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Materials posted in the telecommunications library and presented in the form of quotations may be used exclusively for educational purposes. It is prohibited to replicate information resources for the purpose of obtaining commercial benefits, as well as their other use in violation of the relevant provisions of the current legislation on copyright protection. HIGHER EDUCATION V.G. KRYSKO ETHNIC PSYCHOLOGY Approved by the Educational and Methodological Association for the specialties of teacher education as a teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions studying in the specialty 031000 - Pedagogy and psychology UDC 159.922.4 (075.8) BBK88.5ya73 K85 Reviewers: doctor psychological sciences, professor A. I. Krupnov; Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Professor N. I. Konyukhov Krysko V. G. K85 Ethnic Psychology: Textbook. aid for students higher schools, institutions. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002.-320 p. ISBN 5-7695-0949-X Ethnopsychology studies the uniqueness of the manifestation and functioning of the psyche of representatives of different ethnic communities and is currently one of the youngest, most complex and promising sciences. IN textbook The history of the development of ethnopsychology in Russia and abroad, the basic concepts and categories of this science, the principles and methods of ethnopsychological research are revealed. Much attention is paid to the psychological characteristics of various ethnic communities, their comparative characteristics, the psychology of family relationships in various ethnic groups, as well as the specifics of interethnic conflicts and methods of educational work in multinational teams. The book may be useful to teachers, practical psychologists, political scientists, as well as parents and anyone interested in the problems of interethnic communication. UDC 159.922.4(075.8) BBK 88.5я73 © Krysko V.G., 2002 ISBN 5-7695-0949-Х © Publishing Center "Academy", 2002 FROM THE AUTHOR It is natural for any person to be interested in representatives of other nations. They are attracted by their unusual appearance, specific actions, behavior and lifestyle. And we begin to think about the peculiarities of the psychology of representatives of other ethnic communities, we want to comprehend them. There are a lot of peoples on the globe; it is difficult to study all their psychological characteristics and even more difficult to compare and contrast them. It is also difficult to understand how the national psychological traits of representatives of different ethnic communities correlate. Ethnic psychology seeks and finds answers to all these questions - one of the most interesting, but also the most complex sciences. Ethnic psychology is also one of the youngest and most promising sciences, since it can contribute to the solution of interethnic conflicts that still exist today and to the construction of such a future world order, where the erasure of differences between social groups, predicted by many scientists, will occur taking into account their national psychological characteristics. CHAPTER FIRST. SUBJECT, METHODOLOGY AND TASKS OF ETHNIC PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Issues: specifics of the subject of ethnic psychology and other sciences; methodology of ethnopsychology; the uniqueness of the tasks of ethnopsychology as an independent field of knowledge; connection of ethnopsychology with other sciences. Food for thought. The psychology of representatives of various ethnic communities is studied by many sciences. Very often they allow too free or simply inaccurate interpretation of the actual psychological phenomena. In addition, the national psyche of people should be studied and comprehended on the basis of psychological, and not some other laws. 1.1. Differences in the subject of ethnopsychology and other sciences Ethnic psychology is an independent, rather young and at the same time complex branch of knowledge that arose at the intersection of such sciences as psychology, sociology (philosophy), cultural studies and ethnology (ethnography), which in to one degree or another, they study the national characteristics of the human psyche and groups of people. Philosophy (from the Greek phileo - love + sophia - wisdom), being the cradle from which all other sciences emerged, methodologically and theoretically comprehends mainly the social and partly psychological uniqueness of ethnic groups and their representatives, especially nations, and clarifies the specifics of its influence on intra- and interethnic interaction and communication of people. Representatives of the domestic theory of nations and interethnic relations and many of their colleagues abroad have long recognized the existence specific features national character and their special combination(expressed in the mental makeup) of members of a particular ethnic community, manifested actively in their activities and behavior. Sociology (from Latin societas - society + Greek logos - science, teaching) and culturology (from Latin cultura - development + Greek logos - science, teaching), in turn, have always studied the qualitative characteristics of national groups as social and cultural communities, developed sociological and cultural concepts of their development. That is why they could not ignore the psychological content and explanation of these phenomena. Sociology and cultural studies, through their research, strive to demonstrate the most general trends and patterns of interaction and cultural relations between different ethnic groups. “The fate of nations is largely decided as a result of the development and direction of general social processes - changes in social relations, socio-territorial mobility of peoples, the intensity and depth of interethnic and social contacts.” Ethnology (ethnography) (ethnology from the Greek ethnos - tribe, people + logos - science, teaching; ethnography from the Greek ethnos + grapho - I write) as a branch scientific knowledge was initially focused on the study of material culture, kinship systems, livelihoods, education, social and political structure of various peoples; problems of their ethnogenesis, ethnicity and intercultural contacts; settlement of ethnic groups, demographic processes in them; comparison of cultural traits (cultural changes) of a particular people. Modern ethnology provides ethnography with a conceptual apparatus. Ethnography as such is largely a descriptive science, and ethnology is its theory. At the same time, ethnology (ethnography) also could not help but explore national traditions, habits and tastes, specific features of behavior and actions of representatives of various ethnic groups. She always directly encountered the manifestation of psychological originality in these phenomena, could not help but comment on its specificity, and to a certain extent study and describe it. Psychological science, as well as its branch social psychology (from Latin socialis - social + Greek psyche - soul + logos - science, teaching), due to its purpose, must engage in a specific analysis of the national characteristics of the people’s psyche, including how representatives of specific social groups, and identifying patterns of their manifestation and functioning. “The national (ethnic) identity of an individual,” notes G.M. Andreeva, “is an extremely significant factor for social psychology because it records certain characteristics of the microenvironment in which the personality is formed” [10. - P. 219] . And since the sphere of manifestation of the national characteristics of the individual’s psyche is quite extensive, it legitimately invades the macroenvironment and at the same time is very clearly outlined in the structure public consciousness (social existence), a special branch of social psychology naturally emerged and began to develop productively - ethnic psychology (from the Greek ethnos - tribe, people + psyche - soul + logos - science, teaching). At the same time, today there is an urgent need for a correct understanding of the difference in the approach, on the one hand, of psychology, and on the other, of the above sciences, primarily ethnology (ethnography), to explaining the essence, content and specificity of the manifestation and functioning of ethno-psychological phenomena . Domestic ethnography (like foreign ethnology), having emerged as a science aimed at analyzing and explaining the rituals, customs and beliefs, lifestyle and way of life of representatives of various ethnic groups, the specifics of their cultural connections with other people, could not ignore its attention and their actual psychological characteristics. True, she should have been more interested (which, as a rule, was the case) not so much in psychological as in cultural specificity, the historical experience of the concentration of the latter in social and historical values ​​formed in the course of the life and activities of certain peoples. In an extreme case, this could be a general mechanism of historical and cultural socialization of an individual, introducing him to the mores and traditions of a specific national community. It is no coincidence that a scientific direction called ethnosociology was formed within the framework of this field of knowledge. This was in fact the case, however, ethnographers actively took up the study of related problems, in particular psychological ones, which they, however, could not solve correctly, since the latter belonged to the field of a completely different methodology, the specific features of the functioning of the completely different phenomena. Precisely because social and cultural specifics have always been the subject of ethnography’s research, which could not but be studied even in those periods of Russian history when a correct understanding of the life of nations was strictly prohibited (for example, during the years of the cult of personality), this This branch of science, much earlier than all others, entered in its own interests first into the study of national as a whole, and then the national psychological characteristics of people. However, ethnographers’ approaches to understanding the essence of ethnopsychological phenomena are based on knowledge and consideration of sociological and cultural, rather than psychological, patterns of manifestation of individual and social consciousness of people, which ultimately does not allow a methodologically very accurate and practically correct understanding of the content of the actual psychological essence and mechanisms of their formation, manifestation and functioning. Hence, not always correct ideas have developed about the epistemological aspect of the psychological activity of representatives of ethnic communities, when their perception of the outside world, intellectual-cognitive processes, certain psychological properties of the individual and social behavior are deliberately and without sufficiently convincing special research deprived by some scientists of national specificity or are interpreted non-psychologically. The active entry of representatives of domestic psychological science into the study and analysis of national psychological phenomena has somewhat shaken this position*, but it nevertheless often serves as a watershed between sociological and psychological approaches to ethnic phenomena. Of course, psychological science must accumulate in its theory and specific applied research those findings and achievements that take place in other fields of knowledge. * See the results of the discussion on these issues that took place on the pages of the magazine “Soviet Ethnography” in 1983. This is what actually happens. It is known that the above approaches, on the one hand, also exist abroad, but on the other hand, they are already significantly distanced from each other and are used for purely applied purposes. It is quite obvious that the latter must explain the essence and specificity of the functioning of phenomena that are psychological in content and, in addition, constitute the subject of study of psychological science, on the basis of psychological laws. Sociological and ethnographic approaches to the study of these phenomena can only complement scientific ideas about their origin, factors and sources of formation, and not pretend to be the ultimate truth. Ethnic psychology, of course, should develop in close collaboration with other sciences. Its interaction with them is determined by the need to combine the efforts of many researchers in the interests of studying a similar object - phenomena that are a consequence of interaction, communication, relationships and behavior of people within ethnic communities. Ethnology (ethnography) and sociology help psychologists: methodologically correctly and comprehensively more competently comprehend the needs, value orientations, moods, feelings, traditions, habits and mores of representatives of various national groups; to realize how they influence and in what relationship they are with the national psychological characteristics of people, how the latter manifest themselves in the process of their social and cultural existence. In connection with this, the subject of research by sociologists and ethnographers is not the actual national-psychological characteristics that distinguish some people from others, but sociocultural phenomena - the material culture of peoples, their structure, kinship and life support system, as well as the social specificity of intra-group and intergroup ethnic relations. Historical science enables psychologists to accurately interpret the factors and sources of the formation of national psychological characteristics of representatives of certain ethnic communities, to correctly assess the formation, functioning and transformation of specific manifestations of the psyche of these people at various historical stages of their development. At the same time, these and other sciences, for example, pedagogy (from the Greek paidagogike - the science of raising children), political science (from the Greek politike - the art of government + logos - science, teaching), need the results of research by psychologists, since Without them, specific phenomena related to their own areas of interest cannot be correctly explained. Thus, political science, with the help of ethnopsychologists, can more accurately describe the specifics of political processes in specific national regions, which largely depends on the unique manifestation of the national psychological characteristics of the peoples living in them. And for teachers, ethnopsychology can suggest, for example, more appropriate content of educational activities, since it is largely determined by the specifics of the national experience of a particular ethnic community. In addition, at present, applied branches of knowledge have emerged from specific sciences, focused on studying the national specifics of numerous social phenomena and processes, without analyzing the research results of which ethnic psychology cannot do. At the same time, these branches of knowledge differ in their subject matter and, accordingly, in the specifics of their research. Thus, ethnosociology (from Greek ethnos - tribe, people + Latin societas - society + Greek logos - science, teaching) is a scientific discipline that has developed at the intersection of sociology and ethnography, studies social phenomena occurring in various ethnic communities . Some representatives of this science, as already mentioned, believe that it should explore national consciousness and self-awareness, ethnopsychological characteristics of people, manifested in national relations, interpersonal social interaction, communication and behavior, i.e. cover most of the subject of ethnic psychology chology. In fact, very often representatives of this science do not see a clear line between the concepts of “social” and “psychological” and do not seek to explain them accordingly by sociological and psychological laws, as a rule, confusing them. Ethnoculturology (from Greek ethnos - tribe, people + Latin cultura - development + Greek logos - science, teaching) is a branch of cultural science that considers the influence of the cultural environment to be the determining factor in the ethnopsychological characteristics of peoples. In her opinion, culture begins with the fact that restrictions are imposed on people’s behavior, since the integrity of the cultural environment presupposes the development of uniform rules of behavior, the presence of a common national memory, a single picture of the world among representatives of the same ethnic group. In the process of historical development, each nation creates its own homogeneous system of cultural values, which are used by its members to express their ethnic consciousness. Cultural anthropology (from Latin cultura - development + Greek anthropos - man + logos - science, teaching) is a branch of science that arose at the intersection of cultural studies and ethnography (social anthropology); deals with the study of man as a representative different cultures, national communities. Cultural anthropology studies the individual as a member of a certain ethnic group, considering the latter as part of the whole - a specific culture, understood as a way of life inherent in a particular people or society. Ethnopedagogy (from the Greek ethnos - tribe, people + paidagogike - the science of raising children) is a branch of pedagogical science that deals with: 1) research into the uniqueness of goals, objectives, methods, techniques and methods of education and training, traditional for specific peoples; 2) a comparative study of the specifics of training and education among different peoples; 3) analysis of the influence of national psychology on the training and education of representatives of certain ethnic communities; 4) taking into account the laws of this process in the organization and implementation of pedagogical and training influence. Ethnopedagogy is closely related to ethnic psychology. But they cannot be identified, as is sometimes done. Ethnopsycholinguistics (from the Greek ethnos - tribe, people + psyche - soul + lat. lingua - language) is a branch of linguistic science that, as the main factor in the formation of the psyche of an ethnic group, considers the influence of its language and thinking, which accumulate and reflect the historical ethnic experience. According to representatives of this science, any language is closely related to ethnic, legal, religious forms social consciousness, which carry a significant ethnic load. In addition, it is believed that, in functional terms, the structure of the language determines the structure of thinking of representatives of a particular national community, and specific function language (speech) influences the unique development of their mental processes. 1.2. Subject, basic concepts and categories of ethnic psychology The subject of ethnic psychology as an independent branch of knowledge is the study of the unique manifestations and functioning of the psyche of representatives of various ethnic communities. However, this science, as already emphasized, was formed under the influence of different views on its content and the main phenomena that it should investigate. In addition, concepts borrowed from the everyday life of people, which very often do not have a clearly defined meaning and are not amenable to precise scientific and psychological description, have come into use. For a long time, the generally accepted category of ethnic psychology was the concept of psychological makeup, which originates from everyday life. At the same time, being borrowed, it is still not filled with real content. “...The concept of “psychological make-up of a nation” turns out to be quite difficult to operationally define,” emphasizes G.M. Andreeva. - Therefore, in ethnopsychology, a number of attempts have been made to find equivalents to this concept that would be more accessible for use in empirical research. The concepts of “national character”, “national self-consciousness”, and simply “national psychology” are used as synonyms for the “psychological make-up of a nation”. However, the introduction of many such concepts does not improve the matter and only introduces unacceptable terminological inconsistency.” Even in the example of this one remark by a famous Russian social psychologist, which in many respects correctly reflects the situation with the categorical apparatus of ethnic psychology, the methodological incident that this science faces is clearly visible. Instead of initially using specific research to study and understand the essence and content of ethnopsychological phenomena, and then on this basis to build a correct concept of their structure, the latter, without sufficient grounds, is driven in advance into a rigid scheme of “psychological makeup” nation,” the content of which turns out to be amorphous, non-specific, and contradictory. That is why the structure of ethnopsychological phenomena, when filled with specific content, is still influenced by two trends. The first of them is that the system of elements of this structure includes components, ideas about which are borrowed from general and social psychology: character, temperament, feelings, will, etc. representatives of one or another nation. The second trend involves the study of certain general and special features of the national psyche, the national character of people that make up the content and forms of manifestation of ethnopsychological phenomena. In our opinion, both trends deserve to be taken seriously and should certainly be taken into account. At the same time, they are not yet sufficiently comprehended and seem to exist independently of each other*. In fact, they can be made to “work” in the interests of the common cause, since they do not deny the national-psychological characteristics that actually exist, manifest themselves and are recognized by a person. * And there is nothing special about this, since both trends are a consequence of the attention of different sciences - sociology (ethnography) and psychology, which have different theoretical approaches to the problems of ethnopsychology. This can be done if, having correctly thought through the initial positions, we combine existing ideas into a single whole. Indeed, within the framework of the first trend, the presence of system-forming elements of the psychology of representatives of ethnic communities, such as national temperament, national character and others, is mainly stated. The functioning of the latter in itself presupposes the presence within them of specific components - subsystems: traits of national character and temperament, certain national feelings, etc. The general characteristics of national psychology, which are emphasized in the second trend, now, with certain reservations, fit into the framework of the subsystem elements of the first trend. Another thing is that it is very difficult to classify them on a single basis, since in both cases the names are borrowed from the arsenal of generalizing concepts about psychological phenomena of general psychology, focusing on the manifestation of the diverse components that make them up - emotional , cognitive, volitional, etc. All such contradictions are removed if we introduce into scientific circulation the basic category for ethnic psychology - national psychological characteristics, which allows, on the one hand, these characteristics themselves to be subsequently identified in depending on the class of psychological phenomena that generates them. We can talk, for example, about motivational-background, intellectual-cognitive, emotional, volitional and communicative national-psychological characteristics. On the other hand, it is quite obvious: national-psychological characteristics are socio-psychological phenomena that are actually present in public consciousness and social existence, the presence of which both sociology and ethnography are obliged to recognize, since both of these sciences, stating the existence of ethnically unique characteristics of various groups of society, we must also agree with the reality of the functioning of the psychological characteristics of representatives of these groups. In fact, this has long been the case, since both sociology and ethnography record and even to a certain extent explore the uniqueness of the psyche of various communities. National psychological characteristics at the same time act as a specific form of functioning of universal human mental properties. At the same time, it seems that the term “national-psychological characteristics” is more accurate. This does not mean that the focus of the main attention of all ethnographic groups is only nations, which, as types of ethnic communities, emerged at a relatively late stage of historical development. On the contrary, we adhere to the point of view according to which the concept of “national psychological characteristics” should reflect in its name the highest degree of development of the psychology of all ethnic groups, and not just nations*. To study these features means to identify the essential characteristics of the psyche of representatives of any ethnic group, to see first of all its national, i.e., finalized, and not ethnic specificity, since the latter does not imply the highest level of generalization, the inherent uniqueness of a particular community. * A nation is the highest stage (highest form) of development of an ethnic community. And finally, it is necessary to remember two more characteristics of national psychological characteristics that are important for their practical understanding. On the one hand, preferential attention to national psychological characteristics does not mean that ethnospecific traits are predominant in the psychology of peoples. On the contrary, they are based on the same universal human psychological basis. On the other hand, the originality of the national psychology of a particular people is expressed not in some unique psychological traits, but rather in their differentiated combination, embodied in historical traditions that prescribe certain forms of reactions and behavior of people in the course of socialization. Thus, ethnic psychology is a science that studies the patterns of development and manifestation of the national psychological characteristics of people as representatives of specific ethnic communities that distinguish them from each other. It, in turn, is a branch of social psychology and is based on research carried out not only by psychologists, but also by sociologists, ethnographers, and philosophers. National psychological characteristics of people are actually existing, actively functioning and clearly recognized by researchers phenomena of social consciousness, which have their own specific properties, unique mechanisms of manifestation and have a great impact on the behavior and activities of people*. *Cm. about this chap. fifth and sixth. Ethnic psychology and the scientists who represent it are engaged in applied research, which, depending on who carries it out, can be of two types. Firstly, psychologists study the actual national psychological characteristics of people as representatives of specific ethnic communities, regardless of whether these characteristics are innate or acquired during the socialization of the individual, as well as the patterns of their manifestation and functioning. National psychological characteristics are formed both in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, which means they have the most direct connection with general development human psyche. The general list of possible areas of research in ethnic psychology should reflect traditional psychological rubrication, including both intellectual and cognitive processes, emotional and volitional phenomena, the psychological uniqueness of group forms of interaction and behavior of people, and nationally specific needs , interests, value orientations. Secondly, sociologists and ethnographers conduct mainly ethnocultural research. Their subject is the study not of the actual national psychological characteristics that distinguish one people from others, but of the national uniqueness of cultural needs and traditions, social stereotypes of behavior and life of representatives of specific ethnic communities. 1.3. Methodology of ethnic psychology as a science The methodology of ethnic psychology is the most general ideas about the ideological positions of this science, the basic laws of cognition and its understanding of the national psychological characteristics of representatives of specific ethnic communities. The methodology of ethnic psychology is determined, on the one hand, by the uniqueness of its subject: in order to successfully study the national psychological characteristics of people, one must correctly imagine their content, the patterns of formation and functioning, and the relationship with other elements of social consciousness. On the other hand, only knowledge of the real specifics and patterns of development of the national psyche helps to determine those methods and use those techniques with the help of which it can be effectively studied. Typically, three levels of ethnic psychology methodology are distinguished. The general methodology provides the most correct and accurate ideas about the most general laws of development of the objective world, its uniqueness and constituent components, as well as the place and role in it of those phenomena that are studied by ethnic psychology. The general methodology of domestic psychological science is based on the fact that: · the world around us is material (consists of matter); · matter is primary, and consciousness and psyche are secondary; · different types of matter are in continuous movement, development and interaction; · the movement and interaction of matter determine the qualitative features of all socio-psychological phenomena (including national psychological phenomena) and social (national) activity of people; · interaction is an objective, universal form of movement and development that determines the existence and structural organization of any material system, including social (ethnic) groups; · in the history of mankind, interaction was the original form of the origin and subsequent development of all existence, the entire life of people as highly organized living beings with an extensive system various forms connections between them and the surrounding reality; · only in the course of the phylogenetic evolution of man himself did his interaction with other individuals turn into a full-fledged, multi-level and multifunctional joint activity of people; · as a result of the interaction of people, everything “social” is born, i.e. public (including national) relations; · the nature and content of numerous social relations are largely determined by the specifics and circumstances of the interaction itself, the goals pursued by specific people in its process, as well as the place they occupy in society; · all types of social relations permeate, in turn, the psychological relations of people, i.e. subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and are accompanied by various emotional and other experiences (likes and dislikes) of the individuals participating in them; · as a result of the material and spiritual life of individuals, their historical development, the social (including national) consciousness of people is formed, which is a reflection of their social existence, social and psychological relations; · public consciousness, social and psychological relations of people can be comprehensively studied and comprehended using special research methods and techniques developed by psychological science. A special methodology, or the methodology of ethnic psychology itself, allows the latter to formulate its own (intrascientific) laws and patterns related to the uniqueness of the formation, development and functioning of the phenomena that it studies. The special methodology of ethnic psychology is the methodological principles of psychological science as a whole, which it should be guided by when analyzing national psychological phenomena. The principle of determinism shows the causality of national psychological characteristics by social and other, including general psychological, factors that influenced the process of formation of a particular ethnic community, which determine the specifics of the functioning and manifestation of these responsibilities. That is why, in order to correctly comprehend a specific ethnopsychological phenomenon, it is necessary to understand the specific causes and conditions that gave rise to it. The methodological principle of the unity of consciousness and activity equips ethnopsychology with a correct understanding of the essence of the manifestation of ethnopsychological phenomena depending on the patterns of a particular type of activity in which a representative of a national community is involved. On the one hand, it is obvious that the general patterns of specific activities give rise to similarities in the manifestation of the psychology of its subjects; on the other hand, national self-consciousness, being unique in its origin for each nation, introduces the same difference into the elements, forms and results of the activity itself. The principle of the personal approach requires, when studying any national psychological characteristics, to take into account that their carrier is always, firstly, a specific person and, secondly, a representative of a certain ethnic community, with his characteristic feelings, thoughts, experiences, etc. Consequently, we must constantly remember: in the psychology of each person there is both a personal and national specialness, manifested in the unity and inconsistency of its combination. We can also say that ethnic psychology has its own methodological principles, such as, for example, the principle of an epistemological approach to the analysis of the national psychological characteristics of people, which focuses on a thorough study and comparison of the socio-historical uniqueness of the development processes of one nation or people with another. ​Gimi, teaches us to see the manifestation of something specific in the psychology of people as the result of a natural combination of the influence of known economic, political, social, cultural and psychological factors. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the principle of taking into account ethnological factors. The latter are derived from material life and the material existence of people. When understanding them, it is important to be guided by the demographic and statistical patterns to which they are subject in their development, thereby influencing human psychology. One should also remember the principle of the relativity of all psychological characteristics of nations, equality and mutual respect of their representatives in matters of spiritual development of each ethnic group, which guides scientists to handle the results of their research with sufficient caution and implies a refusal to contrast and absolutize specific traits of the ethnic psyche of specific peoples. Finally, private methodology ethnic psychology is a set of methods, methods, techniques, techniques and techniques for research by a specific science of various phenomena that constitute the subject and object of its analysis*. A method is usually understood as the main way of understanding a particular phenomenon, and a methodology is a set of methodological and technical techniques that modify a given method with their originality, consistency and interconnection. Methods, as opposed to a method that has more universal character, are always tied to the study of a specific phenomenon. A technique for studying a particular phenomenon usually means a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular technique (techniques statistical analysis, techniques for monitoring the reliability of information, techniques for measuring quantitative characteristics, etc.). *Cm. more about this chap. fourteenth. 1.4. Objectives of ethnic psychology as a science Ethnic psychology as a branch scientific research has its own specific tasks: 1) a comprehensive understanding and generalization of data on the factors and sources of the formation of national psychological characteristics of representatives of specific ethnic communities; identification on this basis of the specifics of socio-political, economic, historical and cultural development nations and peoples, which ultimately determined the uniqueness of the origin, development and functioning of their psychology; 2) studying the specifics of the motivational-background sphere of the national psyche of people in order to analyze and generalize the uniqueness of the manifestation and correlation of motivational and other similar qualities (for example, efficiency, initiative, degree of diligence, etc.) that determine the most important indicators of effective performance and specific behavior of people as representatives of specific ethnic communities; 3) study of nationally differentiated characteristics of the intellectual and cognitive activity of people of a specific nationality, manifested in the degree of commitment to logic, depth of abstraction, speed of mental operations, organization of intellectual processes, deep ​binary perception, completeness and efficiency of ideas, concentration and stability of attention and other qualities; 4) analysis and identification of patterns of functioning and flow of national feelings, their dynamics and content; organizing research into the specifics of expressing emotions and emotional behavior of representatives of specific ethnic communities and generalizing the results obtained in order to establish the patterns of their emotional life; 5) study of the specifics of unique attitudes towards volitional activity that function in the national psyche of a particular people or nation; identification on this basis of the stability and specificity of the course of volitional processes, the originality of the manifestation of volitional efforts that influence the behavior, actions and deeds of representatives of the nation; 6) study of the originality of the manifestation of the communicative sphere of the national mental make-up of people, functioning in the form of specific forms of interaction, communication and relationships and influencing the nature of the course of socio-psychological processes in groups and teams, their hierarchy, traditions and norms of behavior; 7) comparative (cross-cultural) study of the ethnopsychological characteristics of various peoples of the world in order to identify the most general patterns the functioning and manifestation of the national psyche, as well as the development of content and methods for compiling the psychological characteristics of their representatives; 8) identification of distinctive national traits psychology of various classes, layers and religious groups of society in specific states in order to study and generalize the patterns (national, political, sociological, cultural, etc.) of their development and functioning; 9) studying the influence of ethnic consciousness and self-awareness on the national psychological characteristics of people, on their worldview, social positions and value orientations; 10) substantiation of the most important areas of taking into account and using the national psychological characteristics of people in the interests of increasing the effectiveness of political, educational, educational, social, cultural, mass and advisory and correctional work with them; 11) research into the national psychological prerequisites for improving the content and quality of the organization and implementation of labor, educational, military and other types of activities of representatives of specific ethnic communities; 12) development of practical recommendations for enterprise managers, representatives of other administrative and economic personnel, teaching staff in order to improve their management and leadership of multinational labor, production and educational teams; 13) a comprehensive study of the specific psychology of numerous nations and nationalities of our country, socio-psychological conditions and the uniqueness of interethnic relations in its various regions, forms of economic, political and cultural cooperation between nations and nationalities; 14) social and psychological forecasting of the development of political, national and other processes in different regions of our country and in other states based on taking into account the specific psychology of representatives of various ethnic communities, its influence on the nature, content and specificity of public life . Solving the problems facing ethnopsychological science in Russia can be achieved in different ways. Firstly, it is certainly necessary to further systematically and thoroughly develop the theoretical and methodological problems of this branch of knowledge, generalize and develop the domestic and foreign experience already accumulated in this area. Secondly, wide opportunities in the research activities of ethnopsychologists in our country are provided by the study of the national psychological characteristics of representatives of a large number of diverse ethnic communities of our state, one of the most multiethnic in the world. Its peoples differ significantly in their numbers, economy, culture, traditions and psychology. The study of the latter was carried out completely insufficiently, and was hampered during the years of the cult of personality and the period of stagnation. And if in the 20th century. timely and comprehensive study and consideration of national psychological characteristics were carried out, the specifics of their influence on all aspects of the life and activities of representatives of various ethnic communities of our Motherland were taken into account, many difficulties inherent in interethnic and intranational relations today could be overcome much more easily. Today, the duty of all scientists in Russia, and not only ethnopsychologists, is to study, generalize and accurately describe the national psychological characteristics of the nations and nationalities living with us, and thereby contribute to the solution of many national problems and the development of friendship and mutual assistance between people of different ethnic backgrounds. Thirdly, the solution to a number of problems of ethnic psychology can be carried out in collaboration with other sciences, with which it is closely connected, since it has a similar object - phenomena occurring among people, in the process of their interaction and communication and affecting them psyche. Together with ethnology (ethnography), ethnic psychology must accumulate information and carry out the study and understanding of the national characteristics of behavior, actions and deeds, traditions and customs of representatives of various ethnic communities. Without the help of philosophy and sociology, ethnopsychologists cannot achieve methodological and theoretical accuracy in interpreting the essence and content of national psychological phenomena. With the scientific support of historical science, ethnopsychology must correctly comprehend the factors and conditions that determined the specifics of the formation and development of the phenomena that it studies. In turn, political psychology (from the Greek politike - the art of government + psyche - soul + logos - science, teaching) is a branch of knowledge that studies the psychological uniqueness of the course of political processes in society and their impact on the consciousness and behavior of people, can help this ​psychologists should monitor the forms of manifestation of national-psychological characteristics of representatives of various nations and nationalities of our country in various types of political activity, give them a sober assessment, analyze the “political meaning” of their influence on the actions and behavior of people, systematically and comprehensively summarize the results of research socio-political conditions and moral and psychological background of the parties collaborating or opposing each other and on this basis make long-term political forecasts of the situation in certain national regions of Russia (and abroad). Ethnic psychology, together with political psychology, can analyze social phenomena that arise in society, carefully recording: · what national psychological characteristics influence the general trends in the development of political consciousness of representatives of a particular ethnic community, what the forms may be we analyze and account for them under various circumstances; · what needs, motives and value orientations of the residents of a particular national region have their own specific ethnic characteristics , the originality of the functioning of which significantly influences the forms of manifestation of the self-awareness of a given people in the process of political activity; · whether or not these need-motivational components of national psychology are in conflict with the traditionally formed norms of political and interethnic interaction between people that function in the public consciousness; · what cognitive and intellectual components of the national self-awareness of representatives of specific nations should be taken into account during joint political activities and how they manifest themselves in one or another development of political processes in the region; · what are the mechanisms for protecting the political identity of representatives of specific ethnic communities from manifestations of nationalism and chauvinism in the course of interethnic communication; · Are there specific national psychological prerequisites for increasing the effectiveness of international education that can be taken into account in the course of political activity in specific national regions? Participating in activities to study the political self-awareness of people of different nationalities in our country, ethnopsychologists, in turn, provide political psychologists, as necessary, with specific techniques and a general methodology for analyzing psychological phenomena, adapting them to the uniqueness of the political ones being studied. phenomena. Ethnic psychology must solve its problems in interaction with pedagogical science, which studies the laws of upbringing and teaching people. On the one hand, educational work among representatives of different nations and peoples has its own specifics. National psychological characteristics are the foundation on which this specificity is based, since it underlies the behavior and actions of specific people, the nationally unique perception of pedagogical influences. These factors are what the teacher needs to take into account first of all. Armed with knowledge of national psychology, he can and should find the most compelling arguments that help improve the quality of educational activities. On the other hand, teaching people of different ethnic backgrounds requires taking into account the patterns of manifestation of their national psyche, since they affect the perception and assimilation of the knowledge acquired, the degree of effective adaptation of students to the pedagogical process, etc. Ethnopsychology, together with pedagogy, at the same time specifically explores: · the specifics of perception of educational and educational influences by representatives of specific national communities; · the originality of the content of educational activities and their impact on the individual, taking into account the historical experience of pedagogical activity among various nations and nationalities; · features of adaptation of people of a particular nationality to educational and training activities carried out by political leadership, propagandists, educators and teachers in various conditions social development; · the emotional-expressive sphere of manifestation of national psychology among representatives of specific ethnic communities in the process of perception of educational influences and educational activities; · the uniqueness of the manifestation of conflict relations during educational influence and in the educational process among different nations and nationalities; · specific forms, methods of communicative pedagogical and educational interaction that have developed in the course of the historical and cultural development of certain ethnic communities; · effectiveness of educational and educational activities in national regions, depending on the methods of psychological influence used on people of a particular nationality. Actually, cooperation between ethnopsychology and pedagogy has been taking place for a long time. For example, teachers, based on taking into account national psychological characteristics, have developed a number of ethnopedagogical principles: the principle of ethnopedagogical determinism of educational influences, suggesting that education must always be oriented towards such pedagogical activities that would be understandable to representatives of a given national community and correspond to its historically established traditions, habits and would take into account the influence on this process of national psychological characteristics that have developed under the influence of the specifics of socio-political, economic and cultural development; the principle of the unity of national consciousness and nationally unique pedagogical activity, which stipulates that the activity of a teacher can be quite effective only if it takes into account those moral values ​​and the specifics of the student’s worldview that have developed under the influence of the national self-awareness of representatives of a given ethnic community formed in the course of historical development; the principle of education in conditions of specific life and work in accordance with the national ideal, dictating the implementation of the entire complex of educational activities in the process of nationally specific life and work in accordance with national traditions; the principle of an individual and differentiated approach to the education of representatives of each nation, which involves taking into account not only the national characteristics of the individual, but also the purely individual characteristics characteristic of specific people and their groups; the principle of developing adaptive capabilities to educational influences, on the one hand, presupposing the presence of certain difficulties in perceiving the pedagogical influences of the teacher, especially when he is a representative of another nationality, and on the other hand, leaving prospects for adaptation to these difficulties, since the teacher himself and his students can improve their interaction and communication over time. Finally, ethnopsychology should play a special role in the formation of a culture of interpersonal relations, which is a set of ideological, moral, aesthetic values ​​of our society, mutually enriching and creatively developing in the process of communication between representatives of different nations. Ethnopsychology, studying together with other sciences the psychological content of the constituent elements of the culture of interethnic relations, can come to significant scientific conclusions regarding ways to increase the effectiveness of activities to build trust, harmony, and mutual assistance in relationships between representatives of specific ethnic communities. All this should be carried out on the basis of a thorough study and comprehensive analysis of the content and direction of interaction between representatives of various ethnic communities, identifying negative attitudes during various types of contacts between people of one or another nationality, determining ways and means of exiting conflict situations that arise existing in different national regions. The role and importance of ethnic psychology are increasingly increasing at the present stage of development of our state. In today's conditions of the collapse of previous national relations, disagreements between the ethnic communities inhabiting Russia, the unprecedented growth of the national self-awareness of its peoples, studying and taking into account the patterns of manifestation and functioning of the national psychological characteristics of people, determined by nationally specific needs and interests , value orientations and radically influencing all aspects of the life and activities of peoples, their interaction and cooperation, acquire a new important meaning, require priority attention from all categories of the population and the country's leadership. In these conditions, ethnopsychology should develop not spontaneously and chaotically, as often happened before, but purposefully and naturally, on the basis of stable ideas about its essence and sources of development, in accordance with the needs of society, political, economic and other relations, as a result of mutual efforts and research of representatives of many branches of knowledge. Questions and tasks for self-control 1. What determines the increasing role and importance of ethnopsychological knowledge and research in modern conditions? 2. Define ethnopsychology as a science. 3. Describe the main views on the subject of ethnopsychology. 4. Describe the methodological principles of the approach to understanding the essence of ethnopsychological phenomena. 5. What are the tasks of ethnopsychology as a science? 6. Show the relationship between ethnopsychology and other sciences. Directions for further improvement of knowledge 1. Try to prove that ethnic psychology can be a completely independent branch of scientific knowledge. 2. Classify the main differences between the subjects of research in ethnic psychology and other sciences based on specific characteristics. 3. Develop methodological approaches to understanding the essence, on the one hand, of motives and needs, and, on the other hand, of the characteristics of the volitional behavior of representatives of a particular ethnic community. 4. Formulate the most promising areas of ethnopsychological research. Chapter two. ETHNIC PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA AND THE USSR Issues: reasons for special attention to ethnopsychology in Russia; differences in views on ethnopsychology in our country; specificity of domestic ethnopsychological research. Food for thought. The problem of studying the characteristics of the psychological appearance of representatives of various nations arose as a result of the natural desire of people to learn the specifics of behavior and customs of the population living nearby, to maintain close political, economic and cultural relations and connections with them. The need for ethnopsychological research has always been greater in Russia, since it was a multinational state and such research was initiated by objective life circumstances. That is why our country immediately became a leader in the study of the national psychological characteristics of people, the development of methodological and theoretical problems new branch of knowledge. It was in our country that ethnic psychology became an independent science much earlier than abroad, and by the end of the 20th century. has accumulated experience in direct research into the characteristics of the psyche of the majority of the peoples of Russia. 2.1. The origins of interest in ethnic psychology and the peculiarities of its emergence in Russia Contrary to the opinion that has existed for a long time in the West that socio-psychological phenomena are practically impossible to study, much less predict, scientists and progressive figures in our state have always proceeded from the fact that people are bearers and exponents of certain views, ideas, social values, traditions, feelings, moods, which not only can be explored, but must also be taken into account in joint activities, and then, on this basis, make assumptions about social prospects development of society. It is no coincidence that the development in our country of social psychology (a branch of which is ethnic psychology), which was initially aimed at the priority study of mass phenomena and processes and has achieved significant success in this area, was also specific. In contrast, social psychology in the West for a long time paid more attention to the study of small groups and only in the second half of the 20th century. began to think about the role and significance of phenomena on a larger scale. From here came the understanding that the spiritual life of social groups (from the simplest to classes, nations, religious denominations, political institutions) and its psychological content, being a reflection of certain conditions of everyday life and social relations, play a role in at the same time, an active role in the historical process, are the internal basis of its development. A comprehensive study of the spiritual life of social groups, therefore, is of great practical interest and should not remain outside the attention of representatives of various fields of scientific knowledge. Of particular interest in Russia have always been the national and interethnic aspects of the spiritual life of the numerous peoples of our state. The very solution of issues of national construction, problems of interethnic relations, correct understanding of various forms of interaction and mutual penetration of national cultures, the unique behavior of representatives of specific ethnic communities has always required the study of the characteristics of the national psychology of people, which mediates all forms interethnic relations. The strengthening of ties between peoples, their mutual understanding, friendship and cooperation depend on its correct consideration. Ethnic psychology as a science originated initially in Russia, a decade and a half earlier than the appearance of the theory of psychology of peoples by M. Lazarus, H. Steinthal and W. Wundt*, who for some reason are considered abroad as the founders of this branch of knowledge. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. It was our country that had priority in extensive applied ethnopsychological research of many peoples, while in the West their beginning dates back to the 30s and 40s. XX century. * See chap. third. Ethnopsychology in our state immediately became a very important branch of knowledge, which has deep historical and cultural roots and was a practical response to the need to study the psychological make-up, traditions and behavioral habits of its numerous peoples. The great practical significance of their knowledge was indicated by such statesmen, like Ivan IV, Peter I, Catherine II, P. A. Stolypin. Russian scientists and publicists M.V. Lomonosov, V.N. Tatishchev, N. Ya. Danilevsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, writers A. S. Pushkin, M Y. Lermontov, N. A. Nekrasov, L. N. Tolstoy and many others paid serious attention to the psychological differences that exist in the everyday life, traditions, customs, manifestations of social life of representatives of various peoples who inhabited Russia. They used many of their judgments to analyze the nature of interethnic relations and predict their development in the future. A. I. Herzen, in particular, wrote: “... Without knowing the people, you can oppress the people, enslave them, conquer them, but you cannot liberate them...”. This statement of his is very relevant in today’s conditions of development of our country. The philosopher and publicist N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) believed that each nation has “its own patriotism”, its own psychology, which are manifested in the specific deeds of its representatives. He is credited with a deep analysis of the relationship between national and social in the spiritual life of peoples. Chernyshevsky contributed to the development of the theory of ethnopsychology. In his opinion, every nation represents a combination of people who are similar to each other in the degree of mental and moral development. He emphasized that national character is a certain total sum of the manifestation of various qualities of representatives of a particular people, which are not hereditary, but the result of historical development and the forms of their everyday existence. Chernyshevsky proposed to include mental and moral characteristics people associated with the difference in their language, the uniqueness of their lifestyle and customs, and the specificity of their theoretical beliefs and education. He left as a legacy to subsequent generations many psychological characteristics of representatives of various ethnic communities and, in addition, carried out a critical analysis of “current” ideas (false stereotypes) about the character of peoples that have a negative impact on interethnic relations. At the end of the 60s. XIX century publicist and sociologist N. Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885) published a fundamental work “Russia and Europe”, in which, as an alternative to Western scientists, he proposed a unique concept of an approach to identifying and classifying ethnically specific differences between people. In his opinion, there are ten cultural and historical types in a common, but by no means unified (interconnected) human civilization, which arose due to a unique and independent historical path of development. All of them differ from each other in three main characteristics: 1) ethnopsychological (in Danilevsky’s language, such “tribal” qualities that are expressed in the specifics of the “psychic structure” of peoples); 2) differences in historically established forms and methods of education, presupposing the unification of people into specific single ethnic communities; 3) differences in the “spiritual principle” (religious characteristics of the psyche). Danilevsky, in particular, singled out the Slavic as one of the cultural and historical types and consistently examined all its main characteristics, comparing it with the European (Romano-Germanic) type (and sometimes contrasting it). According to Danilevsky, the differences between these types can and should be found in three spheres of the spiritual life of their representatives: mental, aesthetic and moral. To find their originality, he suggested choosing the path not simple description universal human qualities, but the identification and subsequent study of such traits of the national character of people that leave an imprint and actively function in their historical and social reality, in the entire national and cultural life of the people and therefore are truly significant, important, really manifested for all representatives of a given cultural-historical type. Special merits in the development of ethnic psychology in Russia belong to N. I. Nadezhdin, K. D. Kavelin and K. M. Baer. Ethnographer, historian and literary critic N.I. Nadezhdin (1804 - 1856) published a large number of works (“Great Russia”, “Vendas”, “Vendas”, “All”, “Vogulich”), in which he gave ethnic characteristics of many Slavic peoples. He came to the conclusion that significant differences between ethnic groups are generated primarily by the dissimilarity of natural conditions. “The tropical sun, having scorched the Arab’s skin,” he wrote, figuratively and succinctly confirming his point of view, “at the same time heated the blood in his veins, ignited a fiery fantasy, and boiled enthusiastic passions. On the contrary, the polar cold, having frozen the Laplander’s hair white, froze his blood and froze his mind and heart. The mountaineers nesting on the heights are always prouder and more indomitable than the peaceful inhabitants of the valleys. The people of the sea are more enterprising and courageous than the people of the Mediterranean. The more luxurious the nature, the lazier, more voluptuous, more sensitive the tribe; on the contrary, where he must defend, challenge, conquer the means of existence, he is cheerful, hardworking, and inventive.” Of course, the position of the Russian scientist, the thoroughness of its understanding and justification deserve serious attention, which is confirmed by both domestic and foreign research*. Natural and climatic factors are the source of the formation of national psychological characteristics of people, but they cannot be absolutized. Moreover, they are not the only ones. There are also socio-political, economic and cultural conditions for the development of an ethnic group, the influence of which is no less, and in many cases even greater. * For example, in Western ethnopsychological science there was a geographical direction that explained the origin of national psychological phenomena by natural and climatic factors (see Chapter 3). In 1846, at a meeting of the Russian Geographical Society, Nadezhdin made a report “On the ethnographic study of the Russian people.” He stated that “the science of nationality must notice and evaluate everything that is actually Russian in its makeup and way of life, in its abilities, dispositions, needs and habits, in its morals and concepts,” and also proposed developing two areas of scientific knowledge in the country , very significant for the state - “physical ethnography” and “mental ethnography” (i.e. ethnopsychology). By the subject of “mental ethnography” Nadezhdin meant “a review and study of all those features that among peoples more or less mark the manifestations of the spiritual side of human nature; that is: mental abilities, willpower and character, a sense of one’s human dignity and the resulting desire for continuous improvement... Here, therefore, they will find their rightful place: folk psychology in the proper sense, or analysis and assessment of the specific dignity of the people mind and folk morality, as it manifests itself in the individuals who make up the people... In a word - reasonable beliefs or stupid dreams, established habits and fugitive whims, worries and pleasures, work and fun, business and idleness, with which a person proves that he lives not only as he can, but also as he wants and as he knows how.” Lawyer and publicist K.D. Kavelin (1818 - 1885), who was later elected head of the ethnography department of the Russian Geographical Society, believed that “psychology has come to the fore and it is very clear why. It is actually the center to which all sciences that have man as their subject now converge and presuppose it.” He called for knowledge of national psychology as a whole by studying its individual mental characteristics in their general interrelation. “The people,” he wrote, “represent the same single organic being as individual. Start exploring its individual morals, customs, concepts and stop there, and in this case you will not learn anything. Know how to look at them in their mutual connection, in their relation to the whole national organism, and you will understand the features that distinguish one people from another.” Kavelin believed that the ethnic (including psychological) characteristics of representatives of different communities must be studied based on ancient monuments, beliefs, customs and traditions. At the same time, he underestimated the importance of the comparative method of study and strongly objected to explaining by borrowing the similarity of Russian customs with similar phenomena among Jews, Greeks, Hindus or other peoples. In his opinion, Russian customs must always be explained based on the history of the Russian people themselves. Similar, Kavelin believed, does not mean borrowed at all. A number of other theoretical and historical assumptions he put forward were many years ahead of his time. They were expressed before Wundt, Lazarus and Steinthal, who laid similar ideas as the basis for their “psychology of peoples.” Full member St. Petersburg Academy Sciences K. M. Baer (1792-1876) in March 1846 made a report at a meeting of the Russian Geographical Society on the topic “On ethnographic research in general and in Russia in particular,” which became the program for studying the ethnographic and ethnopsychological characteristics of representatives numerous peoples of the state. The main task, in his opinion, was to understand the ways of life, the mental characteristics of the people, their morals, religion, prejudices, etc. Baer advocated the comparative study of the ethnic specifics of people. His theoretical views were at the same time very original. In particular, when studying the sources of origin of the ethnic characteristics of individual peoples, he proposed paying special attention to the dependence between the ethnopsychological and racial characteristics of the people and the political institutions of the state. In general, in setting the tasks of studying the ethnic characteristics of peoples, he was ahead of his foreign colleagues. Formed over a long period of time, stable and unique theoretical and practical ethnopsychological views of scientists and public figures Russia, their urgent recommendations and wishes regarding the need to study and take into account the customs, morals, and traditions of representatives of its numerous peoples by the end of the 40s - early 50s. XIX century gave rise to extensive applied research into their psychology. The latter, in terms of their scale, coverage of the ethnic groups studied, and especially the results achieved, were not only the first studies of this kind in the world, but have not yet lost their significance. In the mid-40s. XIX century at the Russian Geographical Society, K. M. Baer, ​​K. D. Kavelin, N. I. Nadezhdin created an ethnographic department, formulated the basic principles of ethnographic science and psychological ethnography, discussed them in wide circles of the country’s scientific community, and outlined boards for their development. Under the leadership of these scientists, a program for studying the ethnographic (ethnopsychological) uniqueness of the Russian population was developed, which began to be implemented in 1850. The instructions sent to the regions of the country asked to describe: 1) material life; 2) everyday life; 3) moral life and 4) language. The third point included a description of the mental makeup of the people. This also included a description of mental and moral abilities, family relationships and raising children. It was also noted there that folk art reflects the national temperament, dominant passions and vices, concepts of virtue and truth. The study of national psychological phenomena was also provided for in the paragraph on language. Based on the instructions, a large-scale scientific activity, in which leading scientists were involved. The results of research on numerous peoples of the country began to arrive in St. Petersburg from various parts of Russia: in 1851 - 700 manuscripts, in 1852 - 1290, in 1858 - 612, etc. . Based on them, the Academy of Sciences interpreted and generalized the data obtained, compiled scientific reports that also contained a psychological section in which the national psychological characteristics of first Little Russians, Great Russians and Belarusians were compared, and then representatives of other ethnic communities. This activity continued with varying intensity. As a result, to end of the 19th century V. an impressive bank of ethnographic and ethnopsychological characteristics of the majority of the peoples of Russia has been accumulated. The results of these studies have been published. In 1878 -1882, 1909, 1911, 1915. in St. Petersburg, the publishing houses “Leisure and Business”, “Nature and People”, “Knebel” published a large number of ethnographic and psychological collections and illustrated albums describing the ethnic characteristics of representatives of about a hundred peoples of Russia, information about which in 20 - 30s XX century were widely used in psychological and pedagogical publications and educational literature. Already in the 20th century. psychologist G.I. Chelpanov, highly appreciating the importance for social psychology of materials collected earlier by Russian scientists and generalized research results and calling for the continuation of this work, wrote: “Russia has accumulated a wealth of ethnographic material (works of the Academy of Sciences, Geographical society, lovers of natural science, etc.), which, due to the unfamiliarity of Western scientists with the Russian language, has not been used for the purposes of collective psychology. Herbert Spencer expressed regret that ignorance of the Russian language prevented him from using the materials of Russian ethnography for the purposes of social psychology. In 1911, Wundt, knowing the size of the unused material, expressed the same regret." WITH mid-19th V. Russian society especially faced the question of understanding and describing its national psychological characteristics, which led to the emergence of a large number of studies of “Russian character and Russian soul.” The first works were devoted mainly to the description of the negative, negative qualities of the Russian person, among which were called: illogicality, unsystematicity, utopian thinking; lack of need to think freely and creatively; impulsiveness, laziness, inability to work constantly and in an organized manner, etc. Understanding the weaknesses of the Russian national character, scientists began to think about its positive features. Researchers paid the greatest attention to the problem of the development of feelings, morality, and religion of the Russian people, since it was these phenomena, as many recognized, that underlay their worldview. Among the positive features of the Russian national psychology, such characteristics as kindness, cordiality, openness of the Russian people, their disinterestedness, preference for spiritual goods over earthly, material ones stood out. At the same time, many scientists argued that positive qualities are, as it were, reverse side negative, therefore they are inseparable from the latter. At the same time, the positive features of Russian psychology were understood not as qualities that compensate for shortcomings, but as their continuation, which legitimized the place of negative characteristics in the structure of the Russian national character and eliminated all attempts to fight them, since their destruction , according to this logic, would also be the destruction of the dignity of Russians. Contributions to the study of the psychology of Russian people were made by V. S. Solovyov, N. A. Berdyaev, V. O. Klyuchevsky. The philosopher V.S. Solovyov (1853 - 1900) came to the conclusion that it is possible to understand the uniqueness of the national character of Russians only if one carefully studies their ideals and value orientations, which are radically different from the motivations of representatives of other ethnic communities. From his point of view, the ideal of the Russian people is not “power”, power, which is a motivating force for other nations, is not wealth, material prosperity, which, in his opinion, are characteristic, for example, of the British, is not beauty and “ noisy glory”, characteristic of the French. It is not so important for Russians to remain an original people, faithful to the traditions of deep antiquity. This trait, inherent in the British, in Russia, Solovyov believed, is found only among the Old Believers. And even the ideal of honesty and decency, supported, for example, by the Germans, is not a value that the Russian people really value. Russians are characterized by a “moral and religious ideal,” which, in his opinion, is characteristic not only of Russia, since similar values ​​underlie the worldview of, for example, Indians. However, unlike the latter, among Russians the desire for “holiness” is not accompanied by that self-flagellation and asceticism that are an indispensable attribute in India. The way in which Soloviev tried to determine the specifics of national ideals and national character is very simple. Its logic was as follows: if any people want to praise their nation, then they praise it for what is close to them, for what is important and significant for them, thereby reflecting in the praise itself certain, most essential grounds , by which one can judge the values ​​and ideals existing in society. Solovyov’s concept was certainly interesting and progressive for his time, but at that time there were no today’s methods for studying social attitudes and value orientations people with whose help it is possible to identify stable characteristics of the national psyche experimentally. However, in our opinion, Solovyov’s ideas precisely guided psychologists and sociologists to create such methods and adapt them to the study of worldview phenomena. Philosopher and historian N.A. Berdyaev (1874-1948) also paid a lot of attention to studying and explaining the uniqueness of the national psychology of Russians. The features of the “soul of Russia” (Berdyaev’s terminology), which, according to his views, is characterized by mystery, mysticism and irrationality, manifest themselves in different ways. So, on the one hand, the Russian people are the most apolitical, “stateless” people in the world, but at the same time in Russia before 1917. one of the most powerful state bureaucratic machines was created, oppressing the inherent freedom of spirit of the people and suppressing personality. According to Berdyaev, the attitude of Russians towards other peoples is also very specific: the Russian soul is internally international, even “supernational”, respectful and tolerant of other nations and nationalities. He considered Russia the most "non-chauvinistic country in the world", whose mission is to liberate others. One of the most important and distinctive features Berdyaev called the Russian soul “everyday freedom”, the absence of philistinism, the pursuit of profit and the passion for profit and prosperity, so characteristic of Western countries. In this sense, the type of wanderer, a seeker of God’s truth, the meaning of life, not bound by earthly affairs and worries, seemed to the scientist the most natural state of the Russian soul. However, even in this respect, the Russian spirit still did not realize itself in its natural form. Moreover, the enrichment of some at the expense of others, the presence of money-grubbing merchants, officials and peasants who want nothing but land, the presence of total conservatism, inertia and laziness indicate that the original features of the Russian soul are being deformed and are being replaced by other, opposite ones. , values ​​that are fundamentally alien to both her character and her own nature. Of course, many of Berdyaev’s views were contradictory and subjective, but his approach to stating and analyzing the states of the Russian soul and national character traits is striking in its depth and versatility, and arouses the interest of ethnopsychologists. The historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841 -1911), in turn, emphasized that the psychology of Russian people cannot be understood without studying the natural, social and economic conditions of its development, which gave rise to completely unique characteristics in the national character of Russians , often contradictory, but at the same time mutually complementary qualities: a sense of risk, a tendency to try one’s luck, hope for luck and prudence and prudence, the ability to rely on one’s own strengths, evasiveness and uneven behavior. A significant contribution to the development of ethnopsychology in Russia was made by A. A. Potebnya (1835 -1891), a Slavic philologist who developed questions of the theory of linguistics and national folklore. In contrast to the direction of research of other Russian scientists, the subject of study of which was national character, a description of the national psychology of representatives of a particular ethnic community, he sought to reveal and explain the mechanisms of formation of the ethnopsychological specificity of thinking. His fundamental work “Thought and Language”, as well as the articles “Language of Peoples” and “On Nationalism” contained deep and innovative ideas and observations that made it possible to understand the nature and specificity of the manifestation of intellectual-cognitive national-psychological characteristics. According to Potebnya, the main not only ethno-differentiating, but also ethno-forming feature of any ethnic group is language. All languages ​​existing in the world have two properties in common - sound “articulateness” and the fact that they are all systems of symbols that serve to express thought. All their other characteristics are ethnically unique, and the main one among them is the system of thinking techniques embodied in language. Potebnya believed that language is not a means of denoting a ready-made thought. If this were the case, it would not matter which language to use, they would be easily interchangeable. But this does not happen, because the function of language is not to designate a ready-made thought, but to create it. At the same time, representatives of different nations through national languages form thoughts in their own way, different from others. Thus, an individual’s linguistic affiliation creates objective conditions for the development of his mental characteristics. Subsequently developing his theses, Potebnya came to a number of important conclusions, according to which: a) the loss of a people’s language is tantamount to its denationalization; b) representatives of different nationalities cannot always establish adequate mutual understanding, since there are specific features and mechanisms of interethnic communication that must take into account the thinking of all communicating people; c) culture and education develop and consolidate the ethnospecific characteristics of representatives of certain nations, and do not level them out; d) ethnic psychology, being a branch of psychological science and exploring the relationship between personal development and national development, should show the possibility of identifying national characteristics and the structure of languages ​​as a consequence of the general laws of national life. By the end of the 19th century, therefore, our state came with concrete results in the development of ethnic psychology. A rather progressive and convincing theoretical and methodological basis to understand the essence and originality of national psychological phenomena, which were understood as specific features of the functioning of the national character traits of various peoples, formed under the influence of natural and climatic conditions, religion, customs and morals and manifested in the actions, deeds, and behavior of representatives ethnic communities. This allowed Russian scientists to begin an effective study of the national psychological characteristics of the majority of the country’s ethnic communities, and then to use the obtained data in management, regulation of interethnic relations, training and education. 2.2. Development of ethnic psychology in Russia in the 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century. Representatives of psychological science began to address the problems of ethnic psychology*. * Psychology as an independent branch of knowledge emerged from philosophy at the beginning of the 19th century, and at the beginning of the next century it had already developed a fairly stable base of theoretical and methodological concepts, and also began to accumulate experience in extensive applied research on personality. Physiologist I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), who bequeathed to subsequent generations the theory of the reflex nature of conscious and unconscious human activity, closely followed the results of applied research by ethnographers and strongly supported their desire to comprehensively study ethnic characteristics psyche of the peoples of the country. At the same time, he believed that the latter should be studied not only and not so much by the products of the spiritual development of the people, but also using special psychological techniques personality studies. Psychiatrist and psychologist, organizer and director of the Psychoneurological Institute and the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity, author of such works as “Collective Reflexology”, “Social Psychology”, “Suggestion in Public Life”, V.M. Bekhterev (1857 - 1927) also could not ignore issues of ethnic psychology. He came to the conclusion that each nation has its own temperament and its own unique character traits, as well as specific features mental activity, which are fixed and, accordingly, transmitted biologically. All other ethnopsychological characteristics are of a sociocultural nature and depend, according to Bekhterev, on social development and the way of life that developed during cultural genesis. In contrast to V. Wundt, who assumed that the main source of ideas about the national psychology of a particular people is the study of its myths, customs and language, Bekhterev called for studying the collective and individual psychology and activities of people as representatives of specific ethnic communities. At the same time, he sharply criticized the conceptual apparatus used by Wundt and another Western psychologist - G. Le Bon, emphasizing that they showed subjectivity when talking about “ people's soul", "national feeling" and "national spirit". Bekhterev contrasted with them his point of view on the problem of studying the national psychological characteristics of people, believing that it should be dealt with by a special science - collective reflexology. In his works, Bekhterev was one of the first in Russia to address the question of the role and meaning of symbolism among various peoples. According to his views, any life ethnic group , nations included, are full of symbolism. A wide range of objects and phenomena can be used as nationally specific symbols: language and gestures, flags and coats of arms, war heroes, exploits of historical figures, outstanding historical events. These symbols act as a means of coordinating the interests and joint activities of people, thereby uniting them into a single community. The works of D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky (1853 - 1920), a student and follower of A. A. Potebnya, who sought to identify and substantiate the mechanisms and means of forming the psychological uniqueness of nations, brought a lot of benefit to the development of ethnopsychological ideas in our country . His main work devoted to this problem was “The Psychology of Nationality” (1922). According to the concept of Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, the main factors in the formation of the national psyche are the elements of intellect and will, and the elements of emotions and feelings are not included in their number. Following his teacher, Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky believed that national specificity is rooted in the peculiarities of thinking and that these peculiarities should be sought not in the content side of intellectual activity and not in its effectiveness, but in the unconscious components of the human psyche. In this case, language acts as the core of national thought and psyche and is a special form of accumulation and conservation of the mental energy of peoples. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky came to the conclusion that all nations can be divided conditionally into two main types - active and passive - depending on which of the two types of will - “active” or “delaying” - prevails in a given ethnicity. Each of these types, in turn, can be divided into a number of varieties, subtypes, differing from each other in certain ethnospecific elements. For example, the scientist classified Russians and Germans as passive types, who differ at the same time in the presence of elements of volitional laziness in Russians. He classified the English and French national characters as the active type, which differ in the presence of excessive impulsiveness among the French. Many of Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky’s ideas were eclectic and insufficiently reasoned, and were the result of an unsuccessful application of the ideas of Z. Freud. However, subsequently they prompted researchers of ethnic psychology to correctly analyze the intellectual, emotional and volitional national psychological characteristics of people. Particular merits in the development of ethnic psychology in Russia belong to the philosopher G. G. Shpet (1879-1937), who was the first to begin giving a course of lectures on this subject and organized it in 1920. the only ethnopsychology office in the country. In 1927, he published the work “Introduction to Ethnic Psychology”, in which, in the form of a discussion with W. Wundt, M. Lazarus and G. Steinthal, he expressed his views on the main content, prospects and directions of development of this progressive and very the required branch of knowledge. Ethnic psychology, Shpet argued, is a descriptive, not an explanatory science. In his opinion, it should borrow from ethnology the classification of social phenomena, and then pose questions like: “How is this experienced by the people of a given era?”, “What do they love, what are they afraid of, what do they worship?” etc. The scientist came to the conclusion that the subject of ethnic psychology can be a description of the typical collective experiences of representatives of a particular people, which are a consequence of the functioning of language, myths, morals, religion, etc. As if individual representatives of one or another of another ethnic community, no matter how individually different they may be, and no matter how different their attitudes to similar social phenomena may be, one can always find something in common in their reactions and behavior. At the same time, the general, Shpet believed, is not an averaged whole, it is not a set of similarities. He understood the general as a “type”, as a “representative of the psyche of many individuals”, as a characteristic that unites and shows the nuances of all the uniqueness of thoughts, feelings, experiences, actions and actions of people of a particular nationality. In general, Shpet’s views were overly philosophical and theoretical, and did not make it possible to directly study the diversity of ethnopsychological phenomena. However, the main merit of this outstanding scientist is that he brought his views to general discussion, contributed to their dissemination, and began teaching ethnic psychology in higher education. He came up with the idea that Russia, with its complex ethnic composition population, with a diverse cultural level and the character of peoples represents especially favorable conditions for the development of problems of ethnic psychology. Interest in ethnic psychology and ethnopsychological research did not fade away after the 1917 revolution. Many subsequently famous psychologists paid serious attention to them. L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) - psychologist, founder of the cultural-historical school in Russian psychology, came to the conclusion that human mental activity in the process of cultural-historical development is formed under the influence of tools, thereby causing a fundamental restructuring of its internal content. He proposed to consider the instrumental method as the main research method in ethnic psychology, the essence of which is to study people’s behavior in close connection with the trends of historical, sociocultural and national development, to analyze the structure and dynamics of “instrumental acts” of the human psyche. Vygotsky proposed to include the “psychology of primitive peoples” as an object of ethnic psychology, meaning by this a comparison of the mental activity of a modern “cultured” person and a primitive “primitive”. He considered the main purpose of ethnopsychology to be conducting extensive cross-cultural research, and above all, an interethnic comparative study of the psychology of representatives of “traditional” and “Civilized” societies. From the standpoint of Vygotsky’s cultural-historical concept in the late 20s. XX century a research program on the pedology of national minorities was prepared. Its peculiarity was that, in contrast to widespread test research, the center was placed on research into the national environment, its structure, the dynamics of content, everything that determines the ethnic uniqueness of mental processes. In addition, he came to a very important conclusion that it is necessary to study the psyche of children not on the basis of comparing it with the psyche of the average “standard” child, but taking into account a comparative analysis of the psychology of an adult of the same national community. Vygotsky’s ideas had a great influence on the development of not only ethnic psychology, but also the entire psychological science as a whole. Under the guidance of another psychologist, one of the founders of neuropsychology A. R. Luria (1902-1977) in 1931 - 1932. practical testing of the ideas of the cultural-historical approach was carried out during a special scientific expedition in Uzbekistan. The task of the expedition was to analyze the socio-historical experience of the formation of mental cognitive processes (perception, thinking, imagination) of some peoples Central Asia . During the study, Luria put forward and proved a hypothesis according to which changes in the socio-historical structure, the nature of the social life of a particular people cause a radical restructuring of people’s cognitive processes. In new conditions, the functioning of emerging norms and rules of behavior that have not yet become entrenched in the public consciousness is mediated by traditional forms of mental activity of people, characteristic of them as representatives of a specific ethnic community. Experiments conducted by Luria to study cognitive processes, as well as the content of forms of introspection and self-esteem (in particular, Uzbeks) revealed a certain transformation of the people’s psyche under the influence of new social relationships. However, it was not the patterns of people’s mental activity that changed, but the mechanisms of influence of external factors on it. Due to the specific political conditions of the development of our state, the materials of this expedition were published only 40 years later. However, in the 30s. even their partial discussion in limited audiences of scientists led to certain shifts in the approach to the study of ethnopsychological phenomena. In the 30s -50s. XX century The development of ethnic psychology, like some other sciences, stopped during the period of the personality cult of J.V. Stalin. And although Stalin himself considered himself the only true interpreter of the theory of national relations, he wrote many works on this issue, but all of them today cause a certain skepticism and must be correctly assessed from modern scientific positions. It is quite obvious that some areas of Stalin’s nationality policy did not stand the test of time. For example, the orientation taken on his instructions towards the formation of a new historical community in our state - the Soviet people - ultimately did not live up to the hopes placed on it, moreover, it harmed the formation of national self-awareness of representatives of many ethnic communities of our country, since The political rockcrats too zealously and straightforwardly implemented an important but too early declared task. The same can be said about the practice of university and school education. And all this because the ethnic identity of the representatives of the majority of the peoples of our country was ignored, which, of course, could not disappear with the wave of a magic wand. It is also clear that the lack of applied ethnopsychological research in these years, repressions against those scientists who carried out them in the previous time, had a negative impact on the state of science itself. A lot of time and opportunities were lost. Only in the 60s. The first publications on ethnopsychology appeared. The rapid development of social sciences during this period, the continuous increase in the number of theoretical and applied research led to a comprehensive study of first the social and then the political life of the country, the essence and content of human relationships, the activities of people united in numerous groups and collectives, among of which the majority were multinational. Scientists have attracted particular attention to the social consciousness of people, in which national psychology plays an important role. The first to recognize the need to study its problems in the late 50s. social psychologist and historian B.F. drew serious attention. Porshnev (1905-1972), author of the works “Principles of Socio-Ethnic Psychology”, “Social Psychology and History”. He considered the main methodological problem of ethnopsychology to be the identification of the reasons that determine the existence of national psychological characteristics of people. He criticized those scientists who sought to derive the uniqueness of psychological characteristics from physical, bodily, anthropological and other similar traits, believing that an explanation of the specific characteristics of the mental make-up of a nation must be sought in historically established specific economic, social and cultural living conditions of every people. In addition, Porshnev urged the study of traditional forms of labor that shape the characteristics of the national character. He especially emphasized that it is necessary to identify the connections between language and deep mental processes , pointed out that hieroglyphic writing and phonetic writing involve different areas of the cerebral cortex. He also advised studying the mechanisms of communication, in particular facial expressions and pantomimes, and believed that even without the use of precise special methods, it is quite possible to notice: in similar interaction situations, representatives of one community smile many times more often than another. However, Porshnev emphasized: the essence of the matter is not in quantitative indicators, but in the sensory and semantic meaning of facial and body movements. And finally, Porshnev especially warned that one should not get carried away with compiling a socio-psychological passport for each ethnic community - a list of mental traits characteristic of it and distinguishing it from other ones. It is necessary to limit ourselves only to a narrow circle of essential features of the mental makeup of a particular nation, which constitute its actual specificity. In addition, he studied the mechanisms of manifestation of “suggestion” and “counter-suggestion”, manifested in interethnic relations. Many sciences began to study ethnopsychological phenomena: philosophy, sociology, ethnography, history, and some branches of psychology. Domestic philosophy and sociology, continuing to develop the theory of nations and national relations, became interested in the methodological substantiation of the essence and content of national psychology as a phenomenon of social consciousness. Ethnography (ethnology), based on the understanding of the vast material accumulated during field studies of the behavior and lifestyle of the peoples of the world, began to generalize at the theoretical level data on the uniqueness of the psychology of representatives of various ethnic communities. Social psychology and military psychology began to specialize in a comparative analysis of the national psychological characteristics of representatives of various communities. The close interest of many sciences in ethnic psychology and the national psychological characteristics of people, on the one hand, contributed to the qualitative development of ideas about them, and on the other, gave rise to certain differences in solving fundamental methodological problems in this field of knowledge. As a result, two approaches to their understanding and research emerged. Representatives of the theoretical-analytical approach, among whom philosophers, historians, and sociologists predominated, sought to study ethnopsychological phenomena, as a rule, only at the theoretical level of understanding social phenomena. They made a great contribution to the development and clarification of the conceptual apparatus of ethnic psychology as a science. Their work also greatly contributed to a comprehensive analysis of national psychology as a phenomenon of social consciousness in a broad sense, that is, in relation to ideology, class psychology and other phenomena. However, simple statements and understanding of national psychology as a phenomenon characteristic of representatives of this approach did not completely solve even the problem of identifying the uniqueness of its content and psychological functional role. Scientists paid main attention to the analysis of what is available in the structure of national psychology, and not to the mechanisms and specifics of its functioning. This position was quite legitimate and at that stage of development of this branch of knowledge played a positive role. At the same time, it did not ensure the identification of the uniqueness of the psychology of representatives of different nations and thus did not guarantee the emergence of substantiated data for the derivation of patterns characteristic of the national psychological characteristics of people. Proponents of the functional research approach, which included mainly domestic psychologists and ethnographers, on the contrary, paid main attention to the empirical study of the actual psychological characteristics of representatives of various national communities and the formulation of specific theoretical and methodological provisions on this basis. Thus, military psychologists N. I. Lugansky and N. F. Fedenko initially studied the national psychological specifics of the activities and behavior of the personnel of the armies of some Western states, and then moved on to certain theoretical and methodological generalizations that emerged in ultimately into a clear system of ideas about national psychological phenomena. Based on an analysis of the characteristics of the psychology of representatives of various nations, ethnographers Yu. V. Bromley, L. M. Drobizheva, S. I. Korolev made their theoretical conclusions. The value of the functional research approach was that it was aimed at identifying the specific manifestations of the national psychological characteristics of people in their practical activities. This allowed us to take a fresh look at many theoretical and methodological problems of this extremely complex social phenomenon. Chronologically in 60 - 90 years. XX century Ethnic psychology in our country developed as follows. In the early 60s. On the pages of the journals “Questions of History” and “Questions of Philosophy,” discussions took place on the problems of national psychology, after which domestic philosophers and historians in the 70s. began to actively develop the theory of nations and national relations, paying priority attention to the methodological and theoretical substantiation of the essence and content of national psychology as a phenomenon of social consciousness (E. A. Bagramov, A. X. Gadzhiev, P. I. Gnatenko, A. F. Dashdamirov , N. D. Dzhandildin, S. T. Kaltakhchyan, K. M. Malinauskas, G. P. Nikolaychuk, etc.). From the standpoint of their field of knowledge, at the same time, ethnographers joined the study of ethnopsychology, engaged in generalizing at the theoretical level the results of their field research and more actively began to study the ethnographic characteristics of the peoples of the world and our country (Yu. V. Harutyunyan, Yu. V. Bromley, L. M. Drobizheva, B. A. Dushkov, V. I. Kozlov, N. M. Lebedeva, A. M. Reshetov, G. U. Soldatova, etc.). Very productive since the early 70s. ethnopsychological problems began to be developed by military psychologists, who placed the main emphasis on studying the national psychological characteristics of representatives of foreign states (V. G. Krysko, I. D. Kulikov, I. D. Ladanov, N. I. Lugansky , N. F. Fedenko, I. V. Fetisov). In the 80s - 90s. In our country, scientific teams and schools began to emerge that deal with the problems of ethnic psychology and ethnosociology proper. At the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the sector of sociological problems of national relations, headed by L. M. Drobizheva, has been working for a long time. At the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in the laboratory of social psychology, a group was created that studied the problems of the psychology of interethnic relations, headed by P. N. Shikhirev. At the Academy of Pedagogical and Social Sciences, in the department of psychology, V. G. Krysko created a section of ethnic psychology. At St. Petersburg State University, a team of sociologists under the leadership of A. O. Boronoev is fruitfully working on the problems of ethnic psychology. Issues of ethnopsychological personality traits are being developed at the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology of the Peoples' Friendship University, headed by A. I. Krupnov. The teaching staff of the Department of Psychology of North Ossetian State University, headed by X. X. Khadikov, is focused on studying the national psychological characteristics of representatives of various nations. Ethnopsychosemantic research is being conducted at Moscow State University under the leadership of V. F. Petrenko. D. I. Feldshtein heads the International Association for the Promotion of Development and Correction of Interethnic Relations. Currently, research in the field of ethnic psychology is being conducted in three main directions. The first of them deals with the specific psychological and sociological study of various peoples and nationalities. Within its framework, work is being carried out to understand ethnic stereotypes, traditions and specific behavior of Russians and representatives of numerous ethnographic groups of the North

Ethnic psychology. Krysko V.G.

4th ed. - M.: Academy, 2008. - 320 p.

Ethnopsychology studies the uniqueness of the manifestation and functioning of the psyche of representatives of various ethnic communities and is currently one of the youngest, most complex and promising sciences. The textbook reveals the history of the development of ethnopsychology in Russia and abroad, the basic concepts and categories of this science, the principles and methods of ethnopsychological research. Much attention is paid to the psychological characteristics of various ethnic communities, their comparative characteristics, the psychology of family relationships in various ethnic groups, as well as the specifics of interethnic conflicts and methods of educational work in multinational teams.

For university students. It may be useful for teachers, practical psychologists, political scientists, as well as parents and anyone interested in the problems of interethnic communication.

Format: pdf/zip(2008, 320 pp.)

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Format: doc/zip(2002, 320 pp.)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Chapter first. Subject, methodology and objectives of ethnic psychology as a science 4
1.1. Differences in the subject of ethnopsychology and other sciences 4
1.2. Subject, basic concepts and categories of ethnic psychology 10
1.3. Methodology of ethnic psychology as a science 13
1.4. Objectives of ethnic psychology as a science 17
Chapter two. Ethnic psychology in Russia and the USSR 24
2.1. The origins of interest in ethnic psychology and the peculiarities of its emergence in Russia 24
2.2. Development of ethnic psychology in Russia in the 20th century 34
Chapter three. Historical development ethnopsychological views abroad 49
3.1. Ethnopsychological ideas in antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment 49
3.2. Foreign ethnopsychology in the 19th century 54
3.3. Foreign ethnopsychology in the 20th century 59
Chapter Four. Psychological characteristics ethnic communities 70
4.1. Humanity. Ethnos. Nation 70
4.2. Psychological basis nations 76
4.3. Specifics of interethnic relations between people 88
4.4. Psychological prerequisites for the integrity of the nation 94
Chapter five. Essence, structure and originality of ethnopsychological phenomena 101
5.1. Contents of Psychology of the Nation 101
5.1.1. The system-forming side of the psychology of a nation 102
5.1.2. The dynamic side of the psychology of a nation 106
5.2. Properties of national psychology 110
5.3. Functions of the national psyche 114
Chapter six. Mechanisms of functioning and manifestation of ethnopsychological phenomena 119
6.1. Interethnic interaction as a sphere of manifestation of national psychological characteristics of people 120
6.2. The uniqueness of the manifestation of national attitudes 125
6.3. Psychological features of ethnic stereotyping.. 133
Chapter seven. National psychological characteristics of representatives of different peoples of Russia 144
7.1. Russians as representatives of the Slavic ethnic group 145
7.2. Turkic and Altai peoples Russia 150
7.3. Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia 153
7.4 Buryats and Kalmyks 155
7.5. Representatives of the Tungus-Manchu group of peoples of Russia 158
7.6. Representatives Jewish nationality 160
7.7. Peoples of the North Caucasus 162
Chapter eight. The originality of the psychology of the peoples of the near abroad... 169
8.1. Ukrainians and Belarusians 169
8.2. Baltic peoples 172
8.3. Peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan 178
8.4. Peoples of Transcaucasia 187
Chapter Nine. Comparative characteristics of the psychology of some peoples of the far abroad 192
9.1. Americans 192
9.2. English 195
9.3. Germans 198
9.4. French 200
9.5. Spaniards 202
9.6. Finns 204
9.7. Greeks 207
9.8. Turks 209
9.9. Arabs 210
9.10. Japanese 212
9.11. Chinese 215
Chapter ten. Psychological specificity of ethnic conflicts 218
10.1. Essence, preconditions and types of ethnic conflicts 219
10.2. The content of ethnic conflicts and the specifics of their resolution 225
Chapter Eleven. Ethnopsychology of family relations 234
11.1. Ethnopsychological specificity and stages of formation of family relationships 235
11.2. Ethnopsychological features of conflicts in family relationships 238
11.3. Psychological assistance and diagnostics in family relationships 242
Chapter twelve. Taking into account national psychological characteristics in educational work in a multinational team 246
12.1. Multinational team as a specific object of educational influence 248
12.2. National psychological determination of the effectiveness of educational work in a team 252
12.3. System of educational measures taking into account the national psychological characteristics of people 254
Chapter thirteen. Professionalism in interethnic relations 259
13.1. Conditions and prerequisites for achieving professionalism in interethnic relations 259
13.2. The essence of professionalism in regulating interethnic relations 262
13.3. Features of the activity of a professional in the field of interethnic relations 271
Chapter fourteen. Methods for studying the national psychological characteristics of people 280
14.1. Logic and principles of ethnopsychological research 280
14.2. Basic methods of ethnopsychological research 286
14.3. Additional methods of ethnopsychological research 292
14.4. Reliability of ethnopsychological research 295
Bibliography 300

Technical drawing.pptx

The construction of a technical drawing of a geometric body, like any object, begins from the base. For this purpose, first draw the axes of the flat figures lying at the base of these bodies.

The axes are constructed using the following graphical technique. Arbitrarily choose a vertical line, set any point on it and draw two intersecting lines through it at angles of 60° to the vertical line (Fig. 82, a). These straight lines will be the axes of the figures whose technical drawings need to be completed.

Let's look at some examples. Suppose you need to perform a technical drawing of a cube. The base of the cube is a square with side equal to a. We draw the lines of the sides of the square parallel to the constructed axes (Fig. 82, b and c), choosing their value approximately equal to a. We draw vertical lines from the vertices of the base and lay out segments on them that are approximately equal to the height of the polyhedron (for a cube it is equal to a). Then we connect the vertices, completing the construction of the cube (Fig. 82, d). Drawings of other objects are constructed in the same way.

Rice. 82

It is convenient to construct technical drawings of a circle by fitting them into a drawing of a square (Fig. 83). The picture of a square can be conditionally taken as a rhombus, and the picture of a circle as an oval. An oval is a figure consisting of circular arcs, but in technical drawing it is done not with a compass, but by hand. The side of the rhombus is approximately equal to the diameter of the depicted circle d (Fig. 83, a).

Rice. 83

In order to fit an oval into a rhombus, arcs are first drawn between points 1-2 and 3-4 (Fig. 83, b). Their radius is approximately equal to the distance of A3 (A4) and B1 (B2). Then arcs 1-3 and 2-4 are drawn (Fig. 83, c), completing the construction of the technical drawing of the circle.

To depict a cylinder, it is necessary to construct drawings of its lower and upper bases, placing them along the axis of rotation at a distance approximately equal to the height of the cylinder (Fig. 83, d).

To construct the axes of figures located not in the horizontal plane of projections, as given in Figure 83, but in vertical planes, it is enough to draw one straight line on a taken vertical line through an arbitrarily chosen point, directing it down to the left for figures parallel to the frontal plane of projections, or down to the right - for figures parallel to the profile plane of projections (Fig. 84, a and b).

Rice. 84

The placement of ovals when performing technical drawings of circles located in different coordinate planes is given in Figure 85, where 1 is a horizontal plane, 2 is frontal and 3 is profile.

Rice. 85

It is convenient to make technical drawings on checkered paper (Fig. 86).

Rice. 86

To give the technical drawing greater clarity, use various ways conveying the volume of an object. They can be linear shading (Fig. 87, a), shading (hatching with a “check” - Fig. 87, b), dot shading (Fig. 87, c), etc. (see also Fig. 88). It is assumed that light falls on the surface from the top left. Illuminated surfaces are left light, and shaded ones are covered with strokes, which are thicker where one or another part of the surface of the object is darker.

Rice. 87

Rice. 88

Figure 89 shows technical drawings of more complex parts using shading, shading and dot shading.

Rice. 89 1. What drawing is called technical? 2. What methods of conveying the volume of objects are used in technical drawing?

Option 1. Technical drawing of the part

Using the drawing in rectangular projections, make a technical drawing of one of the parts (Fig. 90).

Rice. 90

Requirements for the preparation of practical work

When drawing models, approximate methods of their construction are used.

Think about the layout of the drawing. Make technical drawings of models in A 4 (A3) format, by hand from nature (or according to complex drawings), without using a drawing tool, apply (hatching), scribbling and quarter cutting. Save construction lines.

In cases where it is necessary to quickly explain the shape of the object in question, to show it clearly, a technical drawing is used. Technical drawing called a visual image of an existing or designed object, made without the use of drawing tools, by hand on an eye-size scale, observing the proportions and sizes of the elements that make it up. Technical drawings used in design practice are used to more quickly express your thoughts in a visual form. This makes it possible to explain the drawings in a more accessible and intelligible way. complex subjects. The use of technical drawing allows you to reinforce a technical idea or proposal. In addition, the use of a technical drawing of a part is very useful when sketching parts from life, although a technical drawing can also be made using a complex drawing of an object.

The most important requirement for a technical drawing is clarity. A technical drawing in its finished form with shadowing and shading can sometimes be more visual than an axonometric image and, with dimensions applied, can replace a drawing of a simple part that serves as a document for its manufacture.

In order to quickly and correctly complete a technical drawing, it is necessary to acquire the skills of drawing parallel lines at different angles, at different distances, of different thicknesses without the use of drawing tools, without using instruments, dividing segments into equal parts, constructing the most used angles (7,15, 30 ,41,45,60,90°), divide angles into equal parts, build circles, ovals, etc. It is necessary to have an idea of ​​​​the image of various figures in each of the projection planes, to be able to create images in a technical drawing of the most used flat figures and simple geometric ones forms

Before starting the technical drawing, the issue of choosing the most effective visual representation system is decided. In mechanical engineering drawing, rectangular isometry is most often used for this purpose. This is explained by the fact that the outlines of figures located in axonometric planes undergo the same distortion in isometry, which ensures the clarity of the image and the comparative simplicity of its achievement. Rectangular dimetry is also used.

In Fig. 297, A shows a technical drawing of a right triangle located in the horizontal projection plane and made in rectangular isomerism, and in Fig. 297, b- technical drawing of a right triangle located in the frontal plane of projections and made in rectangular dimetry.

In Fig. 298, A shows a technical drawing of a hexagon located in the horizontal projection plane and made in rectangular isometry. In Fig. 298, b A technical drawing of the same hexagon, made in rectangular dimensions, is shown. The drawing of a circle located in

horizontal plane of projections (Fig. 299, a), and a technical drawing of the same circle located in the frontal plane of projections and made using the rules of rectangular dimetry (Fig. 299, b).

Using the rules for constructing axonometric projections and technical drawings of the simplest flat figures, you can begin to make technical drawings of volumetric geometric figures.

In Fig. 300, A The technical drawing of a straight tetrahedral pyramid, made in rectangular isomerism, is shown in Fig. 300, b- technical drawing of a straight tetrahedral pyramid, made in rectangular dimensions.

Carrying out technical drawings of surfaces of revolution involves the construction of ellipses. In Fig. 301, and a technical drawing of a right circular cylinder is shown, made in rectangular isomerism, and in Fig. 301, b- a drawing of a straight circular cone, made in rectangular dimensions.

The technical drawing can be performed in the following sequence.

1. In the place selected in the drawing, axonometric axes are constructed and the location of the part is outlined, taking into account its maximum visibility (Fig. 302, a).

2. Mark the overall dimensions of the part, starting from the base, and build a volumetric parallelepiped that covers the entire part (Fig. 302, b).

3. The dimensional parallelepiped is mentally divided into separate geometric shapes, its components, and highlight them with thin lines (Fig. 302, c).

4. After checking and clarifying the correctness of the outlines made, draw lines of the required thickness visible elements details (Fig. 302, d, e).

5. Select a shading method and complete the appropriate drawing of the technical drawing (Fig. 302, e). In Fig. 302 shows the sequence of constructing a technical drawing of a ttetel.

To increase clarity and expressiveness, the completed technical drawing is shaded with solid parallel lines of varying thicknesses or hatched in the form of a grid. The application of chiaroscuro to a technical drawing, showing the distribution of light on the surfaces of the depicted object, is called shading. Shading can also be done using dots. With increasing illumination, the distance between points increases. When performing shading, it is believed that the light falls on the depicted object from above, behind and from the left, so the illuminated parts are made lighter, and the right and lower parts are made darker. Closer to

the placed parts of the object are shaded lighter than areas located further from the light. In each drawing, one particular method of shading is used, and all surfaces of the depicted object are shaded.

In Fig. 303, A a technical drawing of a cylinder is shown, on which the shading is done by parallel shading, in Fig. 303, b- by tracing, and in Fig. 303, V- using dots. In Fig. 302, e shows a technical drawing of a part with shading made by parallel shading.

Shading on working drawings of parts can also be done by shading - frequent, almost continuous application of strokes in different directions, or by washing, made with ink or paint.

Task conditions: complete a sketch and technical drawing of the part from life (Fig. 10.20). Do the work on two sheets of paper.

As can be seen from Fig. 10.20, the part is a flange intended for detachable connection of pipelines. It is attached to the counter part using six bolts, as evidenced by the presence of unthreaded holes. The connection with the subsequent part is threaded. The flange is made of metal, which has a yellow tint characteristic of brass.

Before proceeding with the sketch, in accordance with the recommendations and. 10.2, let's make plan for its implementation:

1. Planning the working area of ​​the drawing and drawing dimensional rectangles.

Work orderA. Performing a sketch

• 1. If you do not take into account the six cylindrical holes of small diameter, this flange is a collection of coaxial conical and cylindrical surfaces. Therefore, to depict it, it would be enough to give a connection of half of the front view (to show the external shape of the part) and half of the frontal section (to reveal the shape of the hole). Taking into account the fact that such parts are usually turned on a lathe, the axis of rotation should be positioned horizontally. However, the presence of six cylindrical holes requires the addition of one more view (on the left) to demonstrate the principle of their location.
• 2. Based on the analysis, we conclude that required images the parts will be inscribed in the overall rectangle and square, and the sides of the rectangle, as can be seen from Fig. 10.20, differ from each other slightly. The approximate aspect ratio of the overall rectangle can be taken as 10: 11.

We draw the overall rectangle and square on the working surface of the drawing so that there is enough space around for setting dimensions (Fig. 10.21a).

• 3. We examine the shape of the depicted flange and draw by hand the connection of half of the front view and half of the frontal section (Fig. 10.216). It was already noted above that in the case under consideration, the view on the left is necessary only to determine the position of the cylindrical holes. Therefore, it is advisable to construct a local view of the location of the holes inside the overall square (see Fig. 10.216).
• 4. We put down dimension lines in accordance with the recommendations of clause 10.2, taking into account the sequence of processing the workpiece. All dimensions related to the outer surface are concentrated on the side of the view, and all dimensions characterizing the internal structure of the part are concentrated on the side of the cut (Fig. 10.21 c).

Rice. 10.21a - drawing dimensional rectangles

Rice. 10.216

Rice. 10.21 in - placing dimension lines

Rice. 10.21 g - setting dimensional numbers and drawing up a sketch

Rice. 10.22

• 5. We measure the part using available measuring tools (calipers, rulers, thread gauges). We place the specific digital data obtained during the measurement in the places prepared in advance for them (Fig. 10.21 d).
• 6. Finally, we prepare the sketch as a graphic design document. To do this, fill in the main inscription:
  • - enter the name of the part “Flange”;
  • - find in Appendix 5 the designation of a suitable brand of brass and enter it in the appropriate column;
  • - put a dash in the “Scale” column;
  • - since the task also requires a technical drawing of the flange, in the “Sheets” column we indicate the total number of sheets in the work - 2;
  • - assign the corresponding alphanumeric code to the drawing.

B. Execution of technical drawing

1. We will perform technical drawing according to the rules of isometric projection. In this case, we will position the axis of rotation of the flange in the same way as in the sketch, along the X axis.

In the case under consideration, the flange is shaped like a body of revolution. As a result, it is entirely acceptable to give it full cut, supplemented with images of cylindrical holes of small diameter.

The result of the constructions is shown in Fig. 10.22.

2. In conclusion, we draw up the drawing in the same way as the sketch in Fig. 10.21 g, additionally adding the sheet number - 2 - to the 1st Rafa of “Sheets”.