This means the most important difference between Hellas. Hellas is Ancient Greece

Many Greeks do not call themselves Greeks. They preserve long-standing traditions and call their country Hellas, and themselves Hellenes. The very concept of "Greece" comes from Latin word. A small place in the northeastern part of the country was called Greece several centuries BC. But later this name spread throughout the state. For some reason, they are called Greeks in most countries of the world, and the inhabitants of this country themselves imagined themselves to be Hellenes in Hellas.

Where did the name "Hellas" come from?

In ancient times, not all of Greece was called Hellas. Now cultural scientists associate this name exclusively with Ancient Greece. In journalism, and scientific literature, the word “Hellenes” is constantly used. Hellas and Greece are identical concepts. Modern Greece did not always have the same boundaries. Territorial boundaries have changed over the centuries. Now some part of Greece belongs to the Turkish state, another to Italy. The lands occupied in ancient times by Italy passed to Greece. Undoubtedly, the civilization that is part of Europe today began a long time ago. Scientists call the most ancient times - Antiquity. If we translate this word into Russian from Latin, we get the term “antiquity”. Scientists associate both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with Antiquity. Researchers are accustomed to calling the north of the Mediterranean, along with North Africa, some part of Asia, and all of Europe, Antique. Places where today scientists find imprints of Greek and Hellenic civilization, is usually considered to be the heritage of European and Greek culture.

Greece. Where is this, what country is it?

The southern part of the Balkans is Greece. People in this state are accustomed to valuing their wealth. Among them are not only minerals, but also water resources. The country is washed by the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Ionian Seas. The water element of Greece is beautiful. Picturesque seascapes, delightful island part. The lands of this state are fertile, but there is very little land. It is always dry and hot here, which at any time favored livestock rather than crop production.

Ancient myths provided the basis cultural traditions of this country. So, Pandora, who gave birth to several children, was married to the Supreme Thunderer Zeus. One of the sons was named Grekos. Two more - Macedon and Magnis. All historians unanimously say that Greece was named after the eldest son of Zeus. Grekos inherited courage, belligerence, and bravery from his father. But at first, only one of the areas in the north-west of Athens was called Greece.

The eldest son of the supreme celestials never sat still. He traveled a lot, not for the sake of conquest, but more for the founding of new cities on empty lands. This is how it appeared whole line states in Asia Minor. Grecos formed colonies in Italy. He took control of almost the entire Apennine Peninsula. It is known that the inhabitants of Italy called the townspeople ruled by Grekos Greeks. Other researchers believe that Greece is a Roman term, and the Greeks themselves called themselves Hellenes.

But the word “Greece” was well entrenched in the minds of foreigners, so much so that to this day few foreigners do not think of officially calling the Greeks Hellenes. This concept is typical only for scientific world cultural scientists, historians and Greek scholars. Even Aristotle wrote that the Hellenes did not always call themselves that. There is evidence that in ancient times they were called Greeks. Here, apparently, Ancient Greek mythology makes itself felt. Later the Greeks had a ruler named Hellenes. Allegedly, after the name of the king, they called themselves Hellenes. But this is just another theory that has the right to life.

Let's take a look at Homer's poem Iliad. In the part where the Greeks’ campaign against Troy is described, there is a mention that among the alien warriors from almost the same region, there were those who called themselves residents of the city of Gray (Greeks) and Hellenes (from a place in Thessaly). All of them, without exception, were strong and courageous. There is another speculation about the origin of the concept of “Hellenes”. There is evidence that there were once several policies and cities in the possessions of Achilles. One of them was called Hellas. And the Hellenes could have come from there. The writer Pausanias mentioned in his works that Greya was a fairly large city. And Thucydides spoke about Farrow as about Gray. That's what they called him before. Aristotle says that even before the inhabitants of present-day Greece began to be called Greeks, they called themselves that in the pre-Hellenic period.

As a result of simple conclusions, we can say that the Greeks and Hellenes are 2 tribes that existed in the neighborhood or practically on the same territory, and arose in approximately the same period of time. Perhaps they fought among themselves, and someone became stronger. As a result, culture and traditions were borrowed. Or perhaps they lived in peace and subsequently united. Scientists say that both the Hellenes and the Greeks existed until the adoption of Christianity. Later, people who did not want to become followers of the new religion were still called Hellenes (they were more “friends” with the gods of Olympus and the thunderer Zeus), and adherents of Christianity were called Greeks. Researchers believe that the term “Hellene” means “idolater.”

Modern painting

Outside of Greece, it is still called differently. The inhabitants themselves now call themselves Greeks, the country - Hellas with the Hellenic language, sometimes Greece. However, all Europeans are accustomed to alternating names. In the Russian understanding, Hellas is Ancient Greece. Residents are Greeks. Language – Greek. In almost all European and Russian languages, Greece and Hellas have similar sounds and pronunciations. The East calls the inhabitants of this country differently. In some cases, the names change dramatically. Among them:

Jonan.
Yavana (in Sanskrit).
Yavanim (Hebrew).

These names come from the concept of “Ionians” - residents and migrants from the coast of the Ionian Sea. According to another theory, the ruler greek islands there was Ion. This is what the Persians, Turks, Jordanians, and Iranians called the inhabitants of Hellas and the coastal islands. According to another version, “ionan” are rounded headdresses that Greeks still wear to this day to protect themselves from the sun’s rays. The inhabitants of the East were the first to notice this, and now they call the Greeks Ionans. The practice of Georgians regarding the perception of Greeks is interesting. Georgians call the Hellenes “berdzeni”. In their language, this concept means “wisdom.” There are nationalities that call the Greeks “Romios”, since a large period of the life of this state is associated with the history of the Roman Empire.

The experience of the Russians is noteworthy. The ancient Rosichi people never forgot the phrase “The path from the Varangians to the Greeks...”. The foundations of Greek culture of the period when the dominant trade routes crossed paths with Russia, will never be forgotten, since they are reflected in the folk epic of the Slavs. At that time they were called Hellenes in Europe, but in Russia they are Greeks. However, scientists believe that the Greeks were the traders. The goods arrived in Russia from Byzantium, which was populated by people from Greece. They were Christians and brought the foundations of their faith and culture to the Rosichi people.

And today in Russian schools they study the legends and myths of Ancient Greece, the history and culture of Greece and Rome. In Russia it is customary to refer to the inhabitants of this country as “Greeks”. This country has always been proud of its talented poets, historians, architects, sculptors, athletes, sailors, and philosophers. All figures left an indelible mark in the minds of researchers and scientists around the world. Greece influenced the development of the culture of Europe and even the countries of Asia and the East.

Modern researchers have found evidence that the Greeks called certain “graiks”. This is the Illyrian people. According to mythology, the progenitor of this nation was named “Greek”. The concept of “Hellenism” began to revive by the beginning of the 19th century among the Greek intelligentsia. Over time, the assertion that the Greeks are not Greeks spread to the broad masses.

As soon as the Greeks did not call themselves and did not hear addressed to them different appeals. The reason for everything is the origin of nationalities, linguistic dogmas, customs, and traditions. Achaeans, Dorians, Ionians, Hellenes or Greeks? Nowadays, the inhabitants of this country have quite diverse roots and have the right to name themselves, according to the legends and myths that have developed in some areas.

Funeral rites in Greece

Since ancient times, the Greeks thought about what was there, “beyond the line.” Is there any possibility of existence human soul after physical death? What happens to the soul when it passes into another world? Humanity has not found answers to these questions to this day. However, from some assumptions about the existence of the afterlife in ancient Greek civilization The peculiarities of people’s burials also depended.

Ancient Agora in Athens

The ancient Agora played a large role in the cities of Ancient Greece. It was spiritual, administrative, as well as shopping mall cities. From the beginning of the sixth century, in connection with the reorganization of the state by the legislator Solon in 594 BC, the Agora began to play a vital role in the life of the city.

From the history of Sparta - the city of warriors

This is a special lifestyle and worldview. The Spartans have always amazed enemies and supporters with their courage, invention, endurance and... cruelty. These ancient warriors are no less great inventors than the ancient Hellenes or other peoples. The Spartans brought to life the idea of creating a recruit camp, training on a state basis, and a frontal attack.

Theater in Ancient Greece

I went after the first Russian electric car with the obsession of the Argonauts, who once dared to travel for the Golden Fleece. The crush on the tram, the sea of people in the metro - and here it is, the treasured island of the technical center, where “Hellas” awaits. But, like the ancient Greek navigators, with the achievement of my goal, my adventures had only just begun.

“IF THE SAIL FALLS, WE WILL STRIKE WITH OARS...”

Externally, the electric Kalina is an ordinary station wagon (only the front bumper is different). Everything inside is also familiar, so no special emotions arise at first.

I turn the key in the lock. There is a second pause, and a small green car appears on the instrument panel. Selector in “drive” - the car moves silently under the rustling of the tires.

The sensitive gas pedal takes some getting used to. He touched it and the electric car jumped forward! For traditional Kalinas, such acceleration is the ultimate dream. I have never seen such dynamics in AvtoVAZ cars before. But the excitement was cooled by the on-board computer: the color display showed a verdict - 13 km before recharging. And this is with fully charged batteries... I immediately remembered the winter test of the Mitsubishi-iMiEV (ЗР, 2012, No. 6), in which we never made it to the editorial office. I called my colleagues: they say, stretch Ariadne’s thread in the form of a towing sling, otherwise, I’m afraid I won’t make it to the outlet. It’s good that it’s -1 ºС outside, and not -20 º, as it was then.

I turn off the headlights and heater and drive calmly, no faster than 50 km/h. On the descent from the bridge, I press the brake and feel how at the end of the pedal stroke the force increases, and the arrow in the left saucer of the instrument panel drops into the blue zone - regenerative braking encourages the on-board computer, it mercifully shows 14 km. This is already better, but this does not make the left pedal any more informative. The deceleration is indistinct, and at a snail’s speed, it’s as if someone is grabbing the wheels with tongs. The iMiEV and Renault Zoe have much better brake settings.

CAN I LIGHT A SMOKE?

I arrived safely at the editorial parking lot and admired the magic numbers displayed on the monitor: 30 km. Inspired by the result, I recharged the car overnight (about 8–10 hours) and drove back onto the city streets. When I turn on the heater, I notice that the interior takes a long time to warm up. But it feels like the heat goes away more slowly than in the Mitsubishi iMiEV, although the Kalina is noticeably larger. After driving around the city for about 20 km, I discharged the car by almost 60%. I decided to carry out the next charge on the nearest console - there are already a lot of them in Moscow. On the website of the Revolta company (Revolta, which is developing a network of charging stations) there is detailed map. Seeing the column glistening in the sun, I understand that this is not an ordinary visit to a gas station!

Alas, it is impossible to get to the life-giving current: charging places are filled with gasoline cars! And there is no special payment card in your pocket. However, this is all for the first time for me, and owners of electric vehicles think through the process in advance. Revolta can install a console for its client at home for free, but then for each kilowatt you will have to pay almost twice as much. However, the worst thing is that you still won’t be able to charge Hellas from these stations, because the standards for charging the car and the consoles are different!

Lada-Ellada must be charged not only from a household outlet, but also from charging consoles that meet international standards. Then life with a Russian electric car will become easier

Standards determine the type of cables, sockets, and connectors allowed for use in chargers. And electric car developers in Europe and America follow these rules. That is, Tesla, iMiEV and others are ready to charge, but Hellas is not. And this makes life very difficult for owners of Russian electric vehicles. In most foreign cars, the cable is equipped with a Mode 2 voltage converter (slow charging with alternating current from a household network using protection inside the cable), again described in the standard and protecting against electric shock or fire, but the AvtoVAZ electric car has a cable without this “excess”.

BATTLE WITH THE MINOTAUR

Progressive thinking, like Hercules, gradually defeats the ignorance of the Minotaur. The reduction in duties on electric vehicles made it possible to reduce the price of Mitsubishi-iMiEV from 1,799,000 to 999,000 rubles. The price tag for the serial “Hellas” is promised to be significantly lower.

But if the plant really wants to turn the myth about electric cars into reality, it needs to make sure that Hellas is recharged from various charging consoles. Then explain to dealers the structure of their future income from the sale of an exotic car. Finally, train rescuers like Tesla does. After all, if the car gets into a serious accident, you need to know where to cut the body and how to break the power circuit, which is under high voltage.

Then AVTOVAZ will have a chance to take possession of a truly golden fleece. I am sure that the emergence of mass-produced electric vehicles in Russia and high demand for them among the population and corporate clients is only a matter of time.

PLUS Excellent dynamics, good equipment and silence in the cabin. MINUS Limited mileage and slow heating of the interior, uninformative brakes.

We thank the AutoHermes car dealership for providing the electric car for testing and the Revolta company for their assistance in preparing the material.

FIVE FACTS ABOUT ELECTRIC CARS

The first Russian electric car was built in 1899 in St. Petersburg.

In 1917, Woods Motor Vehicle showed the first hybrid.

In 1971, an electric car visited the Moon as part of the Apollo 16 expedition.

By 2011, almost half European countries introduced incentives for the purchase of cars with zero CO 2 emissions.

At the beginning of 2014, Russia abolished customs duties on electric vehicles for two years. legal entities. Previously it was 19%.

LET'S REMEMBER THE OLD

Electric cars are not an invention modern world. Frenchman Gustave Trouvé showed the first three-wheeled electric car back in 1881. And in 1897, the Americans made electricity make money. Then the first electric cars began operating in New York City taxis. Later, in 1912, another one appeared in the USA interesting car- Detroit Electric Clear Vision Brougham (pictured). With a power of 4 hp. it developed 37 km/h and could travel about 160 km. The main buyers were women, since starting an electric motor, unlike a gasoline engine, did not require much physical effort. Initially, the model was equipped with lead-acid batteries, but soon they began installing an Edison iron-nickel battery for about $600 additional payment. The growth in sales (about 1,500 copies per year) was helped by high gasoline prices, because the First World War was in full swing.

Hellas is the ancient name of Greece. This state had a significant influence on further development Europe. It was here that such a concept as “democracy” first appeared, here the foundation was laid, the main features of theoretical philosophy were formed, and the most beautiful monuments of art were created. Hellas is an amazing country, and its history is full of secrets and mysteries. In this publication you will find the most Interesting Facts from the past of Greece.

From the history of Hellas

In the history of Ancient Greece, it is customary to distinguish 5 periods: Crete-Mycenaean, Dark Ages, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. Let's look at each of them in more detail.

The Creto-Mycenaean period is associated with the emergence of the first state formations on the islands of the Aegean Sea. Chronologically it covers 3000-1000 years. BC e. At this stage, the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations appeared.

The Dark Ages period is called the “Homeric” period. This stage is characterized by the final decline of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, as well as the formation of the first pre-polis structures. Sources practically do not mention this period. In addition, the Dark Ages are characterized by the decline of culture, economy and the loss of writing.

The Archaic period is the time of the formation of the main cities and the expansion of the Hellenic world. In the 8th century BC e. The Great Greek Colonization begins. During this period, the Greeks settled along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. During the Archaic period, the early forms of Hellenic art took shape.

The classical period is the heyday of the Greek city-states, their economy and culture. In the V-IV centuries. BC e. the concept of “democracy” appears. During the classical period, the most significant military events in the history of Hellas took place - the Greco-Persian and Peloponnesian wars.

The Hellenistic period is characterized by close interaction between Greek and Eastern cultures. At this time, there was a flourishing of art in the state. The Hellenistic period in the history of Greece lasted until the establishment of Roman rule in the Mediterranean.

The most famous cities of Hellas

It is worth noting that in Greece during the period of antiquity it did not work out single state. Hellas is a country that consisted of many policies. In antiquity, a city-state was called a polis. Its territory included an urban center and a chora (agricultural settlement). The political administration of the polis was in the hands of the People's Assembly and the Council. All city-states were different in both population and territory size.

The most famous policies of ancient Greece are Athens and Sparta (Lacedaemon).

Athens is the cradle of Greek democracy. Famous philosophers and orators, heroes of Hellas, as well as famous figures culture.
Sparta is a shining example of an aristocratic state. The main occupation of the population of the polis was war. It was here that the foundations of discipline and military tactics were laid, which were later used by Alexander the Great.

Culture of Ancient Greece

The myths and legends of Ancient Greece played a unifying role for the culture of the state. Every sphere of Hellenic life was subordinated to general ideas about deities. It is worth noting that the foundations of the ancient Greek religion were formed back in the Cretan-Mycenaean period. In parallel with mythology, cult practice arose - sacrifices and religious festivals, accompanied by agons.

Ancient Greek is also closely related to mythology. literary tradition, performing arts and music.

In Hellas, urban planning actively developed and beautiful architectural ensembles were created.

The most famous figures and heroes of Hellas

Hippocrates is the father of Western medicine. He is the creator of a medical school that had a huge influence on all ancient medicine.
Phidias is one of the most famous sculptors of the classical era. He is the author of one of the seven wonders of the world - the statue of Olympian Zeus.
Democritus is the father of modern science, the famous ancient Greek philosopher. He is considered the founder of atomism, the theory that material things are made of atoms.
Herodotus is the father of history. He studied the origins and events of the Greco-Persian wars. The result of this research was the famous work “History”.
Archimedes - Greek mathematician, physicist and astronomer.
Pericles is an outstanding statesman. He made a significant contribution to the development of the Athenian polis.
Plato is a famous philosopher and orator. He is the founder of the first educational institution in Western Europe - Plato's Academy in Athens.
Aristotle is one of the fathers of Western philosophy. His works covered almost all spheres of social life.

The importance of ancient Greek civilization for the development of world culture

Hellas is a country that has had a huge influence on the development of world culture. Here such concepts as “philosophy” and “democracy” were born, and the foundations of world science were laid. Greek ideas about the world, medicine, civil society and man also influenced the destinies of many Western European states. Any field of art is connected with this great state, be it theater, sculpture or literature.

An appeal to the art of Ancient Hellas may seem anachronistic these days: why bother contemplating long-vanished monuments when humanity in the long-suffering 20th century. in torment and doubt, seeks solutions to pressing issues life issues? Do three-thousand-year-old sculptures, most of them badly broken and sometimes incomprehensible, have the right to distract the attention and time of a modern, always busy person? Can they give him more than knowledge of a number of facts and events about a particular time, will they calm him down in moments of deep mental turmoil or excite him during difficult periods of indifference and depression, which sometimes capture not just one person, but the whole society?
The answers to these questions can hardly be found in any book. They sometimes appear at the most unexpected moment and often at those hours when a person, having come to the museum, switches off from the daily rush. Having lingered in the halls of art of Ancient Hellas, he sees at first glance monotonous marble sculptures, differing from each other only by the turn of the torso or the tilt of the head, the movement of the arms or the position of the legs. People who find all this boring hurry to the halls where sculptural monuments are full of seething passions or colorful canvases tell about entertaining situations, dramatic events, immediately capturing the viewer’s imagination. However, those who are interested in ancient monuments need not worry: they will receive their reward. Hellenic sculpture (and the main thing in the art of the ancient Greeks is plastic art - “a strong but secretive muse”) does not reveal all the wealth of emotions, conflicts, and ideals contained in it at once. It requires unhurried, thoughtful contemplation, penetration into the character of plastic forms, an almost real, joyful visual touch of all kinds of nuances in the modeling of marble sculptures.
The Hellenic art that will be discussed is not, strictly speaking, a museum-antique art: you don’t have to go to the halls of the Hermitage to enjoy it. On the streets of Russian and Western European cities there are many buildings, past which people walk every day and see pediments decorated with sculptures, relief friezes or monumental statues, beautiful colonnades created by architects who turned to antiquity. Passers-by usually do not think about the ancient Hellenes, but in the depths of their consciousness sometimes a memory arises of the Greeks who lived thousands of years ago and opened up for people the opportunity to “correctly rejoice,” as Aristotle said. Thanks to their es-

The tic insights at the Doric portico seem to instill courage and valor in a person, and at the Ionic or Corinthian portico, which adorns the entrance to the theater, a person experiences the “joy of recognition,” anticipating a meeting with art.
Despite the millennia that separate us from the ancient Hellenes, we largely live and breathe their consciousness of the world, their attitude to existence, colored and enriched, moreover, by the great ideas of Christianity...
Artistic heritage Ancient Hellas is one of two components of the great ancient culture (the other is the art of Ancient Rome), which determined the essence of all subsequent European aesthetic creativity. The ancient Hellenes, or Greeks, were a small but talented people who inhabited the Balkan Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. e. The origins of their origin go back to the distant past.
In the III-II millennium BC. e. The distant ancestors of the Greeks lived on the Balkan Peninsula, in the western coastal part of Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea. The large fortified cities of the Achaeans - Mycenae, Tiryns, Athens, Pylos and others - were part of the great, very developed, but so far little-studied Aegean or Crete-Mycenaean culture, along with Troy, the cities of the island of Crete and many other centers of the Aegean basin1. Having conquered Crete, but weakened after a grueling struggle with Troy, the Achaeans experienced the crushing pressure of the Dorians: these tribes poured into the Balkan Peninsula from the north and destroyed the cities of the Achaeans, * "pushing the inhabitants into southern regions Pelo-ponessa.
We can say that Greek art began its history in the 11th century. BC e. In the 1st century BC e. The Romans turned Greece into an imperial province. And although the Hellenic cities existed until the end ancient period and further, their culture and art from the 1st to the 4th centuries. n. e. were already part of the culture of the Roman Empire. The great period of Hellenic art, which left humanity the brightest monuments, lasted from the 11th to the 1st century. BC e. This is what will be discussed in this book.
The art of Hellas, naturally, had in its development the initial stages, centuries of flourishing and late period, when the character of an artist
1 Some researchers consider the art of the Aegean world to be the beginning of Greek culture, others are more cautious and treat it as a “buffer” phenomenon between the ancient Eastern and Greek civilizations. In this book, the story about the art of Hellas begins with the creativity of the Dorians. WITH artistic monuments The reader will be able to get acquainted with the Aegean world in other publications, in particular, in the album: Aegean Art. - M., 1972. In this book, from the monuments of Aegean art, the reader will see (in the insert and on the flyleaf) four works.
The reader who is interested in a more complete set of illustrations on Greek art will be able to find their reproduction in other books by the author.

The loss of former integrity and perfection began to be felt in the vein forms. In this regard, several periods are distinguished in the art of Hellas: Homeric (XI-VIII centuries BC), archaic (VII-VI centuries BC), classical (V-IV centuries BC .) and Hellenistic (III-I centuries BC). Latest ancient centuries(I-IV centuries AD) Hellas lived, as noted, under the rule of Rome.
When the reader encounters certain systems of periodization of art, he must always keep in mind the conventionality of the proposed boundaries, established only for the convenience of understanding development and in conflict with the living continuity of eternal, never stopping movement. It is impossible to indicate exactly the boundaries of archaic and classic, classic and Hellenistic, just as it is impossible to say that it was in such and such a century or in such and such a year that, for example, art ended Ancient East and the ancient era began. In many early monuments of the Greek archaic still for a long time Elements of ancient Eastern art made themselves felt. The same continuity, non-stopness can be observed during the decline of antiquity. In the II century. n. e. In Rome, the great temple of all the gods, the Pantheon, was still under construction - the most famous monument pagan era, but in those same years, in the deep dungeons of Rome, the catacombs, early Christian works were already appearing - frescoes full of new sensual emotions, multi-figure reliefs on marble sarcophagi. Continuity, integrity and solidity of the development process ancient art(as, indeed, the arts of other eras) must always be taken into account, contemplating and mentally analyzing the features of various artistic forms.
Art ancient Greece- the most important stage in the development of universal human culture, located chronologically between the eras of the Ancient East and the Middle Ages, - a kind of link in the chain of the general evolution of the artistic form. At the same time, the art of Hellas is an original, special phenomenon. It is these two qualities of it - general historical significance and individual, unique essence - that should always be recognized by a person who comes into contact with the images created by the ancient Greeks. Also, however, one should treat each individual work of art, which is, on the one hand, an element of continuous human evolution, part of a universal civilization, and on the other, an exceptional creation of an individual - an artist, for whom nothing quite adequate can ever be found.
A reader who is familiar with the monuments of the Ancient East, who knows about the existence of the pyramids in Giza, about the reliefs Egyptian temples, about the monumental sculptures of the pharaohs, will notice many fundamentally new things in the art of the ancient Hellenes. Indeed, ancient Egyptian artists were guided by feelings of immensity, the globality of the world, moods colored by an awareness of the cosmic nature of existence: the columns of Egyptian temples are still perceived as giant embodiments of the very essence of plants - lotus or papyrus, the ceilings of central

Birth of Aphrodite. Relief. Marble. Around 460 BC e. Rome, National Museum
halls are like the sky with stars, and the temples themselves are like art model universe. A person next to such architectural images seems insignificant, insignificant, almost a grain of sand. At the temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri, it is insignificant - a temple with a huge colonnade rises above it as a symbol of the deity, nature (rocks) reigns even higher, and the sky and the all-encompassing cosmos dominate over all this. In Greece, artists, without losing the sense of the cosmic nature of existence, began to see the main thing in earthly images. Temples were built based on human proportions; columns often took the form of caryatids and Atlanteans.
The boundaries of the concept of deity in Egypt were infinitely wide. In Greece, all world entities (nature, animals, plants), included in the concept of deity, took on the form of a person. Genesis was embodied by the courageous, wise Zeus, the vastness of the sea with its unrest and dangers - Poseidon, vegetable world, promising fertility and wealth - Demeter, the animal kingdom - Artemis, etc.
The deity in the minds of the ancient Egyptian artist was infinite in its parameters; in Greece, the divine and real world was focused in human forms. In such a change in the world-

Views can be felt, on the one hand, a narrowing of the framework in the perception of existence, a slight decrease in its greatness and comprehensiveness, but, on the other hand, one cannot help but see in this a movement towards a humanistic understanding of the surrounding reality. For the Greek, man is no longer an infinitesimal, insignificant being, lost in the vastness of the divine spheres, but, as it were, the very embodiment of an idea, the center of the universe.
If in Ancient Egypt the deity often appeared in the guise of a half-beast, often with the body of a man and the head of an animal, then with the ancient Greeks everything was different: the deity always had the appearance of a human, and in the guise of monsters the body of an animal was used, but sometimes the head was human.
In the art of Ancient Egypt, the artist is captivated by the grandeur and mystery of nature and deity, he is captured by solemn and reverent awe. In Greek artists, even in the early archaic era, a person seems calm, confident, and majestic.
Compared to Egyptian art, the elements of the secular principle are strengthened in Greek, of course, with a very significant cult sense.
The world of artistic images of Ancient Egypt is full of contrasts. These are either large figures of omnipotent pharaohs, priests, officials, or small ones - insignificant slaves, captives. Explained by social status, the diversity of people depicted on Egyptian reliefs is ubiquitous. Among the ancient Hellenes it almost disappears.
The inner excitement of even outwardly calm images in ancient Egyptian monuments is extremely emphasized by artists. In the art of the Greeks, especially in the classical period, everything gravitates towards restraint of emotions, sublime enlightenment of consciousness.
It is worth paying attention to the fact that after the expressiveness of the Egyptian perception of the world, which was replaced by the rationality and logic of antiquity, the emotional essence of images will again clearly manifest itself in the art of the Middle Ages, only to give way again to a logical rational system during the Renaissance. In such an endlessly pulsating rhythm of human relationship to the world, when rational principles arise alternately after sensual principles, antiquity is perceived as one of the brightest manifestations of world artistic consciousness.
It is known that heightened internal emotionality and sensual expressiveness led in the art of the ancient Egyptians to the canonization of forms, a kind of principles of external restraint. The Greek philosopher Plato writes: “Having established what was beautiful, the Egyptians announced it at sacred festivals, and no one - neither painters, nor anyone else who creates all kinds of images, nor in general those who are engaged in the musical arts,” was allowed to introduce innovations and invent something other than domestic.”
A completely different picture is presented by the art of the ancient Greeks, which is characterized by frequent, very noticeable changes in artistic forms, especially evident at the turn of the 5th-4th centuries. BC e.
1 The musical arts of the ancient Greeks are arts that are controlled beautiful Muses, led by the god Apollo. - Approx. author of the book.

Embodied, as noted, in ancient Egyptian art, the awareness of the boundlessness of the cosmic scale of the universe determined the noticeable mystery of its images.
In the art of the Hellenes, where man became the basis of the new mythological perception and the attention of artists focused on his essence, the element of mystery of existence became much less.
By the time of the formation of ancient (Hellenic) artistic activity The main types of fine art known in our time managed to emerge and take shape: architecture, sculpture, painting, relief, vase painting, glyptics, etc. In Ancient Hellas they received further development, which determined the originality and dissimilarity of ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian monuments. At the same time, one cannot help but notice a lot of new things in Greek art, in particular in relation to materials. One of the main innovations was the widespread use of marble instead of strong rocks (granite, basalt, diorite), which were consonant with the sense of eternity, and also colored ones, which thereby reinforced the abstraction of Egyptian images from reality. New types of glyptics, in addition to intaglio, such, in particular, as cameo, also became widespread among the Hellenes; arose in many glass vessels, the art of terracotta has become very popular.
The tools used by Hellenic sculptors were tongue-and-groove, scarpel, tra-yanka, rasp, and drill. The initial processing was carried out with a tongue and groove, the impacts of the sharp end of which left rough marks on the surface. Then the stone block was processed more carefully with a scarpel, which, like a tongue and groove, was hit with a hammer, so that a trace resembling a path was left from the sharp and flat working end of the scarpel. Subsequent finishing was carried out with a trajanka, which left small parallel notches. Then the stone was polished with a rasp or sand. To make recesses - ears, nostrils, folds of clothing, etc. - Hellenic craftsmen used a drill.
In the art of the Hellenes, sculpture always occupied the first place in its importance. Even the forms of architecture (for example, the Parthenon) were plastic. Very underdeveloped fresco painting on the plane was of little interest to the Greeks; it was pushed aside in the heyday (5th century BC) by drawings on the spherical surfaces of vessels. The plasticity of the entire Greek worldview is obvious. She also declared herself in the nature of philosophical aphoristic conclusions (“I know that I know nothing,” “Know yourself,” etc.), mythological heroes seem to be tangibly personified ideas, the Greeks’ three-dimensional and imaginative perception of the world and all elements is striking.
If in the art of the East speculativeness, and sometimes not quite clear abstraction, mystery prevailed (by the way, they were discovered later in the art of the Middle Ages), then the image created by the Hellenes (architectural, sculptural, philosophical, poetic, mythological, pictorial) is always extremely specific, it is so clear that it seems you can feel it, touch it with your hand.

The plasticity of perception of the world is the core, the essence of ancient, mainly Hellenic art. In the Roman, the prerequisites for the transition to a new - medieval, as before antiquity, will already be noticeable, a more speculative, abstract understanding of being and man.
The art of the ancient Hellenes revealed an exceptional integrity of aesthetic understanding of the world, a kind of universality artistic thinking, the ability of one master, far from professional limitations, to express his feelings in different types art, in an architectural structure, statue, ceramics or jewelry. This is how Phidias, Skopas and, probably, many of their fellow tribesmen worked. It was no coincidence that the same qualities of an integral artistic consciousness manifested themselves later, in the years High Renaissance, in the works of Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo.
In his mind, Hellen perceived himself as a great, harmonious and beautiful person. “The artist, when creating them (statues from the pediment of the Parthenon - G.S.), hardly had before him a more perfect nature than we,” said Goethe, “the artist grew up himself and, embodying nature, reflected in it his own high perfection.. Whoever wants to do something great must develop his powers so much that he is able, like the Greeks, to raise the lower real nature to the height of his spirit and make real that which in the phenomena of nature, due to internal weakness or external obstacles, remains simple. opportunity"1.
Completeness and integrity, completeness artistic image was characteristic of the art of the ancient Hellenes. The feeling of duality and uncertainty was excluded. The sense of joy of suffering, which strongly developed in the Middle Ages, was alien to Greek art; it did not encourage the embodiment of mutually exclusive but intertwined emotions. Beauty in Hellenic art always had to be logically expressed by the artist and also clearly, without omissions, perceived by the viewer. Art for ancient Greek moreover, it was not just decoration, it contained some more serious, moral deep meaning, necessary for a person in his real life. “Whoever is beautiful is the only thing that pleases our eyesight; whoever is good in himself will seem beautiful,” says the poetess Sappho. The Greeks always wanted to see ethical and moral elements in the aesthetics of the images they created. Obviously, in this regard, the poet Theognis writes: “Everything that is beautiful is sweet, and everything that is not beautiful is not cute.” The logical clarity of artistic images, the definiteness and completeness of their forms, as well as plasticity, constitute one of the most important qualities of Hellenic art.
Another very important, perhaps even the main feature of Hellenic art that the reader will encounter is the exceptionally strong metaphorical nature of the images.
In the monuments of Ancient Egypt, as noted, their cult essence always came first. Valuable now, undoubtedly,
1 Eckerman I.P. Conversations with Goethe in the last years of his life: Trans. E. T. Rudneva.- M.; L., 1934.- pp. 406-407.

Their enormous aesthetic qualities, no matter how great they were, were subject to religious canons. In Hellas, a new principle co-existing with the cult arises and develops artistic reflection peace. In monuments, metaphor always comes to the fore. Naturally, its manifestations evolve over time, many early works The Hellenes still preserve extensive dedications carved on marble surfaces to the deities depicted on them. Later in the classics, this tendency disappears, and it is no longer possible to imagine multi-line appeals to the deity embossed on the leg of Apollo Belvedere or Aphrodite of Melos. The statue begins to be perceived not only as a gift from a pilgrim to the all-powerful Olympian, but primarily as a work of art. This process, which actively developed throughout Hellenic history, led, in fact, to the birth of art. (Although it should be noted that the ancient Greeks did not have a word in their language equivalent to the later term “art.”)
Metaphorical, characteristic of art of all times and peoples, arose and manifested itself with particular force, primarily among the Hellenes. We can say that it became the basis of the artistic image. How in famous poem“In the wild north it stands alone...” the poet is not talking about a pine and a palm tree, but about separated souls loving each other, and the trees described are nothing more than poetic metaphors, and Hellenic images are often colored in new, sometimes unusual, but always bright colors that enrich the perception.
Agesander (m. b. Alexander).
Aphrodite of Melos. Marble.
1st half of the 2nd century BC e. Paris, Louvre

Metaphoricality as a deep property of an artistic image based on associative connections of an aesthetic nature (requiring attentive, leisurely contemplation and experience) formed the basis of Greek art, and subsequently all later European art. Metaphor is complex, it is inextricably linked with the person contemplating the image and, in essence, “is reflected in him, being, as it were, his, the viewer’s, quality. The sharper a person’s receptivity, the more complex, richer and more diverse the metaphorical coloring of the monument seems to him. The more modest its aesthetic baggage, the more colorless is the metaphor for it and the less expressive is the work of art.
In ancient Egyptian monuments, which, as mentioned, were largely subordinated to religious elements of perception, the metaphor is not always understood openly and logically, since the master appeals primarily to a miracle, revelation, and mysterious insight. The ancient way of artistic and metaphorical understanding and reflection of the world is fundamentally different from the Egyptian one.
When examining the sculptures of the Aegina pediment, where the Achaeans and Trojans fight, one must remember that in the minds of people in the 5th century. BC e. this conflict was associated with the war between the Greeks and Persians, which greatly worried Hellenic society at that time. We perceive the victory of the gods over the giants depicted on the reliefs of the altar of Zeus in Pergamon as a kind of metaphor, an artistic allusion to the triumph of the inhabitants of Pergamum, who defeated their opponents - the Gauls.
The ancient Greeks began to understand that in living tissue true art hidden is not only the beauty of allegory - metaphor, but also the possibility of miraculous foresight. They began to see artists primarily as prophets.
The metaphorical nature of Greek art is especially clearly manifested in the theme of centauromachy. It would be naive to think that the Greeks of the 5th century. BC e. believed in the existence of centaur monsters. The centaur was perceived as a poetic image of a half-man, half-animal, and the victory over him was the triumph of a bright mind over a chaotic and vague half-animal state.
The metaphorical nature of the Hellenes was manifested not only in the philosophical understanding of many mythological images, but also in the attitude of masters to the artistic properties of materials. It was as if the meaning of the image lay in the marble itself, which was already slightly “melting” from the surface, especially well suited for statues of Aphrodite. It is no coincidence that craftsmen preferred bronze, which is more consistent with the external qualities of a tanned male body, in statues of athletes. In the minds of the viewer, the noted properties of the materials were transferred to the qualities of the image. They shaped his essence, strengthened his features.
The metaphor also affects the nature of the processing of the material - in the interpretation of its surface. The smoothness of the stone creates one impression of the image, the roughness evokes different associations, and this changes the attitude towards the image. The unpolished, generally outlined shoulders and face of the centaur on one of the Parthenon metopes are not the result of a flaw on the part of the sculptor. Their difference from marble is more carefully

The carefully processed surface of the body of the Greek fighting the monster promotes awareness of the rudeness and uncouthness of the centaur, contrasted with the harmonious and clear man in his bright thoughts.
Just as conventional concepts chronological framework antiquity, which revealed itself in many various styles, the manners of all subsequent centuries, including modern times, its territorial boundaries are also arbitrary. One can only indicate where the initial manifestations of Hellenic art expressed themselves and where Hellenic culture declared herself as a new, unusual, beautiful entity that amazed everyone. Like a goddess emerging from the foam, ancient art, unrivaled in the beauty of its monuments, revealed itself for the first time in the Aegean basin; it arose, one might say, from the waves, like the beautiful Aphrodite. The islands of Crete, the Cyclades, the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor were lands that were first ennobled by the wonderful shoots of Hellenic artistic consciousness. The initially narrow territorial boundaries of ancient art subsequently expanded significantly. They include Spain in the west, the shores of the Black Sea in the north, Asia Minor cities in the east, and North African cities in the south.
With the attack on the Greco-Roman cities of the barbarians in the first centuries of our era, the boundaries of the influence of the art of the ancient Hellenes narrowed again, but Roman elements made themselves known. Sometimes very unusual works of the Hellenes appear on the periphery - in Spain, Sicily, the Northern Black Sea region, North Africa, Southern France, Asia Minor. The uniqueness of the way of life of numerous Hellenic tribes also determines the specificity art schools(Attic, Doric, Ionic), very different from each other and leaving different in their style features monuments.
In the book, the reader will find a lot of information about the works of Hellenic masters, meet the names of artists and sculptors, and learn about the attitude of the ancient Greeks themselves to art. This information largely comes to modern science from the works of various ancient authors, and primarily from the miraculously surviving book of Pausanias “Description of Hellas,” translated into Russian.
Quite a lot of monuments, architectural and sculptural, as well as items of applied art (vases, glyptics, terracotta, numismatics, etc.) have been preserved from the art of Hellas. Many works of ancient Greek masters are now being discovered by archaeologists at the sites of settlements of ancient people. They are discovered both in Greece itself and in the regions of the Northern Black Sea region, where in the period from the 6th century. BC e. to the 4th century n. e. there were ancient cities and towns.
It will not be particularly difficult for the reader to see, even without visiting Greece, beautiful monuments on our land ancient architecture, marble statues, painted ceramic vessels. And it is quite possible that after reading the book he will become more understandable and closer to the ancient Greek works of art people he will meet in his life.

The modern world owes a lot ancient Greece. This relatively small state had a huge impact on the development of all areas of human life. Take, for example, myths, which are a reflection of human life, both in those times and today. Ideas about the world - about man, medicine, politics, art, literature - on a global scale originated in Greece. This state was located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands of the Aegean Sea. Accordingly, such a relatively small territory accommodated a small number of population, but, as Alexander the Great said, “One Greek is worth a thousand barbarians.” Greece stood out among other states - Babylonia, Egypt and Persia - and not without reason.

Map of ancient Greece

Ancient times of Ancient Greece

Territory of Ancient Greece It is customary to roughly divide it into three parts: Southern, Middle and Northern. In the southern part was Laconia, better known as Sparta. Athens, the main city of Greece, was located in the middle part of the state, along with such areas as Attica, Aetolia and Phocis. This part was separated from the North by almost impassable mountains and separated Athens and Thessaly, which today is itself a major historical center.

About the population of Ancient Greece can be judged by the numerous examples of art that have been preserved almost in their original form - these are sculptures, frescoes and elements of painting. In any museum in the world you will find a hall of ancient Greek art, where you will see many images of high, slim people with an ideal physique, with fair skin and dark curly hair. Ancient historians call them Pelasgians - the people who inhabited the islands of the Aegean Sea in III millennium BC. Despite the fact that their occupations were no different from those of other ancient peoples and included cattle breeding and agriculture, it should be noted that their land was difficult to cultivate and required the use of special skills.

The peoples of Greece and their development

Those who inhabited Greece almost five thousand years ago were expelled from their lands exactly in the same millennium in which they appeared. The reason for this was the Achaeans who invaded from the north, whose state was also located on the island of the Peloponnese with its capital in Mycenae. This conquest was epochal in nature, as it marked the beginning of the Achaean civilization, which suffered the same sad fate - at the end of the 13th century BC, just as the Achaeans invaded the Greek lands, the Dorians came to this territory. Unfortunately, the conquerors destroyed almost all the cities and the entire Akhian population, although they themselves, at the same time, were at a lower stage of development of civilization. This fact could not but affect the culture of Ancient Greece. Was forgotten ancient writing, created by the Pelasgians, not to mention the fact that the construction and development of tools stopped. This period, which is deservedly called “dark,” lasted neither more nor less from the 12th to the 9th centuries AD. Among the cities, Athens and Sparta still stood out, where two antagonistic societies were located.

So, in Lakonica (Sparta) the governors were two kings who ruled, passing on their power by inheritance. However, despite this, real power was in the hands of the elders, who made laws and were involved in judging. The love of luxury in Sparta was severely persecuted, and the main task of the elders was to prevent class stratification of society, for which each Greek family received from the state an allotment of land, which it had to cultivate without the right to receive additional territories. Soon the Spartans were forbidden to engage in trade, agriculture and crafts; the slogan was proclaimed that “the occupation of every Spartan is war,” which was supposed to fully provide the population of Laconia with everything necessary for life. The morals of the Spartans are eloquently evidenced by the fact that warriors could be expelled from their troops only because he did not fully eat his portion of food at a common meal, which indicated that he dined on the side. Moreover, a wounded Spartan had to die silently on the battlefield, without showing unbearable pain.

The main rival of Sparta was the current capital of Greece - Athens. This city was a center of the arts, and the people who inhabited it were the complete opposite of the rude and tough Spartans. Nevertheless, despite the ease and carefreeness of life, it was here that the word “tyrant” appeared. Initially it meant “ruler,” but when the authorities of Athens began to engage in outright robbery of the population, this word acquired the connotation that it has to this day. Peace was brought to the devastated city by King Solon, a wise and kind ruler who did a lot to improve the lives of the townspeople.

The 6th century brought new trials to the inhabitants of Greece - the danger came from the Persians, who quickly conquered Egypt, Media and Babylonia. In the face of the Persian power, the peoples of Greece united, forgetting about centuries-old strife. Of course, the center of the army was the Spartans, who devoted their lives to military affairs. The Athenians, in turn, began building a flotilla. Darius underestimated the power of the Greeks and lost the very first battle, which is immortalized in history by the fact that a joyful messenger ran from Marathon to Athens to convey the good news of victory, and, having covered 40 km, fell dead. It is with that event in mind that athletes run the “marathon distance.” Xerxes, the son of Darius, having enlisted the support and help of the conquered states, nevertheless lost a number of most important battles, and abandoned any attempts to conquer Greece. Thus, Greece became the most influential state, which gave it a number of privileges, especially to Athens, which became the capital of trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Sparta united with Athens the next time in the face of the Macedonian conqueror Philip II, who, unlike Darius, quickly broke the resistance of the Greeks, establishing power over all areas of the state except Sparta, which refused to submit. Thus, the Classical period of development of the Hellenic states ended and the rise of Greece as part of Macedonia began. Thanks to Alexander the Great, Greeks and Macedonians by 400 BC became the sovereign masters of all of Western Asia. The Hellenistic era ended in 168 BC, when large-scale conquests of the Roman Empire began.

The role of Greek civilization in the history of the development of the world

Historians agree that cultural world development would have been impossible without the heritage that Ancient Greece left us. It was here that the fundamental knowledge about the universe that is used was laid modern science. The first philosophical concepts were formulated here, defining the basis for the development of spiritual values of all humanity. The Greek philosopher Aristotle laid the foundations for ideas about the material and immaterial world, Greek athletes became the first champions of the first Olympic Games. Any science or field of art is somehow connected with this great Ancient state - be it theater, literature, painting or sculpture. The Iliad, the main work that has survived to this day, tells very vividly and colorfully about historical events those times, about the way of life of the ancient Eleans, and, more importantly, is dedicated to real events. The famous Greek thinker Herodotus contributed to the development of history, whose works were devoted to the Greco-Persian wars. The contribution of Pythagoras and Archimedes to the development of mathematics cannot be overestimated. Moreover, the ancient Greeks were the authors of numerous inventions, which were used primarily during military operations.

The Greek theater deserves special attention, which was an open area with a round structure for the choir and a stage for artists. This architecture meant the creation of excellent acoustics, and spectators sitting even in the far rows could hear all the cues. It is noteworthy that the actors hid their faces under masks, which were divided into comic and tragic. Reverently revering their gods, the Greeks created their statues and sculptures, which still amaze with their beauty and perfection.

Special place Ancient Greece in world ancient history makes it one of the most mysterious and amazing states in the ancient world. The progenitor of science and art, Greece to this day attracts the attention of everyone who is interested in world history.

Periods of ancient Greece. History of development

Early period (1050-750 BC)

Following the final one, which knew writing, - the last of the glorious civilizations of the Aegean Bronze Age, mainland Greece and the islands off its coast entered an era called by some historians "Dark Age". However, strictly speaking, this term rather characterizes a break in historical information that relates to the time interval that began around 1050 BC. e., rather than the lack of knowledge or historical experience among the then population of Hellas, although writing was lost. In fact, it was precisely at this time, the time of transition into the Iron Age, that the political, aesthetic and literary features that were then characteristic of classical Hellas began to appear. Local leaders, who called themselves pari, ruled small, closely connected communities - the forerunners of the ancient Greek city-states. The next stage in the development of painted ceramics is obvious, which has become simpler in shape, but at the same time stronger; her appearance, as evidenced by vessel shown on the right, acquired new grace, harmony and proportionality, which became the hallmarks of later Greek art.

Taking advantage vague memories, Trojans and others, wandering singers composed stories about gods and mere mortals, giving poetic imagery Greek mythology. By the end of this period, Greek-speaking tribes borrowed the alphabet and adapted it to their language, which made it possible to record many tales that had long been preserved in oral tradition: the best among them that have come down to us are the Homeric epics " 776 BC e., is considered to be the beginning of the subsequent continuous rise of Greek culture.

Archaic (Archaic) period (750-500 BC)

In the 8th century, prompted population and wealth growth Emigrants from ancient Greece spread throughout the Mediterranean in search of new agricultural land and trade opportunities. Greek settlers in foreign countries, however, became more than just subjects cities that founded colonies, but separate, autonomous political entities. The spirit of independence that possessed the settlers, as well as the need for joint action to maintain each community, gave rise to such a political unit as the polis. Throughout the Greek world there were supposedly up to 700 similar city-states. The foreign cultures with which Hellas came into contact during this period of expansion affected the Greeks in a variety of ways.

Geometric painting of ceramics gave way to images of animals and plant designs in the oriental style, as well as detailed mythological scenes of the new black-figure style of vase painting (see photo gallery below). Artists working with stone, clay, wood and bronze began to create monumental sculptures human Typical for archaic statue of Kouros(photo left) bears clear traces of Egyptian influence, but at the same time demonstrates an emerging desire for symmetry, lightness and realism. In the seventh century the first truly Greek temples appear, decorated with extended friezes and columns Doric order(see photo gallery below). Lyrical and elegiac poetry, deeply personal and emotionally rich, is replacing the stilted verses of the past. The development of trade contributed to the widespread spread of coinage invented by the Lydians. On the mainland at the same time Sparta introduces a political system in which special meaning given strict management and discipline, and as a result became the largest and most powerful city-state of the period. Athens On the contrary, they change and codify laws, caring for justice and equality, open access to governing bodies to an increasing number of citizens and lay the foundations of democracy.

Classical period (500-323 BC)

The classical period in ancient Greece, when it was incredibly fast blossomed arts, literature, philosophy and politics, limited by the time of wars with two foreign powers - Persia and Macedonia. Hellenic victory over the Persians gave rise to a new spirit of cooperation between the various city-states and Athens, whose fleet played a decisive role in ensuring a favorable turnaround in the fight against the so-called barbarians. The tribute from the allies to the Athenian treasury in exchange for military protection provided the Athenians with the opportunity to increase their already significant wealth and guaranteed the city political, cultural and economic supremacy throughout the Mediterranean. Almost all citizens of Athens, regardless of financial status, were provided with access to elected positions, and they received remuneration for the performance of relevant duties. At state expense, sculptors, architects and playwrights worked on works that still remain the highest creative achievement humanity. Shown, for example, on the right is bronze Zeus statue 213 centimeters high gives a concentrated idea of the skill of the artists of classical Hellas (ancient Greece), who reproduced the human body in their works with extraordinary dynamism. Greek philosophers, historians, and natural scientists left examples of rational theoretical analysis.

In 431, the long-standing enmity between Athens and Sparta resulted in a war that lasted almost 30 years and ended in the defeat of the Athenians. Decades of continuous fighting led to a weakening of political influence in many city-states, where brutal infighting continued. Calculating and ambitious Macedonian king Philip II managed to benefit from such chaos and soon became the master of the entire territory of ancient Greece. Philip failed to complete the construction of the empire, he was killed, and his son ascended the throne Alexander. Just 12 years later, Alexander the Great (Macedonian) died, but left behind a power stretching from the Adriatic to Media (see photo gallery below).

Hellenistic period (323-31 BC)

From the ruins of Alexander's empire, after almost 50 years of fierce struggle for his inheritance, three major powers emerged: Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state, stretching from modern Turkey to Afghanistan. It's amazing, that from the Macedonian capital of Pella in the west to Ai-Khanum in the east, the language, literature, political institutions, fine arts, architecture and philosophy in the cities and settlements that arose as a result of Alexander's campaigns remained unambiguously Greek after his death. Subsequent kings emphasized their kinship with Hellas, especially with Alexander: the picture on the left shows Thracian silver coin, in which he is depicted with the ram horns of Zeus-Amun - a god with roots in both the East and the West. Possessing a common language, influenced by constant trade contacts, preserving written texts and attracting numerous travelers, the Hellenistic world became more and more cosmopolitan.

Education and enlightenment flourished, libraries were created - among them was Great Library of Alexandria , which contained about half a million volumes. But the Greek ruling classes refused to allow ordinary subjects into their ranks, and the vast new kingdoms were everywhere shaken by internal turmoil. Steadily weakening and impoverished Macedonia in 168 BC. e. came under domination. One after another, the provincial governors of the Seleucid Empire declared themselves independent, forming many small states with a dynastic form of government. Of the kingdoms into which Alexander's empire broke up, Ptolemaic Egypt still stood as a bastion. Cleopatra VII, the last of this line (and the only one who learned the language of the subject population), committed suicide when the Romans were victorious at Actium. However, although they managed to subjugate the entire Mediterranean, the dominance of the Latins did not yet mean the end of Greek influence: the Romans absorbed the culture of ancient Greece and perpetuated the Hellenic heritage in a way that the Greeks themselves could not.