Brief history of Russian painting. Architecture and painting of Ancient Rus'
The brilliant flowering of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century was clearly manifested in fine art, realistic art, truly folk, deeply national. It was humanistic art, permeated with the ideas of the revolutionary liberation movement, reflecting the struggle of the sixties and populism against serfdom and autocracy, which had a great public resonance in the democratic circles of the Russian intelligentsia. Dedicated to the people, it spoke to them in a truthful, simple and clear language. Never before have Russian artists had such a huge and grateful audience.
Fine art was imbued with the ideas of the people's liberation struggle, responded to the demands of life and actively interfered with life. In the fine arts, realism was finally established - a truthful and comprehensive reflection of the life of the people, the desire to rebuild this life on the principles of equality and justice. The second half of the 19th century became important stage in the development of Russian fine art. It has become truly great, actively invading life and reflecting it, or solving problems posed by time.
In Russian painting there were two main directions, which are usually called “academic”, which expressed noble-bourgeois views, and “Peredvizhniki”, i.e. democratic.
The personification of routine was seen in the Academy of Arts, dependent on court circles, which found itself on the sidelines of the rise public consciousness. The Academy stood guard over dying traditions, “high” style and “high” themes - from ancient mythology, religious, pseudo-historical. She was afraid of the close contact of art with modern life.
In pictures from Russian reality, everything in more appearing at exhibitions from the late 50s to early 60s, their incriminating features are intensifying; Critical realism and the desire to intervene in life and influence it in the interests of the people are growing.
The second half of the 19th century is the time of the formation of a realistic, national, democratic direction in the fine arts, this is the time of the life and work of outstanding Russian artists who made a huge contribution to the development of Russian fine art.
Typical of the painting of the 60s was the figure of V. G. Perov (1833-1882). He is the brightest representative of the accusatory trend in painting. His role in the development of national realistic art was very significant both before and especially after the 60s. The name of Perov has become popular since the last pre-reform years, when one after another his canvases began to appear, dedicated to different aspects of Russian life, depicting various social types, sharply denouncing the bureaucracy and the clergy (“Arrival of the chief for investigation”, 1857; “First rite”, 1860; in 1861-1862 - “Rural religious procession for Easter”, “Sermon in the village”, “Tea drinking in Mytishchi”) . In 1865-1868. Perov's paintings "Seeing Off the Dead Man", "Troika", "The Arrival of the Governess in merchant's house", "The Drowned Woman", "The Last Tavern at the Outpost", where the artist’s attention is drawn to the plight of the peasantry, to the victims of social injustice. The artist's sympathy is undoubtedly on the side of the peasant, whose image is clearly idealized. Later Perov switched to neutral in social sense genre themes (“Birder Catcher”, “Hunters at a Rest”), he also proved himself to be an excellent portrait painter (portraits of A. N. Ostrovsky, V. I. Dahl, M. P. Pogodin, I. S. Turgenev, famous portrait F. M. Dostoevsky is one of the pinnacles of portraiture). The work of V. G. Perov is distinguished by incorruptible truthfulness, deep feeling, and the gift of psychological insight.
The ideological and social atmosphere of the era affected the memorable events of 1863, which led to a break with the Academy of Arts by a group of gifted young artists.
The group of artists consisted of thirteen painters (I. N. Kramskoy, A. I. Korzukhin, A. I. Morozov, F. S. Zhuravlev, K. E. Makovsky, etc.) and one sculptor (V. P. Kreitan) . Its inspirer and leader was I. N. Kramskoy (1837-1887).
The “revolt” of the fourteen, their decision to organize into a free artistic artel, alerted the government. By “highest command”, “the actions of these young people” and the “direction of the society they formed” were monitored. The artel of St. Petersburg artists was a professional association that carried out all kinds of orders, and at the same time an everyday commune and, most importantly, an ideological and artistic center; it seemed to be formed here at that stage public opinion artistic environment. The artel organized exhibitions of paintings that enjoyed great success from the public.
The work of the artel nevertheless turned out to be difficult and complex: economic motives for some of its members eventually became predominant, and the principled side faded into the background. Friction began to arise within the artel. In 1870, Kramskoy left the artel; it existed for several more years, but no longer had the same meaning. It is noteworthy that in the mid-60s in St. Petersburg there existed for some time a second artistic artel, which arose following the example of the initiative of Kramskoy and his comrades. V. M. Maksimov, A. A. Kiselev (future Wanderers), N. A. Koshelev and others belonged to it.
The participants of both artels, the first in particular, largely determined the nature of painting of the 60s, addressed to Russian reality, imbued with heartfelt attention to life and experiences ordinary people. But they do not exhaust the circle of sixties artists of the new realistic school. Go back to the 60s best paintings N.V. Nevrev (1830-1904), akin in the spirit of creativity to Perov, such as “Bargaining” (the sale of a young peasant woman by a landowner) and a series of paintings. During the same period, the work of the satirist artist and writer of everyday life of the urban poor L. I. Solomatkin (1837-1883) developed. V. G. Schwartz (1838-1869) paved new paths in historical painting, introducing into it the features of realism, psychologism, and to a certain extent, incrimination; he owns the outstanding painting “The Queen's Spring Train on a pilgrimage under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich” (1868), a number of works about the time of Ivan IV. Another historical painter K.D. Flavitsky (1830-1866), who remained within the framework of the academic direction, nevertheless, in the sensational painting “Princess Tarakanova” (1864), experienced the influence of the democratic painting school.
Artistic movement The 60s paved the way for the formation of a partnership of traveling art exhibitions.
The initiative to create this association, which played a huge role in Russian culture, belonged to G. G. Myasoedov (1834 or 1835-1911). In November 1870, the Charter of the Partnership was approved, and a year later its first exhibition opened in St. Petersburg. The scope of the Partnership's activities gradually expanded. The number of cities visited by the Peredvizhniki exhibition increased several times by the 80s. The idea of moving exhibitions, which was important in itself, bringing art closer to more or less wide sections of the population, not only Russian, but also Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Latvian, etc., did not exhaust the tasks of the new, as yet unprecedented in nature, association, which , not distinguished by the complete internal unity of all participants, was nevertheless composed and actually acted on the basis of some essential general principles and aspirations. The Partnership consistently defended the principles of critical realism and nationalism.
The people were the main characters of many Peredvizhniki paintings. Some Peredvizhniki paid great attention to city life. In Peredvizhniki painting, since the mid-70s, works dedicated to the labor of workers and working types have appeared. Progressive social circles greeted the formation of the Association of Itinerants with exceptional interest and sympathy. Reactionary circles, on the contrary, showed an unkind attitude towards the Wanderers. The most successful exhibitions turned into major not only artistic but also social events. During the first quarter century of their existence, more than a million people visited traveling exhibitions.
Such Itinerants as Myasoedov (mainly in the first period of his work), Maksimov, Savitsky and others worked in the field of predominantly genre, and the most prominent place in genre paintings belonged to the peasant theme.
Unlike Maksimov or Myasoedov, V. E. Makovsky (1846-1920) devoted himself primarily to the urban genre. The name of the artist N. A. Yaroshenko (1846-1898) is also associated with the development of the urban genre. He was one of the ideological leaders of the Partnership. He belonged to those artists who most closely connected their work with the socio-political movement of the era.
Portrait painting, it cannot be emphasized enough, occupied a significant place in in some cases and the main place in the work of a number of Peredvizhniki. Outstanding master the portrait was I.N. Kramskoy. Working on the portrait opened up for him, like other Itinerants, the possibility of showing a positive figure of our time - prominent representatives of culture in the first place.
In the early 70s he performed his first major works great artist I. E. Repin (1844-1930). A brilliant master of drawing and composition, constantly striving for improvement, an artist of enormous temperament, Repin especially emphasized the role of ideas and content in art.
A number of Repin’s genres are imbued with sincere sympathy for the feat of revolutionary fighters (“Under Escort”, 1876; “Arrest of a Propagandist”, 1878-1892; “Refusal of Confession”, 1879-1885; “We Didn’t Expect”, 1883 and 1884-1888, etc. .). Repin's great psychological gift was reflected in the huge and varied gallery of portraits he created. Repin the portrait painter, with inimitable depth, strength, and accuracy, captured the appearance of the most prominent representatives of literature and the public, music, painting and theater. The ruling elite of Tsarist Russia at the turn of two centuries was depicted with merciless truthfulness by Repin in the group portrait “Great Meeting of the State Council” and in sketches for it. Repin belongs to the remarkable Russian historical painters.
By the beginning of the 90s it was completed (at most known version) painting “Cossacks composing a letter to the Turkish Sultan” (the second painting on the same theme was completed by the artist in 1896). The artist’s idea when creating the painting was to glorify the people’s love of freedom, the upsurge of spirit and energy they experienced in the struggle for independence and freedom.
The history of Russian painting knows many highly talented artists. But there was not one whose paintings combined the depth of thoughts and feelings with such painterly skill as Repin’s. Repin is the deepest, most moving among all the masters of Russian painting of the recent past, and in the history of our art he has taken a very special place. Stasov described him this way: “He has his own, special look and feeling, and only then is he strong and significant when he expresses this feeling. And this feeling consists of comprehending and conveying the masses of people.”
Historical painting was devoted mainly to the work of another great artist - V. I. Surikov (1848-1916). The highest flowering of his creative powers dates back to the 80-90s. ladies of the 19th century Surikov was an artist of the masses. Surikov’s mass, the crowd, was never faceless; he endowed each of the participants with deeply individual traits.
Long before the appearance of Surikov’s battle-historical paintings, V.V. Vereshchagin (1842-1904) won worldwide fame in battle painting. Vereshchagin personally participated in the operations of Russian troops in Central Asia in the 60s, in the Balkans at the end of the 70s. He created cycles of paintings dedicated to military operations in Turkestan and Russian-Turkish war. Vereshchagin's work marked a new stage in Russian and world battle painting. Stasov described him this way: “... a painter of such a type that no one has seen or heard of him before, either here or in Europe.” He set himself the goal of exposing war as a weapon of violence, a terrible disaster for humanity.
The new thing that Vereshchagin introduced, naturally, was also that he was primarily interested not in the army elite, but in the rank and file. Vereshchagin made the people the hero of his paintings. His work denouncing the war had a serious influence on minds. Of significant interest is the series of paintings created by Vereshchagin in the 90s about Patriotic War 1812. Previously painted paintings and sketches of the Indian cycle by Vereshchagin.
V. M. Vasnetsov (1848-1926) said his special word in Russian painting, in particular historical painting. He entered the history of painting as an artist of Russian folk epics, epics, and fairy tales. Based on “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the painting “After the Battle of Igor Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsians” (1878-1880) was painted, followed by “The Battle of the Russians with the Scythians” (1879-1881), “The Knight at the Crossroads” (1878-1882). The famous “Alyonushka,” one of the most sincere creations of painting, appeared at a traveling exhibition in 1881. Vasnetsov worked for about two decades on the painting “Bogatyrs” (finished in 1898), which gave a particularly complete personification of the beauty, power, and meaning of our native images , our Russian nature and man, the expression of which the artist recognized as the task of art. By 1882-1885 applies outstanding work Vasnetsov in the field of monumental and decorative painting - painting the hall " Stone Age"in the Historical Museum in Moscow. For a number of years (1885-1896) Vasnetsov was busy painting the Vladimir Cathedral in Kyiv. And in this work it was revealed high craftsmanship artist.
Landscape painting constituted a rich section of the fine arts of the era. Outstanding values in the field of landscape were created by many artists who were not “specialists” in landscape painting, for whom the landscape usually played the role of the background of the picture. Sometimes the landscape turned out to be the most generally recognized side in the artist’s work. At the same time, landscape was an independent branch of art, to which many figures devoted everything or effort.
The realistic landscape of the Wanderers took pride of place in the development of landscape painting. They are characterized by turning to their native nature. Instead of exotic, “ceremonial” landscapes (Italian, Swiss, etc.), to which academic artists gravitated, the Wanderers established a national theme in the landscape; they revealed beauty in the simple and natural that surrounded them every day. In the landscapes of the Itinerants, a kind of social subtext was often felt and perceived. The viewer, following the artist, saw and felt those people, that mass of people who lived surrounded by nature painted on canvas.
One of the founders of the Itinerant landscape was I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898). Chief Representative epic line in landscape painting, Shishkin, with exceptional knowledge and skill, with rare love, painted mainly the forest of central and northern Russia, revealing the wealth, breadth, and power of the nature of the Motherland. “Pine Forest” (1872), “Rye” (1878), “Among the Flat Valley” (1883), “Pine Trees Illuminated by the Sun” (1886), “Morning in pine forest"(1889), "Ship Grove" (1898) belong to the most popular paintings Shishkin, the Cathars were seen as a people’s artist.
Another of the founders of landscape painting of the Wanderers, A.K. Savrasov (1830-1897). Savrasov discovered the lyrical line of the Russian landscape. His painting “The Rooks have Arrived!”, shown at the 1st traveling exhibition, was perceived as a revelation due to its unprecedented sincerity, poetry, modest and natural beauty. The paintings “Country Road” (1873) and “Rainbow” (1875) supported the fame of the artist-poet, at the same time a talented teacher who played a big role in the education of a whole galaxy of painters.
I. I. Levitan (1860-1900) belongs to more to the younger generation artists. Levitan enthusiastically loved his native nature, deeply felt the “endless beauty of his surroundings.” With all-conquering power, he conveyed the feelings and moods aroused by nature in man. The most complex range of experiences is expressed in his paintings. Levitan understood the feelings advanced people his era, their pain for the suffering of their homeland. Civil theme found a particularly vivid, although unique by the nature of landscape painting, reflection in the famous painting “Vladimirka” (1892), inspired by the thought of the fate of thousands of exiles. Levitan’s favorite works also include “Evening on the Volga” (1888), “At the Whirlpool” (1892), “Above Eternal Peace” (1894), “ Golden autumn"(1895), "Summer Evening" (1899), "Lake. Rus'" (1899-1900).
During the second half of the 19th century. The activity of the famous marine painter I.K. Aivazovsky, which began in the 30s, continued. Under his influence, the talent of another artist of the sea, at the same time an artist-historiographer, developed Russian fleet A. P. Bogolyubova (1824-1896).
The achievements of landscape painting delighted art lovers. But, on the other hand, the constant increase in the proportion of landscape towards the end of the century gave rise to some anxiety. Concern was expressed in the press especially in connection with the more or less noticeable impoverishment of the social and everyday genre. In the impoverishment of the genre, in the fact that sharp, exciting paintings from modern life, was reflected in a certain decline in the ideological and social level of activity of the Association of Itinerants. In turn, the latter circumstance depended on the entire socio-political situation. The Association of Itinerants showed hesitation and a passion for “neutral” topics. If some of the old Peredvizhniki experienced confusion to one degree or another, among the younger Peredvizhniki generation artists appeared who were sensitive to new social phenomena. They were not limited to what their predecessors had achieved and sought to expand and update the range of themes and images.
S. A. Korovin (1858-1908), an artist of peasant and partly soldier themes, in the famous painting “On the World” and numerous sketches and sketches for it (1883-1893), artistically and convincingly reflected the social stratification in the post-reform village. Peasant theme was dominant in the work of one of the greatest masters of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A. E. Arkhipov (1862-1930), genre and landscape painter. In the younger generation of artists associated with certain period with the Association of Itinerants, the figure of V.A. Serov (1865-1911) stood out very early. Valentin Serov, already at the age of 22-23, created such masterpieces as “Girl with Peaches” (portrait of Vera Mamontova, 1887), “Girl Illuminated by the Sun”, true poems about bright youth. Serov – genius master, who worked in various fields of art.
The era of the “Itinerants” was late compared to the beginning artistic realism in literature; but it ends at approximately the same time, in the 80-90s, and before the same pressure of the new generation. A new break in traditions and the rebellion of youth in the 90s. repeats the rebellion of the Wanderers themselves against the generation of academicians who preceded them. But that uprising took as its slogan the creation of a Russian national school. Revolt of the youth of the 90s. comes under the banner of cosmopolitanism. It must be said that the Itinerants themselves greatly facilitated the protest against themselves that was brewing in the new generation. In the mid-70s, they were no longer the same fervent Protestants and fighters that the organizers of the Artel were in the 60s. Their ardor died down along with the success they achieved.
However, the sympathies of advanced Russian society were invariably on the side of the Peredvizhniki, for in their work the Russian intelligentsia and ordinary people saw the exponents of their interests. The achievements and conquests of Russian painting of the second half of the 19th century, in which Russian artists showed themselves, are of great importance and unique value in Russian fine arts. Paintings, created by Russian artists forever enriched Russian culture.
There are few hours in a person's life that would be more enjoyable than the time devoted to evening tea.
Henry James, American writer
You should never refuse a cup of tea under the following circumstances: if it is hot outside; if it's cold outside; if you are tired; if someone thinks you are tired; if you feel uneasy; before leaving the house; if you are not at home; if you have just arrived home; if you want some tea; if you don't really want some tea, but you could; if you haven’t drunk tea for a long time; if you just grabbed a cup.
George Mikes (Hungarian journalist)
"How to be British"
Tea improves muscle tone, making the body strong. It helps with headaches and dizziness, lifts your mood and banishes spleen. Tea cleanses the kidneys of stones and sand; if consumed with honey instead of sugar, it makes breathing easier during colds. This drink helps improve vision. Tea relieves fatigue, making a person cheerful.
Thomas Harvey, owner of England's first tearoom
Makovsky K.E. Over tea.
The Russian word "tea" comes from Chinese word“cha” or “tea” - in the northern, Beijing pronunciation, while the English word “tea” (tea), like, respectively, French, Italian, German, Danish, etc., comes from the Chinese word “te” (tea ) - in southern, Fujian pronunciation.
In 1638, the Russian ambassador Starikov brought four pounds of tea from the Mongol Khan as a gift to the Tsar of Moscow Mikhail Fedorovich. At first, the tsar and the boyars did not like the tart and bitter drink. However, it has been observed that it "dissuades sleep" during long periods of time. church services and tedious sitting in the Boyar Duma.
Bogdanov-Belsky N.P. Tea party.
When the entire supply of donated tea was drunk and the taste of it was already forgotten at the Moscow court, diplomats again played their role: our ambassador, the Greek Sappharius, brought tea from China. Now tea was greeted in Moscow as an old friend, and in 1679 an agreement was concluded with China on the supply of dried Chinese herbs to Russia.
Kustodiev B.M. Moscow tavern.
Vasnetsov V.M. Tea drinking in a tavern.
At the beginning of the 18th century, tea entered Russian life and became our national drink. Tea drinking itself has become not just a thirst quencher, but a kind of manifestation public life. Over tea they decided on family matters, concluded trade deals and marriages; without a cup of tea, it seems, they did not discuss a single serious issue.
Gilyarovsky left an excellent description of old Moscow taverns. Somewhere in “Kolomna” or “London” cab drivers were warming up over tea, and large businessmen were making deals worth tens and hundreds/thousands of rubles. Artists, writers, and painters had their favorite taverns. Meetings at the tea table at L.N. Tolstoy’s Yasnaya Polyana and Khamovniki entered the history of Russian culture. IN " Explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language" by V. Dahl, the verb "tea" means "to lie down for tea, drink it in the wild."
Kustodiev B.M. Merchant's wife having tea.
The widespread distribution of tea has already early XIX century led to the emergence in Rus' of a unique and colorful ritual of tea drinking. Since tea in those days was not cheap, it was very important, in addition to the ability to brew delicious tea, the equally important ability to “not drink tea,” i.e. pour it so that each of those present at the tea party receives their own portion of tea of the same strength, and plus the hostess would not allow a large consumption of dry tea leaves.
What is a samovar? The Dictionary of the Russian Language (M., 1981, vol. 4) says: “A samovar is a metal device for boiling water with a firebox inside, filled with coals.” In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language V.I. Dahl (St. Petersburg-M., 1912, vol. 4) says: “A samovar is a water-heating vessel for tea, made of copper with a pipe and a brazier inside.”
Dull melancholy for no reason
And doom is a persistent frenzy.
Let's prick some splinters -
Let's blow up a samovar!
For loyalty to the ancient rank,
For living slowly!
Perhaps, and it will steam out the sadness
A soul that has taken a sip of tea!
B. Kustodiev. Cab drivers. 1920
Shampanov Sergey Tea party.
What is the attractive power of the samovar, why it has remained the most stable attribute of home comfort, can only be understood by understanding the peculiarities of the Russian tradition - tea drinking.
It is well known that tea came to Russia from the East. This does not mean that before this Russia drank only vodka. Strong drinks were held in high esteem in Russia; its residents brewed mash and sbiten. Tea also had its own: from leaves, fruits, roots of herbs, in a huge assortment collected, dried and prepared for various purposes - medicinal and tonic.
For example, fireweed inflorescences, cherry, mint, currant leaves, etc. were used as tea leaves.
But, most importantly, the new thing that came from the East along with tea as a brew is a special ritual action, a kind of holiday. The introduction and spread of tea in Russia took place on prepared soil, and the main feature, the reason for the popularity of tea, was in the ceremony itself, however, adapted to the psychology of the Russian people.
B. Kustodiev. On the terrace. 1906
Pereverzeva A.K. Interior. North.
Makovsky K.E. Alekseich.
Popov A. A. Craftsman at tea party.
Korovin K.A. At the tea table.
The Eastern tea ceremony is basically aimed at deepening a person, communicating with his inner world. She seems to take him out of the everyday bustle. The methods of brewing tea and serving it on the table are preparing the ground for detachment from everything vain.
The Russian tea ceremony is aimed at achieving the absolutely opposite effect - unification spiritual world people gathered around the table, revealing each individual soul to society, family, friends, gaining new knowledge. Tea drinking creates the conditions for intimate conversation.
B. Kustodiev. Autumn in the provinces. Tea party. 1926
A frank conversation directly with an interlocutor, and even more so with several interlocutors, is always psychologically difficult. This is further aggravated by the fact that, as a rule, there are several age groups at the table - from children to great-grandparents. Children are held back by the tradition of respect for adults, and their parents by honoring their parents. A careless remark, a clash of two opinions, sometimes destroys the confidentiality of the conversation, and the speaker becomes silent and withdraws into himself. To create the spirit of democracy, a certain “silent interlocutor” was needed, looking at whom, and turning to whom, one could express the most intimate things without fear of being misunderstood. This role is assigned to the samovar in Russian tea drinking.
B. Kustodiev. Tea drinking. 1913
It was getting dark. On the table, shining,
The evening samovar hissed,
Chinese teapot heating,
Light steam swirled beneath him...
A.S. Pushkin
Such an item on the table was necessary for the Russian tea ceremony. And it was invented at the turn of the 18th century by Russian masters. The samovar entered every home. The samovar has become a symbol of goodness and home comfort. Children gained knowledge, absorbed traditions, learned to speak and listen from the samovar. This item entered the classics of Russian literature and art as an indispensable attribute of family peace. He himself became an object of artistic interest, and a number of masters of decorative and applied arts took part in the creation of his decorative decoration.
What is a samovar? The Dictionary of the Russian Language (M., 1981, vol. 4) says: “A samovar is a metal device for boiling water with a firebox inside, filled with coals.” In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language V.I. Dahl (St. Petersburg-M., 1912, vol. 4) says: “A samovar is a water-heating vessel for tea, made of copper with a pipe and a brazier inside.”
His device is simple, like everything ingenious. It consists of a seamless thin-walled vessel. It is pierced vertically by a pipe, starting from the firebox below and ending with the burner. The latter serves both to install a teapot on it for brewing and to carry out air flow when the burner is closed with a lid.
I. Grabar. For the samovar. 1905
The samovar differs from other devices for boiling water, known long before the appearance of the samovar and which people use now, primarily in that it combines all the practical experience of mankind in saving energy.
All the heat rising through the pipe is transferred to the surrounding water. The large pipe surface quickly brings water to a boil and maintains the temperature. The natural upward flow of warm air creates ideal draft in the firebox. The firebox is attached from below to the vessel (body) of the samovar at the required distance from the surface of the table on which the samovar is placed. This distance is adjusted by the legs of the samovar, which give it stability and fire safety.
The pipe, being a structural rod, serves as the basis for the lid of the vessel, the burner, and the lid of the pipe itself that is placed on it. Fuel is added through the pipe and the samovar is ignited. They serve as fuel Pine cones, branches, wood chips, their consumption is minimal.
K. Korovin. Over tea. 1888
To pour in water, remove the lid of the vessel. To fill the glass there is a convenient tap with ground surfaces. The tap is located at some distance from the bottom of the samovar, which prevents suspension from getting into the cups.
Elements such as a tap (branch), a handle for carrying the samovar, and the legs on which it stands are made by casting and soldered to the vessel. These elements have a variety of shapes and decorative decorations. Their remoteness from the heating source preserves soldering for centuries. Samovars were used both for making tea and for preparing soup, porridge, and sbiten. In such samovars, the vessels were divided into two or three compartments and the dishes were prepared simultaneously.
Even a child can use the samovar - water is poured, fuel is added and an ignited chip is lowered into the pipe. In wet weather or with raw fuel, the samovar needs to be inflated. This is done either through holes in the walls of the firebox, or in the “peasant” way - with the help of a boot put on the pipe, which serves as a bellows in a blacksmith's forge. When the water boils, place it on the burner teapot, ceramic or porcelain, depending on the taste, habit or wealth of the tea brewer. The draft slows down, and the samovar slowly brings the water to a boil, brewing tea efficiently. Tea from a samovar is usually drunk with a bite, that is, sugar is served separately.
V. Nesterenko. Sweets, lambs. 1997
The samovar always stands in the center of the table. He is kind - in his image, in the roundness of his forms. He good-naturedly puffs on smoke and gurgles with boiling water. He reflects the people and nature around him in his sides, giving some unreality to what is happening.
Emperor of white cups
Archimandrite Chaynikov,
Your deep murmur is heavy
To those who give evil to the world.
(N. Zabolotsky)
A. Gerasimov. Family portrait
Breakfast of a Russian landowner of the 19th century. - this is like a combination of the first and second breakfasts accepted in France at that time. “After drinking some tea, they start breakfast: they will serve minced meat with sour cream, a frying pan of mushrooms or porridge, they will heat up yesterday’s roast, they will make semolina soup for the children - everyone will find something to their liking” (I. A. Goncharov, “Frigate “Pallada”).
For tea they served refined sugar (sand was bought only for the kitchen - it made the tea cloudy), biscuit, English crackers, buns, rolls and strawberry, strawberry or raspberry jam. Sometimes they took brioche (French buttery crispy bun in the shape of a bagel) and Revel bread (pecked bread with caraway seeds). A silver samovar was placed on the table, a silver teapot, a strainer, tweezers in a sugar bowl, and, in addition, a teapot - “crystal in a silver frame and with it a specially shaped spoon for putting tea” (E. Avdeeva “Complete Household Book”) .
I. Grabar. Morning hour, snowdrops. 1939
I.A. Goncharov tells in detail about what kind of tea they drank in Russia at that time: “We call delicate, fragrant flower teas good. The aroma and bouquet of this tea is not accessible to every nose and tongue: it is too subtle. These teas are called... pekoe (Pekoe flower). The British call good tea, or just tea (they have only one), a special variety of coarse black or a mixture of it with green, a very narcotic mixture. They demand from tea the same thing as from Indian soybeans and peppers, that is something like poison" ("Frigate "Pallada"). By flower tea, of course, we do not mean tea made from flowers (Goncharov calls the Chinese style of putting jasmine petals in black tea, and calls pink petals in yellow tea "a consequence of satiety"), but precisely the variety tea made from the apical bud of the plant - with a particularly delicate and refined aroma.
Contemporary painting. Long Olga Petrovna.
Trisha Hardwick.Still lifes.
Tea drinking in Russian differed not only in the variety and quality of the tea used. Of course, eccentrics and originals in Russia drank tea with cloves in the Japanese style, and Chinese style with flowers, and green tea, like real Americans drink. However, drinking Russian tea meant drinking tea brewed (the British, as Goncharov notes, “brew it as usual, like cabbage”) and with sugar - for a foreigner, Russian tea is “some kind of sugary drink.”
Dumas the Father, author of a culinary dictionary, wrote: " Best tea drink in St. Petersburg and throughout Russia in general,” and explained this by the fact that tea suffers extremely from long sea transportation and of all European countries Only Russia can import tea by land directly from China. At this time, it was China, where tea had been known since prehistoric times, that was the main supplier of tea; tea was brought to India and Ceylon only in 1865. “Customs are strange in Russia, so that foreigners find them unusually shocking when they first meet them,” Dumas wrote in his dictionary. For example, he finds it surprising that "men drink tea from glasses, while women use Chinese porcelain cups."
Dull melancholy for no reason
And doom is a persistent frenzy.
Let's prick some splinters -
Let's blow up a samovar!
For loyalty to the ancient rank,
For living slowly!
Perhaps, and it will steam out the sadness
A soul that has taken a sip of tea!
A. Blok, Russian poet
Main trends in the development of painting in the XIII - XV centuries
The development of painting in the $13th - $15th centuries continued in line with the development of Russian art in the pre-Mongol period. After Tatar-Mongol invasion the centers of painting moved from the south to the northern cities of Yaroslavl, Rostov, Pskov and Novgorod. In which not only monuments of old art have been preserved, but also carriers have survived cultural traditions. The isolation of Rus' from Byzantium, as well as the feudal fragmentation of Russian lands, stimulated the flourishing of local trends in art. In the $13th century. the final formation of the Novgorod, and in the $XIV$ century. - Moscow schools of painting. The flourishing of painting in the $XIII$ - $XV$ centuries. can be seen more clearly in Novgorod monuments, which have been preserved in greater numbers than in other cities. In Novgorod icons, the drawing acquired color, became more graphic and was based on contrast bright colors. The red-background icons created in Novgorod became a real “rebellion” against Byzantine traditions ( “The Savior on the Throne with Etymasia” and “Saints John Climacus, George and Blasius”).
Novgorod school. Feofan the Greek
XIV century - the heyday of Novgorod painting, which was greatly influenced by Feofan the Greek arrived in the $70s. $XIV$ century. to Rus' from Byzantium. In $1378 he completed work on the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin. From the surviving fragments of this painting, we can say that this master is characterized by wide brush strokes, confident highlights, and a predominance of yellow and red-brown colors. Theophan's influence, for example, can be seen in the frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratelates, created by Russian masters in the late $70s - $80s.
Unlike frescoes, it developed more slowly in the $XIV$ - $XV$ centuries. Novgorod icon painting. All monuments that have reached us from that time are characterized by an archaic style, dating back to the 13th century.
Example 1
Among the icons, where the features of the local style can already be traced, one can include the icon "Fatherland" , in the “New Testament” version, interpreting the Trinity - not in the form of three angels, but anthropomorphically, i.e. God the Father as a gray-haired old man, God the Son as a youth, and the Holy Spirit as a dove.
A new iconographic form appeared in Novgorod when the church waged a fight against heresy that rejected the Christian dogma of the Holy Trinity. A new type of icon, which reflected historical subjects, appeared in the 15th century.
Note 1
For example, an icon "The Miracle of the Icon of the Sign" Holy Mother of God» (or "Battle of Suzdal with Novgorod"), which depicts the victory of the Novgorodians over superior forces Suzdal in $1169$, reflects a certain freedom of Novgorod icon painters, who were interested not only in sacred history, but also in their own.
Moscow school. Andrey Rublev
The rise of Moscow painting $XIV$ - $XV$ centuries. had no equal in scope and ramifications. Around $1390, Feofan the Greek moved to Moscow from Novgorod.
With his direct participation, the main monuments of painting were created: paintings of the Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, the Archangel and Annunciation Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, etc. The most reliable work of Feofan himself in Moscow are the $7$ icons of the Annunciation Cathedral early. $XV$ c. ( “Savior”, “Our Lady”, “John the Baptist” and etc). Several icons of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral are associated with the name of one of the greatest icon painters Rus' Andrey Rublev. Little reliable information has survived about his creative life.
Example 2
For example, Andrei Rublev was first mentioned in $1405, when he, together with Feofan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, worked on the painting of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral. In addition, the name of Rublev was mentioned in $1408, when the icon painter, together with Daniil Cherny, created the painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, from the frescoes of which the scenes depicting Last Judgment.
Subject doomsday, had a significant influence on the work of Russian icon painters. However, in its interpretation by artists of the Moscow school, an enlightened motif is noted, most characteristic of Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Last Judgment with the unconventional optimism characteristic of Russian hesychasm. This was determined both by popular expectations (belief in universal forgiveness, characteristic of a significant number of believers), and by the attitude of the artist himself, who predicted the coming revival of Rus' after the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The “Last Judgment” depicted by Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny does not generate feelings of fear and impending retribution. This is not a trial in anticipation of punishment, but the final triumph of good, the victory of justice, a reward to humanity for the suffering it has endured. In addition, for the Assumption Cathedral, icon painters created a grandiose three-row iconostasis, including a $61 icon, among which - "Our Lady of Vladimir". Your most important work is an icon "Trinity ", Rublev created in the $10s - $20s. $XV$ c. for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Deeply overestimating Byzantine composition, Andrei Rublev abandoned genre details and focused on images of angels. The cup with the head of a calf placed in the center of the icon symbolizes the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The three angels depicted by Rublev are one, but not the same. Their agreement is achieved by a single rhythm, a circular movement. The circle, which has symbolized harmony since ancient times, is formed by the poses, movements of angels, and the correlation of their figures. Thus, Rublev managed to solve the most difficult creative problem, expressing two complex theological ideas about the sacrament of the Eucharist and the trinity of the deity. Andrei Rublev died between $1427$ and $1430$ and was buried in the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery in Moscow.
In $XIV$ -$XV$ centuries. in the most difficult conditions of the national liberation struggle and the strongest patriotic upsurge, the unification of North-Eastern Rus' was carried out. Moscow becomes the political and religious center of a rising unified Russian state, the center of the formation of the Great Russian people. The rise of national self-awareness, the idea of unity, the tendency to overcome centrifugal tendencies in social thought, literature, art - all this testified to the emergence of an all-Russian (Great Russian) culture.
The history of Russian painting begins with Kievan Rus. True, like many other phenomena, painting did not become an original Russian achievement. The appearance of painting in Rus' is associated with the name of Prince Vladimir and Byzantium. Along with Christianity, the Russian prince brought painting traditions to Russia. The first works of fine art were associated with temples. These are traditional ones that were used to decorate the walls of churches.
Russian painting flourished in the 15th century. This is exactly the time when it appears. This type of creativity is inextricably linked with the heritage of Russia and the names of many original masters. Many creators remained unknown, but the name of the great icon painter Andrei Rublev became the standard in the technique of painting icons for many centuries.
The first realistic paintings appeared in Russia in the seventeenth century. Russian artists, as well as European painters, are beginning to turn to certain genres -,. The activities of Peter I played a role in this, who opened a “window to Europe” and made European traditions available in Russia.
Peter the First
The history of the Russian people is full of heroic and vibrant social events. The Russian soul was distinguished by its special sensitivity, receptivity, and imagination. Therefore, in Russian painting there is a variety of themes, subjects, and images. Russian artists were progressive people, and in their works one can find a reflection of all the changes taking place in society.
Russian painters have achieved outstanding results in depicting man and his inner state. The paintings often contain scenes from the lives of ordinary people, their suffering, hopes and aspirations. Russian nature in all its splendor was also a theme of inspiration for Russian artists. Moreover, if at first landscapes were simply images of natural beauties, then later artists learned to convey their feelings through nature.
Marc Chagall
At the beginning of the 20th century, modernism came to Russian painting. Here, too, Russia was in no way inferior to other countries, giving the world bright works by avant-garde artists - Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Kazimir Malevich.
It is difficult to list all the outstanding Russian artists, but the most famous names these are I. Shishkin, V. Savrasov, I. Repin, V. Surikov, K. Bryullov and many others. They are the pride of Russian painting, their works have received worldwide recognition.
In the second half of the 18th century, the style of classicism was formed in Russian art, which is characterized by the rigor of design, adherence to certain rules in composition, convention of color, and the use of scenes from the Bible, ancient history and mythology. The originality of Russian classicism lay in the fact that its masters turned not only to antiquity, but also to native history that they strived for simplicity, naturalness and humanity. Classicism as a direction in Russian artistic culture undividedly established in late XVIII- early 19th centuries. This period of the heyday of classicism in the Russian history of painting is usually called high classicism. Characteristic of the painters of this time was a romantic affirmation of the beauty of the unique, individual, unusual, but the highest achievement of this era of fine art in Russia can be considered not historical painting, and a portrait (A. Argunov, A. Antropov, F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky, O. Kiprensky).
O.A. Kiprensky (1782-1836) discovered not only new human qualities, but also new possibilities for painting. Each of his portraits has its own special pictorial structure. Some are built on a sharp contrast of light and shadow. In others the main thing pictorial means It turns out to be a subtle gradation of colors that are close to each other. The paintings of K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852) are characterized by a fusion of academic classicism with romanticism, novelty of subjects, theatrical effectiveness of plastic and lighting, complexity of composition, brilliant virtuosity of the brush. The painting “The Last Day of Pompeii” (1830-1833) was widely known. The sublime beauty of man and the inevitability of his death are reflected in the picture in a tragic contradiction. Romantic character is also characteristic of most of Bryullov’s portraits. The greatest master of historical painting was A.A. Ivanov gave his painting the character of sacrificial service to the idea and managed to overcome many of the templates characteristic of academic technique.
In his works he anticipated many of the quests of Russian realistic painting of the following decades.
A conscious turn of new Russian painting towards democratic realism emerged in the late 50s, together with the revolutionary enlightenment of Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Saltykov-Shchedrin. On November 9, 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy of Arts, led by I. Kramskoy, refused to paint a graduation picture on the proposed subject of “The Feast in Valhalla” and asked to be given the choice of subjects themselves. They were refused, and they defiantly left the Academy, forming an independent Artel of Artists. The second event was the creation in 1870 of the “Association of Traveling Exhibitions”, the soul of which was the same I. Kramskoy. The Wanderers were united in their rejection of “academicism” by its mythology, decorative landscapes and pompous theatricality. Leading place Genre (everyday) scenes took over their work. The peasantry enjoyed particular sympathy with the Wanderers. At that time - in the 60-70s. XIX century - the ideological side of art was valued higher than the aesthetic. Perhaps the greatest tribute to ideology was paid by V. G. Perov (1834-1882). Evidence of this is his paintings such as “The Arrival of the Chief for Investigation”, “Tea Party in Mytishchi”, “Troika”, “Old Parents at the Grave of their Son”. Perov painted a number of portraits of his famous contemporaries (Turgenev, Dostoevsky). In Kramskoy’s work, the main place was occupied by portrait painting. He wrote Goncharov, Saltykov-Shchedrin. He owns one of the best portraits Lev Tolstoy. The writer's gaze does not leave the viewer, no matter from what point he looks at the canvas.
One of the most strong works Kramskoy - painting "Christ in the Desert".
But it cannot be said that the Academy of Arts does not promote talent. The best traditions academicism found development in grandiose historical paintings G. Semiradsky, works by the early deceased V. Smirnov, ("The Death of Nero"), magnificent paintings by the marine painter, representative of romanticism Ivan Aivazovsky. In fact, many outstanding artists emerged from the walls of the Academy. These are Repin, and Surikov, and Polenov, and Vasnetsov, and later - Serov and Vrubel.
The Peredvizhniki made genuine discoveries in landscape painting. A.K. Savrasov managed to show the beauty and subtle lyricism of a simple Russian landscape. His painting “The Rooks Have Arrived” (1871) made many contemporaries take a fresh look at their native nature. The singer of the Russian forest, the epic breadth of Russian nature, became I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898). A. I. Kuindzhi (1841-1910) was attracted by the picturesque play of light and air. The mysterious light of the moon in rare clouds, red reflections of dawn on the white walls of Ukrainian huts, slanting morning rays breaking through the fog and playing in puddles on a muddy road - these and many other picturesque discoveries are captured on his canvases.
Russian landscape painting of the 19th century reached its peak in the work of Savrasov’s student
I. I. Levitan (1860-1900). Levitan is a master of calm, quiet landscapes. A shy and vulnerable man, he knew how to relax only alone with nature, imbued with the mood of his favorite landscape.
The provincial town of Plyos on the upper Volga has become firmly entrenched in Levitan’s work. In these parts he created his canvases: “After the Rain”, “Gloomy Day”.
Peaceful evening landscapes were also painted there: “Evening on the Volga”, “Evening. Golden Reach”, “ evening call, evening Bell", "Quiet Abode".
On the second half of XIX V. have to creative flourishing I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov and V. A. Serov.
I. E. Repin (1844-1930) was a very versatile artist. A number of monumental genre paintings belong to his brush. Perhaps no less grandiose than “Barge Haul Haulers on the Volga” is the painting “Religious Procession in Kursk province". Bright blue sky, clouds of road dust pierced by the sun, the golden glow of crosses and vestments, the police, ordinary people and cripples - everything fit on this canvas: the greatness, and strength, and weakness, and pain of Russia. Many of Repin's paintings dealt with revolutionary themes ("Refusal of Confession", "They Didn't Expect", "Arrest of the Propagandist"). A number of Repin's paintings were written on historical themes ("Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan", "Cossacks composing a letter to the Turkish Sultan", etc.). Repin created a whole gallery of portraits. He painted portraits of scientists (Pirogov and Sechenov), writers Tolstoy, Turgenev and Garshin, composers Glinka and Mussorgsky, artists Kramskoy and Surikov. At the beginning of the 20th century. he received an order for the painting “The Ceremonial Meeting of the State Council.” The artist managed not only to place such a composition on the canvas big number those present, but also to give psychological characteristics to many of them.
V. I. Surikov (1848-1916) was born in Krasnoyarsk, into a Cossack family. The heyday of his creativity occurred in the 80s, when he created three of his most famous historical paintings: “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Menshikov in Berezovo” and “Boyaryna Morozova”. Surikov knew well the life and customs of past eras, and was able to give vivid psychological characteristics. In addition, he was an excellent colorist. Suffice it to recall the dazzlingly fresh, sparkling snow in the film “Boyaryna Morozova”. If you come closer to the canvas, the snow seems to “crumble” into blue, light blue, and pink strokes. This painting technique, when two or three different strokes merge at a distance and give the desired color, was widely used by the French impressionists.
V. A. Serov (1865-1911), son of the composer, painted landscapes, canvases on historical themes, worked as theater artist. But it was primarily his portraits that brought him fame. In 1887, 22-year-old Serov was vacationing in Abramtsevo, the dacha of philanthropist S.I. Mamontov near Moscow. One day after lunch, two people accidentally lingered in the dining room - Serov and 12-year-old Vera Mamontova. They sat at the table, on which there were peaches, and during the conversation the girl did not notice how the artist began to sketch her portrait. The work lasted for a month. At the beginning of September, "Girl with Peaches" was completed. Despite its small size, the painting, painted in rose-golden tones, seemed very “spacious”. There was a lot of light and air in it. The girl, who sat down at the table for what seemed like a minute and fixed her gaze on the viewer, enchanted with her clarity and spirituality.
And the whole canvas was covered in a purely childish perception of everyday life, when happiness does not recognize itself, and a whole life lies ahead. Time has placed “Girl with Peaches” among the best portrait works in Russian and world painting.
Turning to national themes led to an unprecedented flowering of historical and battle painting. True masterpieces in these genres were created by V. Surikov, I. Repin, N. Ge, V. Vasnetsov, V. Vereshchagin, F. Roubaud. During these years, the first national art galleries opened; works by Russian artists begin to appear regularly on international exhibitions and in foreign art salons. Many paintings by Repin, Surikov, Levitan, Serov and other Peredvizhniki ended up in the Tretyakov collection. P. M. Tretyakov (1832-1898), a representative of an old Moscow merchant family, was an unusual person. Thin and tall, with a thick beard and a quiet voice, he looked more like a saint than a merchant. He began collecting paintings by Russian artists in 1856. His hobby grew into the main business of his life. In the early 90s. the collection reached the level of a museum, absorbing almost the entire fortune of the collector. Later it became the property of Moscow. Tretyakov Gallery has become a world famous museum of Russian painting, graphics and sculpture. In 1898, the Russian Museum was opened in St. Petersburg, in the Mikhailovsky Palace (the creation of K. Rossi). It received works by Russian artists from the Hermitage, the Academy of Arts and some imperial palaces. The opening of these two museums seemed to crown the achievements of Russian painting of the 19th century. At the end of the 1890s, the leading masters of critical realism were still working fruitfully - I. E. Repin,
V.I. Surikov, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.E. Makovsky, but at this time a different tendency appeared in art. Many artists now sought to find in life, first of all, its poetic sides, so they even included landscape in genre paintings. They often turned to ancient Russian history. These trends in art can be clearly seen in the works of such artists as A.P. Ryabushkin and M.V. Nesterov.
A major artist of this time, B. M. Kustodiev (1878-1927), depicts fairs with multi-colored spoons and piles of colorful goods, Russian Maslenitsa with riding in troikas, scenes from merchant life.
IN early work M. V. Nesterov most fully revealed the lyrical sides of his talent. Landscape always played a big role in his paintings: the artist sought to find joy in the silence of eternally beautiful nature. He loved to depict thin-trunked birch trees, fragile stems of grass and meadow flowers. His heroes are thin youths, inhabitants of monasteries, or kind old men who find peace and tranquility in nature. The paintings dedicated to the fate of the Russian woman are filled with deep sympathy ("On the Mountains", 1896, "Great tonsure", 1897-1898).
Symbolism, neoclassicism, and modernism have a noticeable influence on M.A. Vrubel, artists from the "World of Art" (A. Benois, K. A. Somov, L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lanceray, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva.) and "Blue Rose "(S. Sudeikin, N. Krymov, V. Borisov-Musatov). The activities of these groups were very versatile; the artists published their own magazine, “World of Art,” and organized interesting art exhibitions with the participation of many outstanding artists.
In the 1910s The Russian avant-garde is born as a desire to rebuild the foundations of art, even to the point of denying art itself. A number of artists and creative associations create new schools and trends that have had a decisive influence on the development of world fine art - Suprematism (K. Malevich), “improvisational” style and abstractionism (W. Kandinsky), Rayonism (Larionov), etc. All movements of avant-garde art are characterized by the substitution of spiritual content pragmatism, emotionality - sober calculation, artistic imagery- simple harmonization, aesthetics of forms, composition - design, big ideas- utilitarianism. New art captivates with its unbridled freedom, captivates and captivates, but at the same time it testifies to degradation, the destruction of the integrity of content and form. The atmosphere of irony, play, carnival, and masquerade inherent in some movements of avant-garde art does not so much mask as reveal the deep inner discord in the artist’s soul. The concept of “avant-garde” conventionally unites a variety of art movements of the 20th century. (constructivism, cubism, orphism, op art, pop art, purism, surrealism, fauvism). The main representatives of this movement in Russia are V. Malevich, V. Kandinsky, M. Larionov, M. Matyushin, Yakulov, A. Ekster, B. Ender and others.
In the 1910s There has also been a revival of interest in icon painting. Artistic principles Icon painting was creatively used by individual Russian (V. Vasnetsov, M. Nesterov, K.S. Petrov-Vodkin) and foreign (A. Matisse) artists, as well as entire movements and schools of avant-garde.
Since the late 20s, the principle of socialist realism has been established in Russia. Ideology becomes the main determining force in artistic creativity. Despite the strong influence of ideology, real world-class works of art were created. The work of landscape painters S.V. Gerasimov, V.N. Baksheeva, A.A. Plastov, creativity of P.D. Korina, A.N. Witty-Lebedeva, I. Glazunov, K. Vasilyev, A. Shilov, A. Isacheva are convincing proof of this. Since the 1960s The revival of the Russian avant-garde is coming. The “permitted” but not official part of Soviet art in the 1960s. represented by the works of masters of the “severe style” (T. Salakhov, S. Popkov). In the 1970-1980s. The work of Soviet artists - R. Bichunas, R. Tordiy, D. Zhilinsky, A. Zverev, E. Steinberg, M. Romadin, M. Leis, V. Kalinin and others, representatives of not only “officially sanctioned art”, received recognition. Russian postmodernism of the 90s of the twentieth century is an example of the creativity of the group "SVOI" (Hyper-Pupper-Kuznetsov V., Veshchev P., Dudnik D., Kotlin M., Maksa-Maksyutina, Menus A., Nosova S., Podobed A. , Tkachev M.). The very fact of uniting diverse artists into a single living organism, not limited by conceptual or stylistic boundaries, most closely corresponds to the basic principle of postmodernism about parallelism and equivalence of artistic trends.
art classicism painting
