epic about the raid of the Lithuanians, was originally based on the motif of the abduction of a woman characteristic of the epic, but it was later replaced by patriotic ideas. The nephews of the Lithuanian king, the Livik brothers, invade Russia with predatory and ruinous purposes. They also kidnap the sister of Prince Roman Dmitrievich. The prince chases after them with his army and defeats the foreign army. Although the song is full of archaic details, nevertheless, the epic is no longer talking about ideal heroes, but about living people [see. details: pp. 407-418].

At this time, later epics about matchmaking still appeared [see: part 4, ch. IV], but the struggle for the bride in them has the character of a social struggle. The song about Alyosha Popovich and Elena Petrovichna really touched me. The Petrovich brothers, nicknamed Zbrodovich, boast at the feast that they keep their sister Elena in seclusion. Alyosha teases them, hinting that he is seeing Elena and that she has long belonged to him. The brothers' anger turns on their sister, whom they sentence to public execution. They condemn the very system that allowed such oppression. At the last moment, Alyosha appears and takes the girl away, often straight to church. Here the hero no longer fights mythical, but human monsters [see. details: pp. 418-426].

In the epic about Khoten Bludovich, rich in various details, the bride and groom are separated solely by class differences. At the feast, the poor Bludova widow wooed the wealthy Clock Widow, sometimes even a relative of Vladimir, with her daughter China for her son the hero Khoten, who often does not know about it. The watch widow only cruelly insults the entire Bludov family. Khoten responds by destroying the Sentinels' courtyard, threateningly repeating the matchmaking with the same tough temperament as her mother China and challenging her brothers to battle. After the hero deals with the sons of the Clock Widow and the army sent against him, China’s proud mother herself offers her daughter. Khoten refuses, but at the request of his rival, the Fornicating Widow, who is satisfied with the humiliation, he agrees, and the song ends with a cheerful wedding [see. details: pp. 426-441].

The pinnacle of epic songs about social struggle can be considered the epics about Vasily Buslaevich’s rebellion against Novgorod and his death [see: part 4, ch. VI]. I don’t quite agree with V.Ya. Propp, who believes that Vasily, despite all his actions, is not an earworm. In my opinion, this is exactly what the hero is like, although, of course, this does not affect the meaning of his image in any way. Since childhood, Vasily bullied the children of rich parents, and his heroic strength already allowed him to cripple them. Having grown up, Vasily recruited a squad for himself, as was wiser during the brutal internal political struggle of Novgorod at that time. His selected detachment consists of people of the lower strata, handicraft workers. When a fight breaks out at a bratchina (a feast organized by pool on church holidays) and the entire squad is drawn into it, Vasily challenges the whole of Novgorod to a fight. The mother locks the hero and tries to stop the conflict, asking her son’s opponents to call off the bloodshed, to which they do not agree. While Vasily comes running to the battle, his squad manages to suffer greatly. Having released her, he defends himself alone, destroys the houses of the rich and defeats the old pilgrim, symbolizing the old system. The idea of ​​“Mr. Great Novgorod” collapsed in the popular consciousness long ago. Only the mother stops the dispersed hero [see. details: pp. 441-464].

Having not completed the conflict, Vasily does not resign himself, but transforms it into new forms. He begs his mother for a blessing to travel to Jerusalem for repentance, but in fact, although he performs external religious rituals on the spot, he is full of challenge to otherworldly forces. He neglects the prophecy of the skull he kicked, sneers at the misfortune predicted for swimming naked in the Jordan, and when he finds a stone that does not recommend jumping over it, he begins to have fun, violating the ban. His death was caused by the untimeliness of the struggle. The tragedy is in the awareness of the destruction of the old way of life, but the impossibility of achieving this for now [see. details: pp. 464-475].

Despite the sharply satirical nature of the epic About Duke Stepanovich and his competition with Churila, it is free from buffoon influence, its action is prompted by ridicule of the wealthy boyar class. The incredibly rich dandy Duke arrives in Kyiv to show himself off. After Dobrynya, sent by Vladimir for inspection, confirms the enormous fortune of the boastful fellow (dandy, dude), Duke’s rivalry with the main dude of Kyiv, Churila, begins in the beauty of clothes, in which Duke wins, but always has mercy on his opponent. Like all the heroes of the epic, Duke Stepanovich is endowed with the highest quality things, however, unlike the heroes, for whom quality served as a sign of idealization and greatness, in Duke we see unnecessary pomp and foppish demonstrativeness. Chain mail and arrows made of expensive materials are not used for military purposes, but for ostentation. Duke's sophistication gives him a reason to criticize the lack of sophistication and simplicity; wealth allows him to be proud and boast. He smugly opposes his country and his own economy to Kyiv [see. details: pp. 475-504].

III. Conclusion

The main content of V.Ya.’s songs Propp defines the struggle for the highest ideals of the people and victory in the name of their implementation. The epics are imbued with patriotism and educational spirit. The people invest their aspirations in the epic; the content of the songs sets them up to a high moral level. The epic reflects the development and self-awareness of the people. The scientist rejects the theory of the foreign origin of epics and emphasizes the connection of the epic with Russian history, with Russian reality and life. The descriptions and realities of epic songs are historical. People understand the epic as part of their history. Epics are a sign of a harmonious inner life and the liberation aspirations of the people, the struggle for the opportunity to live independently and be happy.

Acquaintance with the monograph by V.Ya. Propp's "Russian Heroic Epic" gave me great pleasure. I was able to familiarize myself with the development of the epic from ancient times to the present day, encountering valuable and very detailed explanations. The epic stories were colored with high meaning for me, allowing me to feel pride in the patriotism and morality of my people. It is a pity that the author did not examine in detail the mythological basis of the epic; this was probably caused by attacks on the scientist’s previous works, but the data he presented is very interesting in itself, and is also necessary if you want to understand the creative aspirations and ideological views of the Russian people.

Bibliography

1) V.Ya. Propp “Russian heroic epic” (Collected works of V.Ya. Propp). Commentary article by N.A. Krichnina. Compilation, scientific editing, name index by S.P. Bushkevich. – M., 1999. – 640 pp.

2) Propp V.Ya. “On the historicism of the Russian epic” // Russian literature. 1962. No. 11. Page. 98-111.

3) Propp V.Ya. “The Poetics of Folklore” (article “On the historicism of Russian folklore and methods of its study”). Page 185-208. – M., 1998.

4) Putilov B.N. “Rereading and rethinking Propp” // Living Antiquity. 1995. No. 3. Page. 2-7.

1. General definition of epic

<...>An epic is not defined by any one sign that immediately establishes its essence. It has a number of features, and only the combination of them gives a correct and complete idea of ​​what an epic is. The most important, decisive feature of an epic is the heroic nature of its content. The epic shows who the people consider a hero and for what merits. The definition and study of the character and internal content of heroism constitutes the main task of science in relation to the epic. This content will be revealed to us gradually, but for now it will be enough to point out that the content of the epic is always struggle and victory. In the name of what the struggle is being waged, this must be determined by science. We will see that in different historical eras the content of the struggle was different. But there is one thing that unites the nature of the struggle at all stages of the development of the epic: the struggle is not for narrow, petty goals, not for personal fate, not for the private well-being of the hero, but for the highest ideals of the people in a given era. This struggle is always very difficult, requires the exertion of all the hero’s strength, requires the ability to sacrifice himself, but in the epic it always leads to victory. The struggle is not personal, but national and national, and in later historical eras it has a pronounced class character. However, this main and decisive feature is not yet enough to classify this or that work as an epic.

For example, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has a heroic content, as does the chronicle stories about the Battle of Kulikovo, the Tatar invasions of Moscow and others. Pushkin's Poltava, Tolstoy's War and Peace and many of the works of modern Soviet literature dedicated to the struggle and heroic deeds of the Soviet people have heroic content. Consequently, the sign of heroic content is decisive only in combination with other signs of the epic. One of the main features of the Russian epic, which distinguishes it from other works of heroic content, is that it is composed of songs that are not intended for reading, but for musical performance. Epic differs from novels, heroic poems, legendary tales, etc. by a different genre and other forms of performance. The attribute of musical song performance is so significant that works that are not sung cannot in any case be classified as epic. The musical performance of epics and their content cannot be separated; they have the most direct connection.

Musical performance testifies to deep personal emotion, affected by the events of the songs, expresses a state of inspiration, expresses the feelings of the people excited by the characters and the narrative of the song. To take away the tune from the epic and to perform it in the form of a prose story means to transfer it to a completely different plane of artistic creativity.<...>

Another important feature of the epic is the poetic form of the songs, which is closely related to the melody. As we will see below, the poetic form was not created immediately, but arose from the prose form and developed over the centuries.<...>

However, although epic verse is one of the signs of the Russian heroic epic, it is not specific to it, and is not the exclusive property of epics alone. The epic verse became so firmly established in popular usage that it began to be used among the people and more widely, and began to be attached to works that cannot be classified as epic.

In pre-revolutionary science, the feature of versification was considered one of the most important: collections of epics included everything that was sung in epic verse, regardless of the content of the songs. It is clear that such a principle of determination is unacceptable.

Epic verse is a phenomenon of a broader order than the heroic epic. A heroic epic always consists of songs of epic verse size, but the opposite statement will not always be correct: not every song in the form of an epic verse can be classified as an epic. Thus, epic spiritual verses can take the form of epic verse. Most collectors distinguished spiritual poems from epics, but still in collections of epics you can sometimes find songs such as, for example, a verse about the Dove Book, about Anika the Warrior and others that are not related to epics. Spiritual poems cannot be classified as epics, since they do not call for struggle, but for humility and submission.

We will also not classify songs of a ballad nature as epic, no matter how good and interesting they may be, and even if such songs were included in collections of epics and sung in epic verse. Thus, the song “Vasily and Sofyushka” tells the story of how two lovers, instead of going to church, secretly see each other. The evil mother gives them a potion and they die. Trees grow from their graves, their tops leaning towards each other. This is a typical ballad. There is no active struggle here, there is a touching death of two innocently persecuted people.<…>

Finally, there is another area adjacent to the area of ​​heroic song, this is the area of ​​historical song. The question of the relationship of the epic to the historical song is more complex than the question of its relationship to spiritual verse and ballad. The epic is very close to the historical song, but nevertheless there is a deep and fundamental difference between them, which will become quite clear only when we become familiar with the epic in detail. The opinion of some scientists who argued that the epic originally appeared as a historical song, which was forgotten and distorted over the centuries, gradually turning into an epic, should be completely abandoned. As we will see, the epic is older than the historical song. The epic and the historical song express the consciousness of the people at different stages of their historical development in different forms. The epic depicts an ideal reality and ideal heroes. In the epic, the vast historical experience of the people is summarized in artistic images of unusual power, and this generalization is one of the most significant features of the epic. The epic is always characterized by a certain majesty and monumentality, which in the best examples of folk art is combined with simplicity and naturalness. Heroic songs are usually based on fiction, in which only a researcher can discover their historical basis. In historical songs, the plot and plot are drawn directly from reality. The events conveyed in the historical song are not fictional (songs about the capture of Kazan and many others), only the details are fantastically processed.

A historical song is a product of a later era and other forms of awareness of reality than the epic. Historical songs cannot be classified as heroic epics; they are not epics, and not only because they are not sung in epic verse (although songs about Grozny are still very close to epic verse), but because they have a different attitude to reality than in epics.<...>

The epic is characterized not only by the above characteristics, but by the totality of its multifaceted content, the world of artistic images and heroes created by it, and the subject of its stories. He is also determined by the entire system of poetic techniques characteristic of him, his characteristic style.<…>

2. Some questions of methodology

Attempts to historically study folk poetry were made before the revolution. We must know about these attempts in order to protect ourselves from the mistakes that were made by bourgeois science. In Russian academic science of the 19th-20th centuries there were several directions. Representatives of the mythological school (Buslaev, Afanasyev, Orest Miller and others) believed that epic songs arose initially as myths about deities. This, in their opinion, was the connection between the epic and history. The songs were viewed as living monuments of the deep prehistoric past, and their scientific significance was limited to this. But since nothing was known about the true myths of primitive peoples at that time, these myths were artificially reconstructed from the epics and fairy tales themselves. The method of studying epics consisted of reconstructing the myth from the epic. As a result of such a reconstruction, it turned out, for example, that Vladimir, nicknamed the red sun in the epic, was supposedly an ancient deity of the sun, that Ilya Muromets was supposedly the thunder god, etc. The heroes of folk poetry invariably turned out to be faded deities of the wind, thunderstorm, sun, and storm.<...>

The comparative studies took a completely different direction. In their opinion, the epic is generally ahistorical. He is supposedly absolutely fantastic. According to this doctrine, the epic does not develop. Songs are created in a certain place and at a certain time, and then the stories begin to wander from people to people, to migrate; the history of these “wanderings”, “borrowings” supposedly constitutes the history of the epic. Studying the Russian epic, comparativists traced it either to the epic of the eastern, Asian peoples (Potanin), or to borrowings from Byzantium or Western Europe (Veselovsky and his followers).<...>

The question of the relationship between epic and history is also unresolved in the works of the so-called historical school, headed by Vsevolod Miller. Supporters of this movement imagined the relationship between epic and history to be extremely simple. The songs reflect and record the events of the era in which they were created. The epic is considered as a kind of oral historical chronicle, similar to a written chronicle - a chronicle. But the chronicle is a chronicle more or less reliable, while the epic is an unreliable chronicle. Hence the method of this school, which boils down to verifying epics through the chronicle or other historical documents. At first glance, it may seem that there is a rational grain in this entire system. By comparing the epic with the chronicle, the historical school seemed to be elevating art to reality.<...>

And yet, the ideological premises and methods of this school, which does not deserve the name historical, are just as untenable as the principles of the mythological or comparative school. The point is not only that the artistic side of the epic was completely ignored. According to the teachings of Vsevolod Miller, heroic songs were originally supposedly composed in honor of the princes who led military campaigns during feudal strife. Thus, they were allegedly created not by the people, but by the ruling classes, the military feudal elite. Having “descended” among the people, these “historical” songs, through consistent distortion in the ignorant peasant environment, turned into epics. It's like an epic is emerging. In Soviet science, the methodological inconsistency of this direction was first pointed out by Prof. A. P. Skaftymov.<...>

The historical study of the epic should consist of revealing the connection between the development of the epic and the course of development of Russian history and establishing the nature of this connection.<...>A popular idea always expresses the ideals of the era in which these ideas were created and were effective. The idea is the decisive criterion for assigning a song to a particular era. Artistic analysis is inextricably linked with historical analysis.<...>

<...>Epics do not reflect isolated events in history; they express the age-old ideals of the people. What old science imagined as a one-time act of creation, we imagine as a long process. Any epic refers not to one year or one decade, but to all those centuries during which it was created, lived, polished, improved or died out, right up to the present day. Therefore, every song bears the stamp of the centuries that have passed. Let us give a specific example: the epic about Duke Stepanovich in some of its parts contains elements of extremely deep, even pagan antiquity (an outpost of snakes and monstrous birds ready to tear the stranger to pieces). It further reflects Kievan Rus (the court of Vladimir). In the description of the details of buildings and the picture of the city, she reflects Moscow Rus' of the 16th-17th centuries. And, finally, in its main idea (ridiculing the rich boyars), it reflects the class struggle of the times of late feudalism. The strength, brightness of artistic satire, its direction against the primordial enemies of the working masses ensure this epic's relevance and popularity over the following centuries, when the class struggle, taking on new forms, flared up more and more. Thus, the epic, polished and improved over the centuries, contains deposits of all the centuries it has passed through. The main idea expressed in it will be of decisive importance for attribution to a particular era. So, in this case, the decisive historical feature of the epic will be the fight against the boyars in the exact forms in which it took place in the 16th-17th centuries. Therefore, despite the presence of earlier and later elements in it, it can mainly be attributed to the era of late feudalism.

It follows from this that the question of whether this or that epic arose in the 12th, 13th, or any other century, essentially, as indicated, may turn out to be incorrectly posed; If you study the epic by its individual terms, you can get an arbitrary number of solutions, since individual terms can belong to different eras. This explains the discrepancy in the attribution of epics to certain centuries in bourgeois science. If you study the epic not according to the mechanically separated components, but according to its plan, according to its idea, then it turns out that the epic always expresses the age-old ideals and aspirations of the people, relating not to one century, but to eras that lasted several centuries, and to these eras epics can be attributed with some degree of confidence and authenticity.

This observation leads us to the question of the relationship between epic and history. As we observe the historical development of the epic, we must have a clear understanding of how the epic relates to history. One of the axioms of the old historical school was that the epic passively reflects history. From our modern point of view, the people are not just a participating, but a leading force in history, and in their poetry they do not reproduce history as a dispassionate recorder, but express in it their historical will, their age-old aspirations and ideals.