The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 briefly. Russian-Turkish wars - briefly

The leading direction of foreign policy of the second half of the 19th century. remained eastern question. The Crimean War aggravated contradictions in the Balkans and the Mediterranean Sea. Russia was very concerned about the insecurity of its borders in the Black Sea region and the lack of ability to defend its interests in the eastern Mediterranean, especially in the straits.

As the national liberation war intensified in the Balkans, a mass movement in support of the South Slavs grew in Russia. A new wave of public indignation arose in connection with the brutal suppression by the Turkish authorities of the April uprising in Bulgaria. Outstanding Russian scientists, writers, artists spoke in defense of the Bulgarian people - D.I. Mendeleev, N.I. Pirogov, L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.S. Isakov, I.E. Repin and others.

In July 1876 The governments of Serbia and Montenegro demanded that Turkey stop the massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, this demand was not satisfied, and on July 30, both Slavic states declared war on Turkey. About 5 thousand Russian soldiers joined the Serbian army. Russian volunteer doctors worked in hospitals in Serbia and Montenegro, among whom were such famous doctors as N.V. Sklifosovsky, S.P. Botkin.

In the acute international situation, tsarism sought to avoid open participation in the conflict that arose. Türkiye refused to guarantee the rights of the Christian population.

April 12, 1877 Russia declared war Turkey. Events unfolded in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. On the day war was declared, the Russian army crossed the Romanian border and moved towards the Danube. On July 7, Russian troops captured the Shipka Pass.

A large military group under the command of Suleiman Pasha. One of the heroic episodes of the war began - defense of Shipka Pass.

In extremely difficult conditions, with multiple superiority of enemy forces, Russian troops repelled the attacks of Turkish troops.

At the same time, the enemy managed to concentrate large forces in the fortress Plevna, located at the intersection of major roads. In November 1977, Plevna surrendered, which became the most important event during the war. After the capture of Plevna by Russian troops, the final period of the war began.

On December 3, a detachment under the command I.V. Gurko in the most difficult conditions of mountainous terrain at 25-degree frost, he crossed the Balkans and liberated Sofia.

Another squad under the command F.F. Radetzky Through the Shipka Pass he reached the fortified Turkish camp of Sheinovo. One of the largest battles of the war took place here, during which the enemy was defeated. Russian troops moved towards Constantinople.

Events also developed successfully in the Transcaucasian theater of military operations. At the beginning of May 1877, Russian troops successfully captured the fortresses of Ardahan and Kare.

Negotiations on a peace treaty with Turkey have ended 19 February 1878 in San Stefano, near Constantinople. According to the contract Serbia, Romania and Montenegro received full independence. The creation was proclaimed Bulgaria- an autonomous principality in which Russian troops were stationed for two years. Türkiye committed to reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Northern Dobruja was transferred to Romania. Russia was returning Southern Bessarabia, rejected by the Treaty of Paris. Cities in Asia went to Russia Ardahan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet and a large area up to Saganlung, inhabited mainly by Armenians. The San Stefano Treaty met the aspirations of the Balkan peoples and had progressive significance for the peoples of Transcaucasia.

The Western powers could not come to terms with the strengthening of Russian positions in the Balkans and the Caucasus. They refused to recognize the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano and demanded its revision. Russia was forced to give in.

IN July V Berlin A congress opened in which European states, acting as a united front, changed the Treaty of San Stefano. Southern Bulgaria came under Turkish rule. The territories of independent Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were reduced. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, England occupied Cyprus.

Russian foreign policy at the end of the 19th century.

In the last quarter of the 19th century. contradictions are growing between the great powers: Russia, England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Their confrontation determined the situation in the world, affecting the interests of other states. Late XIX - early XX centuries. marked by the creation of blocs of states.

June 6 1881 An Austro-Russian-German treaty was signed, which went down in history under the name “ Union of Three Emperors" The agreement established the mutual obligations of the parties to maintain overall neutrality in the event of war between one of them and the fourth party. In general, this agreement was beneficial to Russia, but it was short-lived and easily terminated, which predetermined its weakness.

Despite the conclusion of the treaty, the policy of the Russian government began to increasingly acquire anti-German features. In 1887, decrees were issued limiting the influx of German capital into Russia and increasing duties on the import of metal, metal products and coal, on chemical industry products, etc.

By the end of the 80s, Russia’s contradictions with Austria-Hungary and Germany became more significant than the contradictions with England. In resolving international issues, the Russian government began to look for partners. An important prerequisite for such a step was the serious changes in the entire European situation caused by the conclusion of 1882 Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In the early 90s, there were signs of a rapprochement between the participants of the Triple Alliance and England. Under these conditions, a rapprochement between Russia and France began, which had not only a political, but also an economic basis. Since 1887, Russia began to regularly receive French loans. August 27 1891. was concluded Russian-French alliance, and in 1892 - a military convention. In January 1894, the treaty was ratified by Alexander III.

The defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the subsequent Paris Peace Treaty significantly undermined Russia's influence in the Balkans and the Black Sea. Only after the annulment of the restrictive articles of this treaty did the Russian government seriously think about revenge. Soon an opportunity presented itself.

In April 1876, an uprising against the Turks broke out in Bulgaria, which Turkish troops suppressed with incredible cruelty. This caused outrage in European countries and especially in Russia, which considered itself the patroness of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Turkey rejected the London Protocol, signed on March 31, 1877 by Great Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany and Italy, which provided for the demobilization of the Turkish army and the beginning of reforms in the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire. And then a new Russian-Turkish war became inevitable. On April 24, Emperor Alexander II signed a manifesto on war with Turkey.

ARMY OF THE PARTIES

The Russian Empire approached the beginning of the war with a renewed army, rebuilt according to new principles. This was no longer the serf army of the Crimean War, staffed by conscription, but armed forces recruited on the basis of general military service. They also received new weapons, primarily modern Berdan rifles. The field artillery was equipped with rifled breech-loading guns - 4-pounders (2/3 of the foot batteries and all horse batteries) and 9-pounders (1/3 of the foot batteries). In 1870, artillery brigades adopted high-speed 10-barrel Gatling and 6-barreled Baranovsky canisters with a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute. The Turkish army was organizationally inferior to the Russian one. Most of her cavalry were irregular units of bashi-bazouks. They were capable of carrying out reprisals against the Bulgarian rebels, but were useless against the regular army. The command dispersed about half of the infantry among the fortresses. The small arms were relatively modern - rifles of English and American production, but the artillery was significantly inferior to the Russian one.

At sea, the situation was not in favor of Russia, which had not yet managed to restore the fleet after the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Treaty. If Turkey had powerful armored forces on the Black Sea, then Russia had only a few mobilized ships. This made it difficult to supply supplies to Russian troops.

Instead of the sea route, supplies had to be transported by land, which was not an easy task in the absence of railways. To counter the Turkish fleet, Russian sailors widely used mine weapons, as well as a new product of that time - “self-propelled mines” (torpedoes).

PLANS OF THE PARTIES

The Russian command focused its attention on the Balkan theater of military operations: here they could count on the support of the local population, whose liberation from Ottoman oppression was presented as the main goal of the war. In addition, the exit of the Russian army to Constantinople could mean the final defeat of the Ottoman Empire. But the path to this goal was blocked by two barriers.

The first of them is the Danube River with powerful fortresses on its banks (Ruschuk, Silistria, Shumla, Varna) and a Turkish flotilla of 17 armored monitor ships. The second no less serious obstacle is the Balkan ridge. Several passes led through it, which the enemy could easily block. It was possible to go around the Balkan ridge along the sea, but then it would be necessary to take the well-fortified Varna by storm.

The Russian war plan, prepared in 1876 by General N. Obruchev, was based on the idea of ​​a lightning victory during a single campaign. The army had to cross the Danube on the middle reaches of the river, where the Turks had no fortresses, in an area inhabited by Bulgarians friendly to Russia. After the crossing, the army should be divided into three equal groups. The first blocks Turkish fortresses in the lower reaches of the Danube, the second acts against Turkish forces in the direction of Vidin, the third crosses the Balkans and goes to Constantinople.

The Turkish side planned to resort to active defense. Having concentrated the main forces (about 100 thousand people) in the “quadrangle” of fortresses Rushchuk - Shumla - Bazardzhik - Silistria, the Turkish military leaders were going to lure the Russians who had crossed to the Balkans, deep into Bulgaria, and then defeat them by attacking the left flank. At the same time, quite significant forces (about 30 thousand people) were concentrated in Western Bulgaria near Sofia and Vidin. This corps monitored Serbia and Romania and was supposed to prevent the Russian army from joining the Serbs. In addition, small detachments occupied the Balkan passes and fortifications along the Middle Danube.

PROGRESS OF COMBAT OPERATIONS

The Russian army, by prior agreement with Romania, passed through its territory and in June crossed the Danube in several places.

To ensure the crossing of the Danube, it was necessary to neutralize the Turkish Danube flotilla in places of possible crossings. This task was accomplished by installing minefields on the river, covered by coastal batteries. Light mine boats transferred from the Baltic were also used. On May 26, 1877, boats sank the monitor Hivzi Rahman. Since coastal artillery had sent the Lufti Jelil monitor to the bottom two weeks earlier, the Turkish flotilla was paralyzed and could not prevent the crossing of Russian troops. However, not everything went without problems. If the Lower Danube detachment successfully crossed on June 22 at Galati and Brala and soon occupied Northern Dobruja, then the crossing of General M. Dragomirov’s troops at Zimnitsa, which began on June 27, took place under severe shelling, which led to the death of 1,100 soldiers. Only on July 3, when sappers built a pontoon bridge at Zimnitsa, could the crossing of the main forces of the army begin.

PLEVNA AND SHIPKA

On July 7, 1877, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass. Fearing encirclement, the Turks left Shipka without a fight on July 19. On July 15, Russian troops took Nikopol. However, a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha, previously stationed in Vidin, entered Plevna, threatening the right flank and communications of the Russian army. On July 20, an attempt by General Schilder-Schuldner’s detachment to drive the Turks out of Plevna was unsuccessful. Without capturing this fortress, the Russians could not continue their offensive beyond the Balkan ridge. Plevna became the central point where the outcome of the campaign was decided.

On July 31, General Kridner's detachment attacked the troops of Osman Pasha, but was defeated. Meanwhile, another Turkish army under the command of Suleiman Pasha, transferred from Montenegro, defeated detachments of Bulgarian militias and began an assault on Shipka on August 21. Fierce fighting continued for four days. It came down to bayonet fighting and hand-to-hand combat. Reinforcements approached the Russian detachment defending at the pass, and the Turks were forced to retreat.

On September 27, General Totleben was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, who began a systematic siege of Plevna. Suleiman Pasha's army unsuccessfully tried to break through the Balkans and relieve Plevna in November and early December.

On December 10, Osman Pasha launched a final attack to escape the besieged fortress. The Turks passed through two lines of Russian trenches, but were stopped on the third and surrendered.

HIKE THROUGH CHURYAK

After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, immediately moved through the Balkan Mountains. On December 25, Gurko’s detachment passed the Churyak pass and on January 4, 1878 entered Sofia. In early January, the main forces crossed the Balkan ridge at Shipka. On January 10, Russian troops defeated the Turks at Sheinovo and surrounded their detachment that had previously besieged Shipka. 22 thousand Turkish soldiers and officers were captured.

On January 20, General Skobelev occupied Adrianople without a fight. The Turkish command no longer had any significant forces in the Balkan theater. On January 30, Russian troops came close to the last defensive positions in front of Istanbul. On January 31, 1878, a truce was signed in Adrianople.

COMBAT OPERATIONS IN THE CAUCASUS

In May 1877, the mountaineers, with the support of Turkish emissaries, started a rebellion in Abkhazia. The Russians left Sukhum after a two-day bombardment of the city by a Turkish squadron, consisting of five battleships and several armed steamers, and an amphibious landing. By June, the entire coast of Abkhazia was occupied by the Turks. Turkish troops left Sukhum only on August 19 after reinforcements from Russia approached Russian troops in Abkhazia.

In Transcaucasia, Russian troops occupied Bayazet on April 17, 1877, but were forced to leave it on June 28 after a three-week siege. In July-August there continued to be a lull, but at the end of September the Russian troops, having received reinforcements, resumed the offensive. On November 6 they took the Kare fortress. The remnants of the Turkish army were besieged in Erzurum, where they managed to hold out until the signing of a truce.

In an effort to restore its positions undermined by the Crimean War of 1853-1856, Russia supported the struggle of the Balkan peoples against Turkish rule. A campaign in support of fellow believers began in the country. Special “Slavic committees” collected donations in favor of the rebels, and detachments of “volunteers” were formed. The social movement encouraged the Russian government to take more decisive action. Since Turkey did not want to give self-government and amnesty to the rebel regions, Russia insisted on convening a European conference and using the common forces of the powers to influence the Turks. A conference of European diplomats took place in Constantinople (now Istanbul) in early 1877 and demanded from the Sultan an end to atrocities and immediate reforms for the Slavic provinces. The Sultan, after long negotiations and explanations, refused to follow the instructions of the conference. On April 12, 1877, the emperor declared war on Turkey.

Since May 1877, Romania, and later Serbia and Montenegro, took the side of Russia.

The war was fought in two theaters of war: in the Balkans by the Russian Danube Army, which also included the Bulgarian militia, and in the Caucasus by the Russian Caucasian Army.

Russian armies headed through Romania to the Danube and crossed it in June 1877. On July 7, 1877, the advance detachment of General Joseph Gurko captured the Shipka Pass through the Balkans and held it under the pressure of a constantly attacking enemy until December of the same year. The western detachment of the Russian army under the command of General Nikolai Kridener occupied the Nikopol fortress, but did not manage to get ahead of the Turks moving towards Plevna. As a result, several attempts to take the fortress by storm ended in failure, and on September 1, 1877, it was decided to move on to the blockade of Plevna, for which General Eduard Totleben was called in to lead it. On November 28, 1877, Turkish Marshal Osman Pasha, after an unsuccessful attempt to break out of the city to Sofia, surrendered with 43 thousand soldiers and officers.

The fall of Plevna was of great importance for the Russian army, as it freed up an almost 100,000-strong group of troops for an attack on the Balkans.

In the eastern part of Bulgaria, the Rushchuk detachment under the command of Tsarevich Alexander Alexandrovich blocked the Turkish army in the fortresses of Shumla, Varna, and Silistria. At the same time, the Serbian armies began to attack. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, General Gurko's detachment made a heroic crossing through the Balkans on December 13, 1877 and occupied Sofia. The detachment of General Fyodor Radetsky, having passed through the Shipkinsky Pass, defeated the enemy at Sheinovo. Having occupied Philippopolis (now Plovdiv) and Adrianople (now Edirne), Russian troops moved to Constantinople. On January 18, 1878, troops under the command of General Mikhail Skobelev took San Stefano (the western suburb of Constantinople). The Caucasian army under the command of General Mikhail Loris-Melikov took the fortresses of Ardahan, Kare, and Erzurum one after another. Concerned about Russia's successes, England sent a military squadron to the Sea of ​​Marmara and, together with Austria, threatened to sever diplomatic relations if Russian troops captured Constantinople.

On February 19, 1878, the terms of a “preliminary” (preliminary) peace treaty were signed. Under the Treaty of San Stefano, Türkiye recognized the independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania; ceded some areas to Montenegro and Serbia; agreed to the formation of an independent Bulgarian state - "Great Bulgaria" - from its Bulgarian and Macedonian regions; pledged to introduce the necessary reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To Russia, the Ottoman Empire ceded back the mouth of the Danube, which was ceded from Russia in 1856, and, in addition, the cities of Batum and Kars with the surrounding territory.

The terms of the Peace of San Stefano were protested by England and Austria-Hungary, who did not agree to such a sensitive weakening of Turkey and wanted to benefit from the circumstances. Under their pressure, Russia was forced to submit the articles of the treaty for international discussion. The diplomatic defeat of Russia was facilitated by the position of German Chancellor Bismarck, who set a course for rapprochement with Austria-Hungary.

At the Berlin Congress (June - July 1878), the San Stefano Peace Treaty was changed: part of the territories was returned to Turkey, including the Bayazet fortress, the amount of indemnity was reduced by 4.5 times, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England received the island Cyprus.

Instead of “Great Bulgaria”, a virtually independent, but vassal in relation to the Sultan, Bulgarian Principality was created, territorially limited in the south by the line of the Balkan Mountains.

The Berlin Treaty of 1878 caused deep discontent throughout Russian society and led to a cooling of Russia's relations not only with England and Austria, but also with Germany.

Even after their liberation, the Balkan countries remained an arena of rivalry among major European states. European powers interfered in their internal affairs and actively influenced their foreign policy. The Balkans became the powder keg of Europe.

Despite all this, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 had great positive significance for the Balkan peoples. Its most important result was the elimination of Turkish rule over a large part of the Balkan Peninsula, the liberation of Bulgaria and the formalization of the complete independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

Chapel-monument to the heroes of Plevna, Moscow

Wars do not break out suddenly, even treacherous ones. More often than not, the fire first smolders, gains internal strength, and then flares up - a war begins. A smoldering fire for the Russian-Turkish war of 1977-78. there were events in the Balkans.

Preconditions for war

In the summer of 1875, an anti-Turkish uprising broke out in southern Herzegovina. Peasants, mostly Christians, paid huge taxes to the Turkish state. In 1874, the tax in kind was officially considered 12.5% ​​of the harvest, and taking into account the abuses of the local Turkish administration, it reached 40%.

Bloody clashes began between Christians and Muslims. Ottoman troops intervened, but they met unexpected resistance. The entire male population of Herzegovina armed itself, left their homes and went to the mountains. Old people, women and children, in order to avoid total massacres, fled to neighboring Montenegro and Dalmatia. The Turkish authorities were unable to suppress the uprising. From southern Herzegovina it soon moved to northern Herzegovina, and from there to Bosnia, the Christian inhabitants of which partly fled to the border Austrian regions, and partly also began to fight the Muslims. Blood flowed like a river in daily clashes between the rebels and Turkish troops and local Muslim residents. There was no mercy for anyone, the fight was to the death.

In Bulgaria, Christians had an even harder time, since they suffered from Muslim mountaineers who moved from the Caucasus with the encouragement of the Turks: the mountaineers robbed the local population, not wanting to work. The Bulgarians also raised an uprising after Herzegovina, but it was suppressed by the Turkish authorities - over 30 thousand civilians were killed.

K. Makovsky "Bulgarian martyrs"

Enlightened Europe understood that it was time to intervene in Balkan affairs and protect civilians. But by and large, this “defense” came down to only calls for humanism. In addition, each of the European countries had their own predatory plans: England jealously ensured that Russia did not gain influence in world politics, and also did not lose its influence in Constantinople and Egypt. But at the same time, she would like to fight together with Russia against Germany, because... British Prime Minister Disraeli said that “Bismarck is truly a new Bonaparte, he must be curbed. An alliance between Russia and us for this specific purpose is possible.”

Austria-Hungary was afraid of the territorial expansion of some Balkan countries, so it tried not to let Russia in, which expressed a desire to help the Slavic peoples of the Balkans. In addition, Austria-Hungary did not want to lose control of the mouth of the Danube. At the same time, this country pursued a wait-and-see policy in the Balkans, as it was afraid of a one-on-one war with Russia.

France and Germany were preparing for war among themselves over Alsace and Lorraine. But Bismarck understood that Germany would not be able to fight a war on two fronts (with Russia and France), so he agreed to actively support Russia if it guaranteed Germany the possession of Alsace and Lorraine.

Thus, by 1877, a situation had developed in Europe when only Russia could take active action in the Balkans to protect Christian peoples. Russian diplomacy was faced with the difficult task of taking into account all possible gains and losses during the next redrawing of the geographical map of Europe: bargaining, conceding, foreseeing, setting ultimatums...

A Russian guarantee to Germany for Alsace and Lorraine would destroy the keg of gunpowder in the center of Europe. Moreover, France was too dangerous and unreliable an ally of Russia. In addition, Russia was worried about the straits of the Mediterranean Sea... England could have been dealt with more harshly. But, according to historians, Alexander II had little understanding of politics, and Chancellor Gorchakov was already old - they acted contrary to common sense, since both bowed to England.

On June 20, 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey (hoping to support the rebels in Bosnia and Herzegovina). In Russia this decision was supported. About 7 thousand Russian volunteers went to Serbia. The hero of the Turkestan War, General Chernyaev, became the head of the Serbian army. On October 17, 1876, the Serbian army was completely defeated.

On October 3, in Livadia, Alexander II convened a secret meeting, which was attended by Tsarevich Alexander, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and a number of ministers. It was decided that it was necessary to continue diplomatic activities, but at the same time begin preparations for war with Turkey. The main target of military action should be Constantinople. To move towards it, mobilize four corps, which will cross the Danube near Zimnitsa, move to Adrianople, and from there to Constantinople along one of two lines: Sistovo - Shipka, or Rushchuk - Slivno. The commanders of the active troops were appointed: on the Danube - Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, and beyond the Caucasus - Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. The solution to the question - whether there will be war or not - was made dependent on the outcome of diplomatic negotiations.

The Russian generals did not seem to feel the danger. The phrase was passed around everywhere: “Beyond the Danube even four corps will have nothing to do.” Therefore, instead of a general mobilization, only partial mobilization was started. As if they were not going to fight with the huge Ottoman Empire. At the end of September, mobilization began: 225 thousand reserve soldiers, 33 thousand preferential Cossacks were called up, and 70 thousand horses were supplied for cavalry mobilization.

Fighting on the Black Sea

By 1877, Russia had a fairly strong fleet. At first, Türkiye was very afraid of the Russian Atlantic squadron. But then she became bolder and began hunting for Russian merchant ships in the Mediterranean Sea. Russia responded to this only with notes of protest.

On April 29, 1877, a Turkish squadron landed 1000 well-armed highlanders near the village of Gudauty. Part of the local population who were hostile to Russia joined the landing. Then there were bombings and shelling of Sukhum, as a result of which Russian troops were forced to leave the city and retreat across the Madjara River. On May 7-8, Turkish ships cruised along a 150-kilometer section of the Russian coast from Adler to Ochamchir and fired at the coast. 1,500 highlanders landed from Turkish ships.

By May 8, the entire coast from Adler to the Kodor River was in uprising. From May to September, Turkish ships constantly supported the Turks and Abkhazians in the area of ​​the uprising with fire. The main base of the Turkish fleet was Batum, but some of the ships were based in Sukhum from May to August.

The actions of the Turkish fleet can be called successful, but it was a tactical success in a secondary theater of operations, since the main war was in the Balkans. They continued to shell the coastal cities of Evpatoria, Feodosia, and Anapa. The Russian fleet responded with fire, but rather sluggishly.

Fighting on the Danube

Victory over Turkey was impossible without crossing the Danube. The Turks were well aware of the importance of the Danube as a natural barrier for the Russian army, so from the beginning of the 60s they began to create a strong river flotilla and modernize the Danube fortresses - the most powerful of them were five. The commander of the Turkish flotilla was Hussein Pasha. Without the destruction or at least neutralization of the Turkish flotilla, there was nothing to think about crossing the Danube. The Russian command decided to do this with the help of barrage mines, boats with pole and towed mines and heavy artillery. Heavy artillery was supposed to suppress enemy artillery and destroy Turkish fortresses. Preparations for this began in the fall of 1876. Since November 1876, 14 steam boats and 20 rowing ships were delivered to Chisinau by land. The war in this region was long and protracted, and only by the beginning of 1878 most of the Danube region was cleared of the Turks. They had only a few fortifications and fortresses isolated from each other.

Battle of Plevna

V. Vereshchagin "Before the attack. Near Plevna"

The next task was to take Plevna, which was not defended by anyone. This city was of strategic importance as a junction of roads leading to Sofia, Lovcha, Tarnovo, and Shipka Pass. In addition, forward patrols reported that large enemy forces were moving towards Plevna. These were the troops of Osman Pasha, urgently transferred from Western Bulgaria. Initially, Osman Pasha had 17 thousand people with 30 field guns. While the Russian army was transmitting orders and coordinating actions, Osman Pasha’s troops occupied Plevna and began building fortifications. When the Russian troops finally approached Plevna, they were met with Turkish fire.

By July, 26 thousand people and 184 field guns were concentrated near Plevna. But the Russian troops did not think of encircling Plevna, so the Turks were freely supplied with ammunition and food.

It ended in disaster for the Russians - 168 officers and 7,167 privates were killed and wounded, while Turkish losses did not exceed 1,200 people. The artillery acted sluggishly and spent only 4,073 shells during the entire battle. After this, panic began in the Russian rear. Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich turned to the Romanian King Charles for help. Alexander II, dejected by the “Second Plevna,” announced additional mobilization.

Alexander II, the Romanian King Charles and Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich personally arrived to observe the assault. As a result, this battle was also lost - the troops suffered huge losses. The Turks repulsed the assault. The Russians lost two generals, 295 officers and 12,471 soldiers killed and wounded; their Romanian allies lost approximately three thousand people. A total of about 16 thousand against three thousand Turkish losses.

Defense of Shipka Pass

V. Vereshchagin "After the attack. Dressing station near Plevna"

The shortest road between the northern part of Bulgaria and Turkey at that time went through the Shipka Pass. All other routes were inconvenient for troops to pass through. The Turks understood the strategic importance of the pass, and entrusted Halyussi Pasha’s six thousand-strong detachment with nine guns to defend it. To capture the pass, the Russian command formed two detachments - the Advanced detachment consisting of 10 battalions, 26 squadrons and hundreds with 14 mountain and 16 horse guns under the command of Lieutenant General Gurko, and the Gabrovsky detachment consisting of 3 battalions and 4 hundreds with 8 field and two horse guns under the command of Major General Derozhinsky.

Russian troops took up a position on Shipka in the form of an irregular quadrangle stretched along the Gabrovo road.

On August 9, the Turks launched the first assault on Russian positions. Russian batteries literally bombarded the Turks with shrapnel and forced them to roll back.

From August 21 to 26, the Turks launched continuous attacks, but everything was in vain. “We will stand until the last, we will lay bones, but we will not give up our position!” - General Stoletov, the head of the Shipka position, said at the military council. Fierce fighting on Shipka did not stop for a whole week, but the Turks did not manage to advance a single meter.

N. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky "Shipka"

On August 10-14, Turkish attacks alternated with Russian counterattacks, but the Russians held out and repelled the attacks. The Shipka “sitting” lasted more than five months, from July 7 to December 18, 1877.

A harsh winter with twenty-degree frosts and snowstorms set in in the mountains. Since mid-November, snow had blocked the Balkan passes, and the troops suffered severely from the cold. In the entire Radetzky detachment, from September 5 to December 24, the combat loss amounted to 700 people, while 9,500 people fell ill and were frostbitten.

One of the participants in Shipka’s defense wrote in his diary:

Severe frost and a terrible snowstorm: the number of frostbitten people reaches terrifying proportions. There is no way to light a fire. The soldiers' overcoats were covered with a thick ice crust. Many cannot bend their arm, movements have become very difficult, and those who have fallen cannot get up without help. The snow covers them in just three or four minutes. The overcoats are so frozen that their floors do not bend, but break. People refuse to eat, gather in groups and are in constant motion to stay warm. There is nowhere to hide from frost and snowstorms. The soldiers' hands stuck to the barrels of guns and rifles.

Despite all the difficulties, Russian troops continued to hold the Shipka Pass, and Radetzky invariably answered all requests from the command: “Everything is calm on Shipka.”

V. Vereshchagin "Everything is calm on Shipka..."

Russian troops, holding Shipkinsky, crossed the Balkans through other passes. These were very difficult transitions, especially for the artillery: the horses fell and stumbled, stopping all movement, so they were unharnessed, and the soldiers carried all the weapons on themselves. They had 4 hours a day for sleep and rest.

On December 23, General Gurko occupied Sofia without a fight. The city was heavily fortified, but the Turks did not defend themselves and fled.

The Russians' transition through the Balkans stunned the Turks; they began a hasty retreat to Adrianople in order to strengthen themselves there and delay the Russian advance. At the same time, they turned to England with a request for help in a peaceful settlement of their relations with Russia, but Russia rejected the proposal of the London Cabinet, answering that if Turkey wanted, it should itself ask for mercy.

The Turks began to hastily retreat, and the Russians caught up and crushed them. Gurko's army was joined by Skobelev's vanguard, who correctly assessed the military situation and moved towards Adrianople. This brilliant military raid decided the fate of the war. Russian troops violated all strategic plans of Turkey:

V. Vereshchagin "Snow trenches on Shipka"

they were crushed from all sides, including from the rear. The completely demoralized Turkish army turned to the Russian commander-in-chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, asking for a truce. Constantinople and the Dardanelles region were almost in Russian hands when England intervened, inciting Austria to break off relations with Russia. Alexander II began to give conflicting orders: either to occupy Constantinople or to hold off. Russian troops stood 15 versts from the city, and meanwhile the Turks began to build up their forces in the area of ​​​​Constantinople. At this time, the British entered the Dardanelles. The Turks understood that they could only stop the collapse of their empire by an alliance with Russia.

Russia imposed a peace on Turkey that was disadvantageous to both states. The peace treaty was signed on February 19, 1878 in the town of San Stefano near Constantinople. The Treaty of San Stefano more than doubled the territory of Bulgaria compared to the boundaries outlined by the Constantinople Conference. A significant part of the Aegean coast was transferred to her. Bulgaria was becoming a state stretching from the Danube in the north to the Aegean Sea in the south. From the Black Sea in the east to the Albanian mountains in the west. Turkish troops lost the right to remain within Bulgaria. Within two years it was to be occupied by the Russian army.

Monument "Defense of Shipka"

Results of the Russian-Turkish war

The Treaty of San Stefano provided for the complete independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania, the provision of a port on the Adriatic to Montenegro, and Northern Dobruja to the Romanian principality, the return of southwestern Bessarabia to Russia, the transfer of Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and Batum to it, as well as some territorial acquisitions for Serbia and Montenegro. In Bosnia and Herzegovina reforms were to be carried out in the interests of the Christian population, as well as in Crete, Epirus and Thessaly. Türkiye had to pay an indemnity in the amount of 1 billion 410 million rubles. However, most of this amount was covered by territorial concessions from Turkey. The actual payment was 310 million rubles. The issue of the Black Sea Straits was not discussed in San Stefano, which indicates a complete lack of understanding by Alexander II, Gorchakov and other ruling officials of the military-political and economic significance for the country.

The San Stefano Treaty was condemned in Europe, and Russia made the following mistake: it agreed to its revision. The Congress opened on June 13, 1878 in Berlin. It was attended by countries that did not take part in this war: Germany, England, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy. The Balkan countries arrived in Berlin, but were not participants in the congress. According to the decisions made in Berlin, Russia's territorial acquisitions were reduced to Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The Bayazet district and Armenia up to Saganlug were returned to Turkey. The territory of Bulgaria was halved. What was especially unpleasant for the Bulgarians was that they were deprived of access to the Aegean Sea. But countries that did not participate in the war received significant territorial gains: Austria-Hungary received control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, England received the island of Cyprus. Cyprus is of strategic importance in the eastern Mediterranean. For more than 80 years, the British used it for their own purposes, and several British bases still remain there.

Thus ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78, which brought a lot of blood and suffering to the Russian people.

As they say, winners are forgiven everything, but losers are blamed for everything. Therefore, Alexander II, despite his abolition of serfdom, signed his own verdict through the Narodnaya Volya organization.

N. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky "Capture of the Grivitsky redoubt near Plevna"

Heroes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

"White General"

M.D. Skobelev was a strong personality, a strong-willed person. He was called the “White General” not only because he wore a white jacket, cap and rode a white horse, but also because of his purity of soul, sincerity and honesty.

His life is a shining example of patriotism. In just 18 years, he went through a glorious military path from an officer to a general, becoming a holder of many orders, including the highest - St. George of the 4th, 3rd and 2nd degrees. The talents of the “white general” were especially widespread and comprehensive during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. At first, Skobelev was at the headquarters of the commander-in-chief, then he was appointed chief of staff of the Caucasian Cossack division, commanded a Cossack brigade during the Second Assault on Plevna and a separate detachment that captured Lovcha. During the Third Assault on Plevna, he successfully led his detachment and managed to break through to Plevna, but was not supported in a timely manner by the command. Then, commanding the 16th Infantry Division, he participated in the blockade of Plevna and, when crossing the Imitli Pass, made a decisive contribution to the fateful victory won in the battle of Shipka-Sheinovo, as a result of which a strong group of selected Turkish troops was eliminated and a gap was created in the enemy defense and the road to Adrianople was opened, which was soon taken.

In February 1878, Skobelev occupied San Stefano near Istanbul, thereby ending the war. All this created great popularity for the general in Russia, and even greater popularity in Bulgaria, where his memory “as of 2007 was immortalized in the names of 382 squares, streets and monuments.”

General I.V. Gurko

Joseph Vladimirovich Gurko (Romeiko-Gurko) (1828 - 1901) - Russian field marshal general, best known for his victories in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

Born in Novogorod in the family of General V.I. Gurko.

Having waited for the fall of Plevna, Gurko moved further in mid-December and, in terrible cold and snowstorms, again crossed the Balkans.

During the campaign, Gurko set an example for everyone of personal endurance, vigor and energy, sharing all the difficulties of the transition along with the rank and file, personally supervised the ascent and descent of artillery along icy mountain paths, encouraged the soldiers with living words, spent the night by fires in the open air, and was content, just like them , breadcrumbs. After an 8-day difficult march, Gurko descended into the Sofia Valley, moved west and on December 19, after a stubborn battle, captured a fortified Turkish position. Finally, on January 4, 1878, Russian troops led by Gurko liberated Sofia.

To organize the further defense of the country, Suleiman Pasha brought significant reinforcements from the eastern front to the army of Shakir Pasha, but was defeated by Gurko in a three-day battle on January 2-4 near Plovdiv). On January 4, Plovdiv was liberated.

Without wasting time, Gurko moved Strukov’s cavalry detachment to the fortified Andrianople, which quickly occupied it, opening the way to Constantinople. In February 1878, troops under the command of Gurko occupied the town of San Stefano in the western suburbs of Constantinople, where on February 19 the Treaty of San Stefano was signed, ending the 500-year Turkish yoke in Bulgaria.

Goals:

Educational:

• study the causes, course and consequences of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878;
• find out the goals of the parties and the mechanism for starting the war, the balance of forces and the course of military operations;
• get acquainted with the significance of technical and economic potential in war.

Educational:

• develop map skills
• develop the ability to highlight the main points in the textbook text, tell the material read, pose and solve problems.

Educators: using the example of valor and courage of the Russian army to cultivate a sense of love and pride for the Motherland.

Lesson type: combined.

Basic concepts:

• Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878
• Treaty of San Stefano February 19, 1878
• Berlin Congress - June 1878
• Plevna
• Nikopol
• Shipka Pass

Lesson equipment:

• wall map “Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878”;
• wall map “Balkan states after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878”;
• projector;
• screen;
• computer;
• presentation.

Methods: teacher's story with elements of conversation.

Lesson plan:

1. Reasons and reason for the war.
2. Strengths and plans of the parties.
3. Progress of military operations.
4. Treaty of San Stefano.
5. Berlin Congress.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

Greetings.

II. Checking homework.

Name the directions of Alexander II's foreign policy.

What event in Russian foreign policy at that time can be called a “triumph of Russian diplomacy”?

What actions did Russia take to strengthen its borders?

III. Learning new material. Annex 1

1. Reasons and reason for the war

Remember what the “Eastern Question” is? (A range of problems related to the Ottoman Empire).

Purpose of the lesson: to study the causes, course and consequences of the Crimean War.

We work according to the following plan: Appendix 1.

Transfer it to your notebook

Lesson plan:

1. Causes of the war
2. Occasion
3. Progress of the war
4. Heroes
5. Treaty of San Stefano

At the end of the lesson we will complete this chart.

Causes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.: Annex 1

1. Liberation movement in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria against the Ottoman yoke.
2. The struggle of European countries for influence on Balkan politics.

1. Liberate the Slavic peoples from the Turkish yoke.
2. The rise of Russia's authority as a great power.

On the initiative of A.M. Gorchakov Russia, Germany and Austria demanded that Turkey equalize the rights of Christians with Muslims, but Turkey, encouraged by the support of England, refused.

Which Slavic peoples were under the rule of the Ottoman Empire? (Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina).

Teacher's story: In the spring of 1875, unrest broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which soon spread to all provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans brutally dealt with the rebels: they organized pogroms, destroyed entire villages, killed children, women, and old people.

Such cruelty caused outrage among the entire European public. A large number of volunteers from Russia went to the Balkans, joining the ranks of the rebels.

In the summer of 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and the Russian general M.G. stood at the head of the Serbian army. Chernov, who voluntarily went to the Balkans.

Russia was not ready for war. Military reforms were not yet completed.

What should the tsarist government have provided in case of war with Turkey? (Russia must agree with Austria-Hungary on its neutrality and thus protect itself from the anti-Russian coalition of European states).

Therefore, Alexander II agreed to the occupation of the Turkish province of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austrian troops.

Working with a wall map.

2. Strengths and plans of the parties Annex 1

Exercise: the war unfolded on 2 fronts: the Balkan and the Caucasus.

Compare the strengths of the parties. Draw a conclusion about the readiness of Russia and the Ottoman Empire for war. Guess its outcome.

Strengths of the parties

3. Progress of hostilities

Working with a wall map:

Strategically important points in the theater of operations: The Balkans divided the territory of Bulgaria into North and South. The Shipka Pass connected the northern part of Bulgaria with the southern part. This was a convenient route for troops and artillery to pass through the mountains. Through Shipka there was the shortest route to the city of Adrianople, that is, to the rear of the Turkish army.

1. The Russian army passed (by agreement) through Romania.
2. Crossed the Danube.
3. General Gurko liberated the ancient capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo.
4. On July 5, Gurko captured the Shipka Pass. (convenient road to Istanbul).
5. General Kridener took Nikopol (40 km from Plevna) instead of the Plevna fortress.
6. The Turks occupied Plevna and found themselves in the rear of the Russian troops.
7. Three assaults on Plevna in July-August ended in failure.
8. Under the leadership of engineer General Totleben, Turkish troops were driven out of Plevna in November 1877.
9. Gurko occupied Sofia in mid-December.
10. Skobelev's detachment was rapidly advancing on Istanbul.
11. In January 1878, Gurko's detachment captured Adrianople.
12. Skobelev's detachment reached the Sea of ​​Marmara and on January 18, 1878 occupied the suburb of Istanbul - San Stefano.

General Loris-Melikov defeated superior enemy forces and occupied the fortresses:

• Bayazet
• Ardahan
• went out to Erzurum.

4. Treaty of San Stefano (February 19, 1878): Annex 1

1. Serbia, Montenegro, Romania gained independence.
2. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire (that is, it received the right to its own government, army, connection with Turkey - payment of tribute).
3. Russia received Southern Bessarabia, the Caucasian cities of Ardagan, Kars, Bayazet, Batum.

5. Berlin Congress (June 1878): Annex 1

1. Bulgaria was divided into two parts:
2. Northern was declared a principality dependent on Turkey,
3. South - the autonomous Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia.
4. The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been significantly reduced.
5. Russia returned the Bayazet fortress to Turkey.
6. Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.
7. England received the island of Cyprus.

Heroes of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: Annex 1

Balkan Front:

• General Stoletov N.G. – defense of Shipka.
• General Kridener N.P. - Nikopol was taken instead of the Plevna fortress.
• General Skobelev M.D. - occupied the suburb of Istanbul - San Stefano.
• General Gurko N.V. - liberated Tarnovo, captured the Shipka Pass, occupied Sofia and Adrianople.
• General Totleben E.I. - liberated Plevna from the Turks.

Caucasian Front:

• Loris-Melikov M.T. - occupied the fortresses of Bayazet, Ardahan, Kars.

On November 28, 1887 in Moscow, in the park on the square at the Ilyinsky Gate, on the day of the 10th anniversary of the liberation of Plevna, a monument-chapel was opened. The modest inscription on it reads: “Grenadiers to their comrades who fell in the glorious battle near Plevna. In memory of the war with Turkey of 1877-1878."

IV. Summing up the lesson Annex 1

Let's remember our lesson plan and fill out the diagram in our notebook:

• Causes of the war
• Occasion
• Progress of hostilities
• Treaty of San Stefano

Express your opinion about the Berlin Congress.