V. methodology of literary criticism

for students Commodity full-time education

I . Literary criticism as a science.

Methodology of literature e Denia.

1. Subject and tasks of literary criticism. Literary sciences d ical cycle (le to tion -2 hours)

Literary criticism as a philological science. Philology “service of understanding” (S. Averintsev). Public purpose literary critic e nia. “Languages” of culture and the problem of their adequate mastery e nia.

Subject of literary criticism. Assessing current definitions of pre d meta literary studies from the point of view of their adequacy to the subject itself (“literature”, “fiction”, “literature that has an est e tical value nie", "artistic literature", etc.). Aesthetic and artistic. Meanings of the term "artistry". Historical x A The nature of the boundaries and criteria of art n things.

Literary studies and non-humanities (sociology, exact sciences) at ki). Literary criticism and civil history. Literary criticism or n gistika. Literary and art criticism. Specifics of literature e Denia.

Sciences of the literary cycle. Literary theory, its composition and A dachas Meanings of the term "poetics". Historical poetics among others A science and literary disciplines. History of literature. Literary critic e tion and literary criticism. Tasks of literary criticism. History of letters and tours. Auxiliary telial disciplines. “Basic” nature of auxiliary disciplines. Text O logic, its tasks and conceptual and terminological apparatus (“attribution”, “text editing”, etc.). Academic publication, his prince And py. Meanings of the term "e" V ristics." The concept of literary hoax. Paleography. Stylistics. Bibliography and fiya.

1. Main directions and schools of domestic and foreign countries and nogo literary critic e nia (lecture 2 hours)

Methodology of literary criticism. Academic schools in literature O management Mythological school in European and Russian literature e Denia, its traditions in ritual and mythological criticism XX century. Culture but-historical school, its methods of describing and explaining facts verbally O th creativity. Biographical method in literary criticism. Samples suitable O yes to a literary work and the work of a writer from the perspective of biogr A physical method. Psychological school and its interpretation of works O spring. Literary e development of the twentieth century. Psychoanalysis in literary criticism and examples of psychoanalytic e sky interpretation of a literary work. Formal school in Russia. Central concepts in categorical annex A the army of Russian formalists. Art T like “making a thing” (V.B. Shklovsky) in the works of the formalists. Sociological method in literary criticism and culture And tick. Structuralism in European and Russian literary criticism. Mon I ty structures. Receptive aesthetics. Yu.M. Lotman on the priority of non-letters A tour factor for academic literary criticism in the analysis of words O of creativity and the “return” of literary criticism XX centuries to the idea of ​​self I production value e Deniya art.

1. Principles of analysis and description of works of artistic literature. Introductory (set O full-time) lesson (practical lesson 2 hours)

Contents and forms of work. Principles of analysis, interpretation and description of the text of a work of art. Evaluating and Understanding Products h knowledge of artistic literature. “Exact” and “inaccurate” knowledge. Di A lexicon of subjective and objective in the “immediate” and analytical e skom perception of verbal creativity. The criterion of “depth of understanding” (M. Bakhtin). Analysis of a literary work e nia.

II . Verbal artistic creativity as a type of art t va

1. Art as a form of social consciousness (lecture 2 hours a sa)

Art in the circle of other forms of social consciousness (science, rel And gy, law, morality, etc.) and forms of life activity (game, work, language). Ways to determine the functions of art in philosophical aesthetics. Lawsuit concept With stva-“mimesis”. The idea of ​​the creative (transformative) function of art in the aesthetics of romanticism. Concepts of art-"cognition". Ad examples With understanding the specifics and purpose of art through educational, hedonist And logical, communicative, axiological functions. Art concepts T va-“games” (I. Kant, F. Schiller, H. Ortega y Gasset, J. Huizinga). The idea carried A independent, “applied” nature of art (Plato), attempts to implement it in artistic culture (Mayakovsky, etc.). Polyfun To the nationality of art in comparison with the “specialization” of other forms of social consciousness and forms of life activity. Origin of the claim With stva. Art and myth. “Semantic identity with differences in forms” (O.M. Freidenberg) as a law of mythological thinking. Sync concept e tism. The meaning of the term “syncretism” in the works of A.N. Veselovsky. "Si n Creativity" of poetic imagery in the early stages of the development of verbal creativity. Figurative parallelism and comparison. “Subjective syncretism” (S.N. Broitman) in folklore. The subject of art is “the idea of ​​universal life” (Hegel). Art as “holistic spiritual self-determination” (G.N. Posp e fishing).

1. Artistic image in verbal creativity (lecture 2 hours)

Art and science. Artistic image and concept (specific, ind. And visual and general in artistic image and concept). Definition of thin O feminine image. The structure of the artistic image and its volume (the boundaries of the artistic image in the work). Artistic image and integrity T the quality of a literary work. “Part” and “whole” in works of art With stva. “Mechanical” and “organic” types of integrity in comparison with pr O art t va.

The theory of poetic image in the works of A.A. Potebni. The concept of "inside" T early form." “Imaginative” and “ugly” words. Paths. Contents O the concept of “poetic imagery” by A.A. Potebni. "Internal form" pr about the words spring creativity as a condition for its perception.

Work as a means of communication. The iconic character of the ideological e skogo creativity. The concept of a sign and a sign system. Types of signs (individual To greasy or conventional, signs-symbols, iconic) and sign systems. N A national languages ​​as sign systems. Semiotics (semiology) the science of sign systems. ABOUT T wearing within sign systems. Concept of text. Sign and artistic image. Contextuality of the meaning of an artistic image. Text and fiction e tion.

1. Category of artistic image in the analysis of works

artistic literature (practical lesson 2 hours a sa)

Artistic image and speech imagery. Non-identity with o power knowledge of the concepts of “trope” and “artistic image”. Word-image and word-sign. Overcoming the iconic nature in an artistic verbal image oh words.

A method of describing the “coordinates” of the integrity of a literary work e through its fragment. The image of the world, the image of a character, the image of an event, the image of time and space, the “image of language” (M.M. Bakhtin) in literary practice O information “Sound image” in the figurative system of the work. Letter analysis A tour work.

III . Literary work

1. Artistic time and artistic space

in verbal creativity (lecture 2 hours a sa)

Concepts of artistic time and artistic space. Artistic time and artistic space as “the most important x and the character and Sticks of the artistic image" (I. Rodnyanskaya). "Inner world" of a literary work. The hero and the world in the work. Specificity O natural time and artistic space in art, their differences And from physical space and time. Types and forms of time, etc. O wanderings in verbal creativity. Symbolic-allegorical, emblematic e Chinese images of time, etc. O wanderings in artistic culture. Event category. The problem of determining the boundaries of “eventfulness” in a literary work. Hegel on the goal-setting nature of the event. Meaning those R mine “event” in the works of Yu.M. Lotman. Event as a “dynamic start” A lo of the plot" (N.D. Tamarchenko). An event and situation in the plot of a literary work. The concept of chronotope in the studies of M.M. Bakhtin. The chronotope of the heroes and the chronotope of the author. Subjective and objective spheres in a work. “Depicted” and “depicting” chronotopes. Plot and genre and the reading of chronology about pa.

1. Artistic time and artistic space in an and Lisa

letter a tour work (practical lesson 2 hours)

Description in the proposed text of a literary work of types and forms of artistic time and artistic space as see s verbal “coordinates” of an artistic image. The “picture” of the world order depicted in the work and its different-quality spheres, “semantic fields” (Yu.M. Lotman). "Chronotopicity" of the heroes of a literary work e nia, details of the objective world, situations and events. Analysis l And literary work.

1. Content, form and material in artistic words about sti

(lecture 2 hours)

The specifics of art and the problem of the content of form and material in verbal artistic creativity. Correlation of categories “fo R ma" and "content". General idea of ​​“external” and “internal” art. O ronach of a literary work. Hegel on content and form in art T ve. The form of the work as a combination of “techniques” in the works of Russian pho R malists. Art n a new work as a “system” of functional units in the works of Yu.N. Tyn I new Controversy M.M. Bakhtin with the traditions of “material” aesthetics. Form as “a border processed aesthetically” (M.M. Bakhtin). Form in its relation to s O holding and material. Ethical and educational values ​​in reality O art and in works of art. Artistic form and creative activity of the author. “Isolating” (“isolating”) function of an artistic form. Architectonic and compositional forms. "Teleological" nature of the composition new forms.

1. Categories of form, content and material in lit analysis e Ratural work. Types of “artisticness” (practical lesson 4 hours a sa)

Comparison of the content of the concepts “artistic idea”, “pathos” (G e gel), “the dominant system of feelings” (F. Schiller), “form of an aesthetic object”, “architectonic form”, “form of aesthetic completion” (M.M. Bakhtin), “type/modus/ of artistry” (V.I. Tyupa). Stage-individual and historical-typological “modifications of artistic O sti" (V.I. Tyupa). Spatiotemporal characteristics as semantics And theoretical parameters of idyllic, elegiac, heroic and other forms of art O feminine pathos in the analysis of a literary work. Idyllic and elegiac “modes of artistry.” Tragic and dramatic. Heroic. Comic and its varieties. Man as a “thing” and man as an “animal” in satire. Analysis of a literary work.

1. Literature and other arts (lecture 1 hour)

Spatial and temporal arts, visual and expressive arts With strong (expressive). Comparison of types of arts in the aspect of their arch And tectonics (for example: drama in painting, music, literature, etc.). Ra z border in and dov of art according to the material. Lessing about the boundaries of verbal creativity and painting. Actions as an object and a method of “mediated” depiction of “bodies” and “objects” in poetry. Herder's polemic with Lessing. Yu.N. Tynyanov o specific And ical nature of “figurativeness” in literature.

1. Plot and plot in a literary work (lecture 3 hours)

Categories of plot and plot. Ways to differentiate between plot and fab u ly. Mythos and the "processing" of mythos in Aristotle's Poetics. The plot is like A Botka" plots in Russian worksformalists. Methods of artistic “distribution” of events (“direct” order of events, “delayed”, “about” b military", "doubled", etc.) in fiction. Plot as “a connected and structured scheme of action” (W. Kaiser). The plot as “the action in its entirety” and its “simplest”, minimal unit. "T O “Chechen” plot in a lyrical work. Plot, plot, “plot composition” in the works of G.N. Pospelov. Plot and plot in the concept of P. Medvedev (M. M. Bakhtin). "Event depicted" and "event described" A calling." The conditionality of ideas about “plot” and “n e plot" works by choosing the tradition of interpretation of the concept of "plot". The plot in a lyrical work as stages in the development of an “event of experience” (M.M. Bakhtin). The concepts of plot and motive in A.N. Veselovsky. “Function” as a plot-forming component in the research of V.Ya. Proppa. Types with Yu zhetov. Cumulative and cyclic plot schemes in the works of Ko l lecture and individual creativity. The problem of using the concept of plot as a complex of “motives” (or “functions” and “situations”) in the description of works of art T va of New and Contemporary times (research by J. Polti, E. Souriot, etc.), and its solution in modern literary criticism. Plot schemes in the "mass" O vom" art. Chronicle and concentric stories. WITH Yuzhet and genre.

1. Basic concepts of plotology in the analysis of literary works e tions

(practical lesson 4 hours)

Evaluation of the effectiveness and possibility of use in the analysis of pre d false text is the most common way in literary criticism to describe the plot and plot aspects of a literary work. "WITH O the being of storytelling" (M.M. Bakhtin) in a literary work and in e we describe it. Semantic parameters of the status of the world and the hero in the plot And literary work. Analysis of a literary work e nia.

1. Author and hero. Subjective organization of literary production O works (lecture 2 hours)

The hero as a subject and as an object. Historical and genre-generic in A Options for aesthetically designed boundaries between the author and characters in literature A tour. The meaning of the term “author” in modern literary criticism. The author as “aesthetically de I corporal subject" (M.M. Bakhtin) and the "biographical" author. Forms of the author’s “presence” in a literary work. Rake T votive and storyteller in their O relationship with the characters and the author-creator. “Personal Narrator” (B.O. Corman). The term “image of the author” and the problem of its terminological justification O sti. The concept of “death of the author” by R. Barthes. Subject of speech and subject of consciousness in l And literary work. The concept of “point of view” (Yu.M. Lotman, B.O. Korman, B.A. Uspensky, N.D. Tama R Chenko). Classifications of “points of view” (B.O. Korman, B.A. Uspensky). Subъ project organization and its aspects: “formal-subjective” and “content b but-subjective” (B.O. Korman). Subjective organization as a form of expression e niya author's poses and tions.

1. Composition in a literary work (lecture 2 hours)

Meanings of the term "composition". Composition of an epic work e nia. The problem of the minimum compositional unit in the epic story h management Examples of compositional forms in an epic work. Description A tion and storytelling. “External” composition and structure of artistic content. Composition of a dramatic work. Distinction from Yu detailed and compositional “levels” in the epic story h management Genre-compositional “canons” (novel in letters, novel-diary, novel-montage, etc.). “Solid” forms in European and Eastern poetry (sonnet, rondo, g and zella, etc.).

1. The concepts of “author”, “subjective organization”, “composition” in the analysis of epic works e niya (practical lesson 4 hours)

The pattern of organization of compositional speech forms (“raku R owls", methods of literary depiction) in comparison with logic and f A zami the plot development of the work. Direct-evaluation points of view e nia and indirect evaluative points of view (spatial, temporal, fr A zeological or speech), the pattern of their change and the general logic of “ra With definitions" in relation to n ties with both situational and event phases of the plot, and with the “external” compositional division of the text of a literary work into parts, chapters, stanzas, etc. Techniques for adequately describing the author's position in ep analysis And ical work. Analysis of the epic work e nia.

1. Subjective organization of a lyrical work

(practical lesson 2 hours a sa)

Comparison of the content of the concepts “subject of experience”, “lyrical sub”ъ ect", "lyrical hero", "lyrical self", "author", "the author himself" (B.O. Korman) from the point of view of their a) semantic tautology; b) different oh meaning oh volume. The concept of “lyrical hero” (Yu.N. Tynyanov) and its subsequent deformation in literary criticism. Specificity of the subjective R organization of a lyrical work. "Intersubjectivity" of the organization And ric product e nia and “the interpersonal nature of the lyrical subject” (S.N. Broitman). Historical types of the lyrical subject (“syncretistic” e skiy", "genre", "whether h but creative"). “Neosyncretistic” lyrical subject of lyrics (S.N. Broitman). The distinction between the author-creator and the subjects of experience in the lyrics. Analysis of lyrical production e Denia.

1. Composition of a lyrical work (lecture 2 hours)

Yu.M. Lotman on paradigmatics and syntagmatics as principles of computer science O positional organization of a lyrical poetic work. Composite And ational “levels” of a lyrical work and their components. The concept of “verbal t” e we" (V.M. Zhirmunsky). Basic compositional and speech techniques in a lyrical poetic work. Repeat like fundame n tal structure-forming technique of lyrics. Parallelism as composition And literary device and variants of its definition in literary criticism. (Y.M. Lo T man, V.E. Kholshevnikov, M.L. Gasparov). Anaphora and its types. Epiphora (that V tological rhyme and rediff). Acromonogram (compositional joint, an A diplosis, pickup). The problem of classifying compositional types of lyres And ical work (V.M. Zhirmunsky, A.P. Kvyatkovsky, V.E. Kholshe V nicknames). Compositional types of lyrical works (ring, anaf O ric, parallelism-based, amoebaic, etc.). Examples of different O appearances of the so-called "mixed" compositional form in lyrics.

1. Analysis of the composition of a lyrical poetic work e tions

(practice class 2 hours)

Distinction between plot and compositional “sides” and their composition V lying in the analysis of a lyrical work. Description "instrumental" O go", the service nature of compositional techniques and forms of a lyrical work, representing, fixing the "nodal" semantic points A lyrical parameters And situations, stages and dynamics of the “experience event” (M.M. Bakhtin). “Circular movement of the plot” (V.M. Zhirmunsky) and computer O positional “ring” in the lyrics. “Concentration” of lyrical experience and the reception of anaphoric parallels h ma. The dynamics of the development of lyrical experience and techniques of compositional “gradation” (V.E. Kholshevnikov). Analysis of lyrical pr about the information.

1. The word in a literary work (lecture 2 hours)

The word as an object of literary research. Linguistic e Chinese and literary methods of studying words. General and individual b new in the word. The concept of “communication context” (“social context”) in coo T wearing with linguistic context. Traditional linguistic models of communication in comparison with the model of a communicative event in the works of M. Bakhtin. Meaning and meaning of the word. Prose and poetry. Change from e mantic scope of the concept of “poetry” in the history of world artistic culture. Prose XIX - XX centuries as an “image of language” of reality. Types of pr O stuttering words, the basis of their classification. The “pictured” word of the tale. “Two-voice” word (M. Bakhtin). Parody and stylization. The word is in the lyrics. The word in a dramatic work e nii.

1. Word in poetic language (practical lesson - 2 hours)

The word in “synonymous” and “antonymic” figurative rows O ethical context. “Alien” word in poetic language. Specificity di and the log is in lira and literary work and the “internal” dialogicity of the novel word. Letter analysis A tour work.

1. Literary types and genres. Criteria for distinguishing l and terature

childbirth (lecture 2 hours a sa)

Literary genres and genres as types of works of artistic literature. The concept of “genre composition” (genre composition of the era, literature A tour direction). Ways to determine the specificity of literary genera and criteria for delimiting literary genera in philosophical aesthetics (Pl A tone, Aristotle, Schelling, Hegel). Linguistic and psychological interpretations of the category of literary gender. “Generic” properties, features of letters A tour work. Attempts to highlight along with lyrics, epic, etc. A my other literary genres. “Intergeneric” and “extrageneric” forms of works of verbal creativity. The theory of the origin of literary genera by A.N. Veselovsky.

1. Epic as l and literary genus (lecture - 2 hours)

Meanings of the term "epic". Hegel on the epic work. The subject of the epic. Integrity and diversity of existence in the epic. Examples of space n new, temporal, “linguistic” diversity in the epic. Hero in an epic story. Action in an epic work. The concept of retardation. “The randomness of external circumstances” (Hegel) in the action of the epic pr O information “The contradictory unity of the world” (N.D. Tamarchenko) in the event of an epic work. Situation and conflict. Situation and event in the episode O her and the novel. "Doubling the main event and inversely symmetrical construction e understanding of the plot" (N.D. Tamarchenko) in the poetics of an epic work. Grand And tsy of the epic plot.

1. Epic genres and their historical development (lecture 1 hour)

Epic genres. Criteria for classification of epic genres in literature e rat research. Patterns of historical development of epic genres. Article by M.M. Bakhtin "Epic and Novel". The difference between the genres of the epic and the novel, their place in the genre systems of ancient verbal creativity and modern literature. The concepts of “absolute epic past” and “absolute T noah epic di With dance”, “stylistic three-dimensionality” (M.M. Bakhtin). “The only language of the epic” and the “multilingualism” of the novel. Epic genres of New and Contemporary times. Tale, short story, ra with tale

1. Analysis of an epic work (practical lesson 2 hours)

Key concepts of the theory of epic work in literary literature d technical analysis (situation, retardation, etc.). Analysis of the epic work e nia.

1. Drama as a literary genre (lecture 2 hours)

The meaning of the term "drama".Space and time of drama O works in comparison with the space and time of the epic. Features from O human expressions in a dramatic work. Hegel on “unity x” A character" of the hero of a dramatic work. Action in drama. Collision is the source of action in a dramatic work. Types of collision in dram And ical work. Collision and conflict. Dramatic genres. Trag e diya and comedy. Patterns of historical development of dramatic works n ditch Drama as a genre, its origin O development and historical development. D. Diderot about the “average” dramatic genre. The fate of comedy and tragedy in XIX - XX centuries Changing the nature of the conflict and action in about howling drama.

1. Analysis of a dramatic work (practical lesson 2 hours a sa)

Isolation and description in the process of text analysis characteristic of other A mathematical product of types of collisions (“contradiction within the characters e ra", "contradiction between characters", "contradiction of characters and about b standings"). Definition of genre modification of dramatic production h conduct in connection with t And pom of the collision underlying the development of action in the drama. Analysis of the dram structure And ical action.

1. Lyrical work (lecture 1 hour)

The subject of lyrics. Hegel on the lyric work. Lyric and verse O creative work. Individual and “choral” (generally significant) in the lyrical subject. “The contingency of content and objects” (Hegel) in l And rike. Descriptive and narrative lyrics. Meditative lyrics. "R O left" lyrics. Lyrical genres. Features of the lyrical word in its T carried to the addressee. Semantic structure of a lyrical work (T. Silman). Lyrical genres. Lyrical ballad in comparison with lyrical-epic ba l ladoy.

1. Analysis of a lyrical work (practical lesson 2 hours)

Basic concepts of the poetics of a lyrical work in the analysis of the text of a lyrical article and desires.

IV. Basics of poetry

1. Fundamentals of poetry. First lesson: Meter and rhythm. Sist e we are poeticists. Russian syllabic tonic (practical lesson 2 hours a sa)

The difference between poetic speech and prosaic speech. Regularities of the primary and secondary order of sound form ordering in various nations O nal-historical types of poetic speech. Rhyme. Alliteration. Shire O some narrow understanding of alliteration. Alliterative verse in Western Hebrew O Pei and Russian poetry. The concept of meter and rhythm. Difference between impact and forces b no position in the verse. ICT. Foot. The concept of poetic meter. Cla at zula and anacrusa. Strict forms of metrical unity in classical poetics and examples of their violation (imprecise rhyme, hyphenation, free verse, verse verse, etc.). Systems verse O addition. Metric system of versification. Principles of ancient metric O th verse. Mora. Dimensions of ancient verse. Tonic system of versification. Examples of tonic in folk poetry (b s line verse, spoken verse). Syllabic system of versification. "Sl O numeral" verse in Russia XVI - XVII and 1/3 XVIII century. Verses. Sill A Bic sizes. Syllabic-tonic versification. Reform V.K. Tr e Diakovsky M.V. Lomonosov and the formation of Russian si l labo-tonic verse. Examples of two-syllable and three-syllable meters (me T ditch). Russian hexameter. Techniques for determining poetic meters (me T ditch) Russian classic esky verse.

1. Fundamentals of poetry. Second lesson: Russian tonic. Ra h novelties of modern tonic verse (practical lesson 2 hours)

The transition in Russian verse from syllabonic to tonic verse O wife Dolnik (pause). Types of shareholders. Taktovik and its variants. A To cent verse (drummer). Features of modern Russian verse. Prim e ry for determining the sizes (meters) of modern tonic verse.

1. Holistic analysis of a literary work (practical work) and practice 2 hours)

V. Literary process

1. The concept of the literary process. Key Aspects

studying the historical development of verbal creativity (lecture 2 hours a sa)

The concept of the literary process. Stages of development of verbal artistic creativity. Criteria for identifying and describing development stages And tia of artistic literature. Concepts of the stage nature of the literary process. Hegel on historical patterns and stages of development and With arts. A.N. Veselovsky about the “collective” and “individual” periods of development of verbal creativity. Modern ideas about stages O sti of the literary process (S.S. Averintsev, P.B. Grintser). Causal and immanent development of forms of verbal creativity. Cultural-historical school, sociological method in literary criticism about causality V indifference to factors in the extraliterary series of phenomena, forms of verbal creativity R quality, their historical development. Repetitive and unique in lit. e ratural process. Application of the principle of unity of development to the fate of T useful national literatures in the works of N.I. Conrad. The problem is b the formation of the concept of “progress” in understanding the historical development of verbal creativity. The question of the priority of style, literary movement or genre as the “components” that determine the literary process. MM. Ba X tin about the genre as the main “hero” of the historical development of artistic literature.

1. Method, style, direction (lecture -2 hours)

The concept of artistic method in literary criticism. The relationship between the concepts of “artistic method” and “type of creativity”. Concepts "extra" e different" types of creativity. F. Schiller about “naive” and “sentimental” p O ezii. V. Belinsky about “real” and “ideal” poetry. Literary criticism XX century about realistic and romantic types of creativity. Art n nal method as a principle of organizing content, “stage-by-individual modification of artistry” (V.I. Tyupa). Methods in the literature of New and Contemporary times and historical types of collisions. The meaning of the term "style". The ambiguity of the concept of “style” (the style of an era, a writer, a literary work, a movement). Style as the unity of constructive elements of an artistic form. Individual and co l lective styles. Style and stylization. Artistic style and function O nal speech styles. Distinguishing the scope of application of the concepts of style and meta O Yes. Literary movement as a unity of method and style, historical reasons for the emergence and change of literary movements. Lit concept e Ratura school. Comparison of historical types of collisions and methods of their resolution in classicism and romanticism (contradictions between the private and the general, nature and civilization, feelings and duty, passion and reason, etc.). Criteria of artistry in the manifestos of classicism and romanticism. Normativity of artistic creativity in classicism. Realism as an artistic method and as a literary movement.

Plans and outlines of the content of lecture classes

for students com correspondence course

(lectures - 16 hours)

1. Literary criticism as a science.

Subject and tasks of literary criticism as a science. Literary criticism and philology. The main (literary theory, literary history, literary criticism) branches of literary criticism. Meanings of the term "poetics". General (theoretical), specific (descriptive) and historical poetics. Helped A specific branches of literary criticism (textual criticism, heuristics, sources e denition, bibliography, paleography). The “basic” nature of the auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism. Literary criticism and linguistics.

2. Artistic image in a literary work.

Definitions of artistic image (M. Epstein, I. Rodnyanskaya), their differences from each other. Artistic image and concept. The theory of poetic imagery in the works of A. A. Potebnya. The structure of the artistic image. Comparison as an elementary model of an artistic image (P. Palievsky). Properties of an artistic image. Artistic image and integrity of a literary work. The volume and boundaries of the artistic image in a literary work. The relationship between the concepts of “artistic image” and “poetic imagery”. Artistic image and sign.

3. Literary work. Text and inner world of a literary work (the topic is studied independently).

M. M. Bakhtin on the “complex event” nature of a literary work. Text and the inner world of a literary work. The event that is being told and the event of the telling itself are two aspects of the “eventful completeness” of a literary work. Subjective and objective spheres of a literary work.

4. Artistic time and artistic space in a literary work. An event in a literary work.

Artistic time and artistic space as the most important characteristics of the artistic image. Definition of artistic time and artistic space. The difference between artistic time and space and real (physical) time and space. The difference between literary tense and grammatical tense. The variety of types and forms of artistic time and artistic space in a literary work. The concept of chronotope (M. M. Bakhtin). Plot, genre, visual meaning of the chronotope. The depicted chronotope and the storytelling chronotope (depicting the chronotope). An event in a literary work (definitions by G. F. Hegel, Yu. M. Lotman, N. D. Tamarchenko). The relationship of the event with artistic time and artistic space. The relationship between the concepts of “situation” and “event”. “Private” situation and “general situation” of the work. The plot of a literary work is a change of “events and “private” situations separating these events” (N. D. Tamarchenko).

5. The problem of content, material and form in verbal and artistic creativity.

Criticism of the foundations of “material aesthetics” (controversy with formalists) in the work of M. M. Bakhtin “The problem of content, material and form in verbal and artistic creativity.” “Form in relation to material” and “form in relation to content”. Contents of a literary work. Artistic form as “an expression of the author’s active value relationship to the content” (M. M. Bakhtin). Form as a “border treated aesthetically” (isolating function of artistic form). Distinguishing between architectonic and compositional forms. The concept of type (“modus”) of artistry. Characteristics of the main types (“modes”) of artistry.

6. Plot and plot in a literary work.

Methods of distinguishing between plot and plot (Aristotle, formalists, W. Kaiser and V. V. Kozhinov, M. M. Bakhtin). The productivity of using these concepts in the analysis of works of different literary genres. Specificity of plot and plot in a lyrical work (the concepts of “object of experience”, “event of experience”).

The meaning of the term “author” in literary criticism. The author as an “aesthetically active subject” (M. M. Bakhtin), as “the bearer of the concept of an artistic whole” (B. O. Korman). Ways of expressing the author's consciousness in a literary work.

M. M. Bakhtin on the specifics of the relationship between the author and the hero in a literary work. The concept of “aesthetic completion”. “The image of the author” in a literary work.

8. Composition of a literary work. Subject-object organization of a literary work.

General definition of composition, the meaning of this term in modern literary criticism. The concept of “external” composition. “External” composition and structure of artistic content. The concept of “perspective” (method) of literary depiction. Description and narration as the main methods of literary depiction in an epic work. The correlation of sections of text from different angles of the literary image with the plot level of the work. The concept of “point of view” (B. O. Korman, B. M. Uspensky). Subject-object organization of a literary work. Basic concepts (subject, object, subject of speech, subject of consciousness, primary and secondary subject of speech, point of view, types of points of view in a literary work). Composition and subjective organization of a literary work. The author and subjective organization of a literary work. Subjective organization of an epic work. Subjective organization of a lyrical work Subjective organization of a dramatic work.

Composition of a lyrical work. The problem of the minimum unit of composition in a lyrical work. Compositional levels and compositional techniques in a lyrical work. Compositional types of lyrical works.

9. Literary genera.

Individual and typical in a literary work. The concept of literary gender. Criteria for identifying literary genera (Aristotle, G. F. Hegel, F. Schelling, V. V. Kozhinov, S. N. Broitman). Intergeneric and extrageneric forms. The relationship between the concepts of “literary genre” and “genre”.

The meaning of the term “epic” in literary criticism. Epic as a type of literature. G. F. Hegel on the subject of epic as a literary genre. The epic type of situation and event and the structure of the epic plot (main features: doubling of the central event, the law of epic retardation, equality and equivalence of chance and necessity, randomness and conventionality of plot boundaries). Speech structure of an epic work. Fragmentation of the text of an epic work.

Lyrics as a type of literature. G. F. Hegel on the subject of lyrics. Subjective structure of a lyrical work. The concept of subjective syncretism. M. M. Bakhtin on the relationship between the individual and the “choral” in the lyrical subject. The specifics of the lyrical event and the lyrical plot in the interpretation of N. D. Tamarchenko. Semantic structure of a lyrical work (according to the concept of T. I. Silman). The word is in the lyrics. Suggestiveness of a lyrical work.

Drama as a kind of literature. Artistic time and artistic space and the nature of the development of action in drama. Hero in a dramatic work (compared to an epic work). Conflict as a source of development of action in drama. The relationship between the concepts of “conflict” and “collision”, “conflict” and “situation”. Status of the word in a dramatic work.

Epic, lyrical and dramatic genres.

1 0 . Basic concepts of poetry.

Concepts: meter, rhythm, size, caesura, clause, anacrusis, foot, pyrrhic, spondee, shift of metrically obligatory stress, blank verse, free verse, free verse. Basic systems of versification. Metrical, syllabic, tonic and syllabic-tonic versification. The main dimensions of syllabic-tonic versification.

Question No. 1

Literary theory as a science. Subject and content of literary theory.

Literary theory defines the methodology and technique for analyzing a literary work. TL deals with the general laws and patterns of the development of literature. Gives general definitions of such concepts as image, plot, composition, etc. (Definition from the Lecture)

Literary theory- the theoretical part of literary criticism, included in literary criticism along with the history of literature and literary criticism, based on these areas of literary criticism and at the same time giving them a fundamental justification. On the other hand, T. l. closely related to philosophy and aesthetics (see). The development of such questions as the question of the essence of knowledge of reality, and therefore of its poetic knowledge (Lenin’s theory of reflection), the question of the foundations of aesthetic evaluation, the social function of literature as one of the forms of ideology, etc., are raised by T. l. in the closest dependence on the named disciplines. T.l. studies the nature of poetic knowledge of reality and the principles of its research (methodology), as well as its historical forms (poetics). The main problems of T. l. - methodological: specificity of literature, literature and reality, genesis and function of literature, class character of literature, partisanship of literature, content and form in literature, criterion of artistry, literary process, literary style, artistic method in literature, socialist realism; problems of poetics in literature: image, idea, theme, poetic gender, genre, composition, poetic language, rhythm, verse, phonics in their stylistic meaning. (Definition from the Literary Encyclopedia. - In 11 volumes; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939). Subject of literary theory- the most general laws of literature and the literary process.

The doctrine of the peculiarities of a writer’s figurative reflection of reality (realism, romanticism, modernism, classicism);

The doctrine of the structure of a literary work (style, genre, features of literary speech);

The doctrine of the literary process;

History of literary criticism/history of theoretical teachings.

TL as a science dates back to BC. (Aristotle's Poetics). Even ancient philosophers tried to figure out the nature of literature and its laws.

Question No. 2

Question No. 3

Biographical school in literary criticism

Biographical method in literary criticism- a method of studying literature in which biography and personality writers are seen as the main, determining stimulus for creativity, its fundamental principle. The biographical method is often associated with the denial of literary movements and the cultivation of an impressionistic “portrait” of the writer as the main critical genre. It was first used by the French critic S. O. Sainte-Beuve (“Literary-critical portraits”, vol. 1-5, 1836 - 1839). Sainte-Beuve understood his task broadly, including in his research the political and social ideas of the century, the literary environment of the writer, etc. The biographical method found a unique application in the methodology of Hippolyte Taine and Georg Brandes. By the beginning of the 20th century. supporters of the biographical method refused from the broad views of Sainte-Beuve and cleared the biographical method of “extraneous elements” (in Sainte-Beuve they considered such social and artistic ideas of the century; Ten has influence race, environment And moment; at Brandes - characteristics of social movements), proclaimed complete and absolute freedom of the artist from society and circumstances, and the study was approached using impressionistic methods(tried to catch " writer's spirit"with the help of my own impressions). Russian critic Julius Aikhenvald (“Silhouettes of Russian Writers,” 1929) argued that every writer is “not the rule, but the exception,” so he can be considered “outside historical space and time.”

The biographical method is most productive in the following cases:

1. Exploring the Creative Path, the creative evolution of the artist, when the biography of the writer becomes the basis for the periodization of his creative heritage; for example, the creative path of Pushkin (lyceum, post-lyceum lyrics, Mikhailovskaya, Boldino autumn, etc.) or the biographical division of Mandelstam’s work (the Crimean, St. Petersburg, 1st Moscow, 2nd Moscow, Voronezh periods are distinguished).

1. Study of autobiographical genres: in them, facts of personal experience become the object of artistic research. Autobiographical character different from autobiographical personalities; actually from an autobiographical writer. The degree of autobiographical presence of the author may vary. Tolstoy's trilogy, Gorky's trilogy, Bunin's "The Life of Arsenyev", Nabokov's "Other Shores".

Question No. 4

Question No. 5. Philological school in literary criticism

FS should be understood in the sense that follows from the original content inherent in the very concept of "philology": love of words. We are talking about a word that not only performs a nominative function, i.e. names an object and a phenomenon, but expresses their inner essence, after which artistic, aesthetic generalization begins.

PHILOLOGICAL STUDY OF MONUMENTS OF THE WORD dates back to antiquity and the Renaissance. Already in these eras, what was later called the philological study of literature was cultivated. Analyzes of literary monuments were practiced already in ancient times; such were the first studies of Homer in Greece, in Egypt the activities of such Alexandrian philologists as Aristarchus and Lycophron, in Rome the critical processing of Virgil’s texts by Valerius Probb. The goal is “to take care of making available the most ancient and popular works of poetic creativity and preserving them from destruction, damage and any distortion.” Study in the proper sense gave way here to the description of texts (characteristically, significant work in this direction was carried out by Hellenic and Alexandrian libraries), dissection of texts, cleansing them of layers, i.e., initial work on monuments carried out for specific applied purposes. Similar work was carried out in a later era by the Byzantine philologist Origen (interpretation of biblical texts), Patriarch Photius (annotations and bibliographical instructions for published books), the Byzantine Svida ("Lexicon", full of philological information on literature) and a whole string of Western. -European and Russian monks and scholastics. The study of ancient texts especially increased during the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity in general reached its highest development.

Gessner and Frecher, Jacob Grimm and Beneke, Lachmann and Wackernagel worked in this area up to Hermann Paul, who included in the literature “everything that has been preserved in verbal form, is expressed and distributed in it.”

Followers of the method recommended philology as “the main, if not the only path along which a wanderer can safely follow in the dark and vast land of literary creativity of all centuries and peoples” (Peretz, From lectures on the methodology and history of literature, Kyiv, 1914) . Peretz Vladimir Nikolaevich belongs to the FS, his works are “Historical Lit. research and materials. From the history of Russians. songs" (1900). “From the history of the development of Russian poetry of the 18th century.” (1902).

In the 20s of the 20th century, the philological school was interpreted as a method that deals only with issues of textual criticism, then as a method, cat. emphasizes the formal study of literary phenomena. And Bely, the Opoyazovites, M. Bakhtin, V. Shklovsky and others made a significant contribution to the development of the FS in Russia.

At the moment, the philological method studies mainly ancient written texts.

The method uses the techniques of hermeneutics and textual criticism.

Question No. 6

Sociological method (school)

Includes:

1. Marxist criticism (G. Plekhanov - second half of the 19th century),

2. vulgar sociologism = sociogenetic method of the 20-30s. XX century (V. Pereverzev), 3. sociocultural criticism of the 20th century. (English literary critic F.R. Leavis)

Sociological literary criticism- this is a direction in literary criticism that states that the social aspects of the writer’s biography are decisive for art, and literature is considered as an important social phenomenon.

Vulgar sociologism is an extreme simplification of cause-and-effect relationships between social and literary phenomena.

Representatives of the school in Russia: Sakulin “Sociological method in literary criticism”, Keltuyalu, Efimov “Sociology of literature”, Piksanov “Two centuries of Russian literature”.

Sociological literary criticism in its various variations is one of the most stable. Whatever fashionable and sophisticated research methods may arise, they are not able to supplant sociological methodology, based on the simple and correct premise that literature is a reflection of the life of society.

Educational prerequisites (in Russia):

Literature must participate in changing life; it turns out that the artist is not free. This is a sociological view.

Bogrolyubov: Only that literature is literature that participates in changing life, in changing the system (abolition of serfdom, abolition of autocracy).

Basic provisions of the sociological method:

1. There is a connection between art and literature and the social conditions of society and the class struggle. Works always reflect the struggle of classes.

2. The highest artistic value of a work lies in the expression of ideological and progressive content, and only secondarily in the presence of a perfect form.

Disadvantages of the sociological school:

1. The personality of the artist with his inner world was ignored

2. Art and literature were considered only from a social-class perspective.

3. Art and literature only active service role (the role of an exponent of historical processes, social changes). [In the cultural-historical school the role of literature passive, literature is only an illustration of life].

4. As a result, a reflection of class morality, class humanism, and not universal humanism appeared in the work (formula: “who is not with us is against us”).

5. The sociological approach can exist as one of the ways to study a work, but its absolutization leads to a narrow understanding that literature is a reflection of the class struggle.

P.S. The essence of the sociological method (for a more complete understanding of the issue)

Views of G. Plekhanov (he is the first Marxist):

Plekhanov promoted Marxism and tried to develop Marxist teaching in society and in literature. He criticized the cultural-historical and psychological method.

In the cultural-historical method, he rejected the idea of ​​a geographical environment that supposedly determines the lives of the people living in it; He also rejected the doctrine of race, because this doctrine does not provide an answer about the aesthetic activity of a person, does not allow one to explain (socially and psychologically) actions and character.

A person is not born with a certain character, his character depends on social circumstances. A person (and then a writer) is “the totality of social relations” (what society has made of him).

The most important thing, according to Plekhanov, is what social stratum (class) the writer belongs to; this is what determines his literary works.

History develops as a result of class struggle. Literature reflects class struggle. To which class the writer belongs, to which class he ideologically sympathizes, those truths will be propagated in his literature. In this regard, there is a dispute with the cultural-historical school, which, according to Plekhanov, is only half historical, because blindly copies the facts of life.

Only Marx explained the nature and evolution of ideas in terms of economic and social class reasons. Literature and art are connected with economic relations. Plekhanov distinguished the socio-economic basis and ideological forms [base and superstructure for Marx]: like the economy, so is literature.

Literary phenomena reflect all the contradictions that exist in society between groups (classes). If directions have changed in literature, this means that changes have occurred in life. For example, the emergence of romanticism is associated with the fact that the bourgeoisie came to the fore in society.

Plekhanov believed that when a revolution occurs and society becomes more active, there is a struggle to change social relations, then the main thing in literature becomes the content, while the form can be “weak” (this is for example in the literature of the 19th century). When apathy reigns in society, form (Acmeism, Futurism) comes to the fore.

The dominant role of content. Related to this "the theory of true and false ideas". The main criterion of artistry in the sociological school – ideological truthfulness of the work ( if the ideas are false, then the work cannot be considered artistic).

Plekhanov’s appeal is important To to the working class. According to Plekhanov, the proletariat (workers) is the advanced class. Proletarians must have their own art - proletarian (their own poetry, their own songs, it is in them that one must look for the expression of their grief, their hopes and aspirations, which differ from those common to humanity).

Question No. 7

Question #8

Question No. 9

Question No. 10

Question No. 11

Question No. 12

THE CONCEPT OF PSYCHOANALYSIS IN LITERARY STUDIES

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) - Austrian doctor, psychologist, psychiatrist, became famous as the founder of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis was proposed by Freud as a method of treating neurotic conditions, but quickly turned into a broad theoretical direction in psychology, into a special approach to the study of the human psyche. According to Freud's theory, the psychological apparatus of the personality consists of three layers: IT, I (EGO) and SUPER-EGO (SUPER-EGO). IT - this is the most powerful sphere of personality, which is a complex

unconscious impulses (innate), mainly aggressive and sexual, operating on the principle of pleasure. SUPER-I – “censor”, the highest controlling authority in the mental apparatus of the individual, consisting of a complex of conscience, morality and norms of behavior

It is assumed that this authority is formed before the age of five under the influence of parental prohibitions, later the requirements of laws and generally accepted morality are added to them. The function of the SUPER-I is to form the ideal behavior of the individual. I – sphere of meeting of multidirectional forces: poles

drives and systems of prohibitions. Here the suppression of drives occurs and the transition from the pleasure principle to the reality principle occurs.

Suppression of drives, Freud believes, is necessary for the individual to realize social and cultural goals. In essence, culture and civilization are possible only if the individual renounces selfish desires.

The personality may pay for the suppression of unconscious drives

neuroses, diseases and perversions. Z. Freud proposed a method of treating neuroses - psychoanalysis. The term was first introduced by Freud in 1896 in his report “The Etiology of Hysteria.”

Freud's psychoanalysis was based on the method of free association, which was seen as a way of penetrating the patient's unconscious. Through associations evoked in the patient, the content of his unconscious, the true reasons and motives of his actions and experiences were revealed. The patient's understanding of his true motives should ensure

cure neuroses. Thus, the task of psychoanalysts (both medical and

literary aspects) consists in identifying the content of the unconscious.

Many problems in the philosophy of personality and the humanities have received psychoanalytic interpretation. Freud himself actively used his teaching as a method of interpretation

a work of art.

Creativity, according to Freud, is one of the channels that removes the repressed, dangerous energy of IT. For both writers and readers, creativity is an attempt to compensate with fantasy for what

cannot be realized in life, it is a way of liberation from unconscious desires. Themes of parricide and incest attract special attention from readers, according to literary psychoanalysts, precisely because while reading such works they also surrogately satisfy their desires, releasing part of the suppressed energy of IT.

The task of a literary critic-psychoanalyst is to discover a complex of repressed experiences and thereby shed light on the deep motives of the writer’s mental life presented in the work.

Freud himself in his work “Leonardo da Vinci” (1910) shows how all the female images of the brilliant painter are determined by his childhood relationship with his mother Katharina and, above all, by the fact that she gave little Leonardo to be raised by his father. Hence, the author believes, the artist’s specific attitude towards women and the mystery of women’s smiles that are characteristic of his portraits.

According to Freud, the Oedipus complex is fully manifested in the three greatest works of world literature: “Oedipus the King” by Sophocles, “Hamlet” by Shakespeare, “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky: “It can hardly be explained by mere chance that three masterpieces of world literature of all times treat the same theme - the theme of parricide (...) In all three, the motive of the act is also revealed: sexual rivalry over a woman. This is most directly represented, of course, in a drama based on a Greek legend. In the English drama, the hero’s Oedipus complex is depicted more indirectly: the crime is committed not by the hero himself, but by another, for whom this act is not parricide.” In addition, in the text of the play there is not the slightest mention of Hamlet’s hatred of his father. On the contrary, Hamlet constantly emphasizes his love for and admiration for his father. To prove the presence of the Oedipus complex in Hamlet, Freud and his student E. Jones turned to such mechanisms as “transference,” “splitting,” and “overdetermination.” The image of the father, according to Jones, is “split” by Hamlet and includes three characters - the true father, Polonius and Claudius. The murder of Hamlet's father by Claudius is the fulfillment of the infantile desire of the Danish prince himself, which is why he hesitates to take revenge - his unconscious resists this revenge. And the unconscious feeling of guilt forces him to especially emphasize his love for his father.

THE TEACHING OF C. G. JUNG ABOUT THE VISIONARY TYPE OF LITERARY CREATIVITY AND ABOUT ARCHETYPES.

Archetype(from Greek - prototype, model) - the concept of the Swiss scientist Carl Gustav Jung, who studied the relationship between the conscious and unconscious spheres of the psyche. He believed that the study of man cannot be carried out only taking into account consciousness. The unconscious is an objective property of the psyche. In contrast to the individual unconscious, developed by S. Freud, Jung introduced the concept into science collective unconscious which he consistently noticed in dreams, rituals, myths. The collective unconscious, according to Jung, absorbs the psychological experience of a person, which lasts for many centuries, that is, thereby our souls preserve the memory of the past, preserve the experience of our ancestors. Jung considered many phenomena of modern life to be manifestations of this kind of “collective unconscious”. So, the obsession of the Nazis looks very naive from the point of view of reason. And yet, such ideas and sentiments capture millions of people. And this means, Jung argued, that here we are dealing with something that exceeds the powers of the mind.

Jung justified the concept of an archetype as follows: instinctive forms located a priori at the basis of the individual psyche, which are revealed when they enter consciousness and appear in it as images, pictures, fantasies, rather difficult to define. At the same time, he believed that the archetype could not be explained, and he identified several archetypes:

Anima (prototype of the feminine principle in the male psyche);

Animus (a trace of a man in the female psyche);

Shadow (an unconscious part of the psyche, symbolizing the dark side of the personality and directly or indirectly suppressed by a person. For example: base character traits);

Self (an individual principle that conceals within itself the “principle of self-determination of a person in the world”).

In parallel with the works of Jung, the French scientist Claude Lévi-Strauss fixed the principle of binary oppositions in human thinking.

In addition, Jung divided works of art into two types: psychological, based on the functioning of the “individual unconscious”, reflecting the artist’s personal experience, and visionary, where the “collective unconscious” plays a decisive role. Visionary type of writer- a writer who actualizes archetypes in his works, embodying them in a special form (Goethe’s “Faust”).

The archetypes embedded in the psyche are most realized in ritual and myth. The most important types of rituals are considered to be: initiation (initiation of a young man into adulthood), calendar renewal of nature, killing of sorcerer leaders, wedding ceremonies.

Various myths are considered as a source of archetypes:

Cosmogonic (about the origin of the world);

Anthropogonic (about the origin of man);

Theogonic (about the origin of the gods);

Calendar (about the change of seasons);

Eschatological (about the end of the world).

However, despite the diversity of myths, they are the ideological center in most cases is the description of the process of creation of the world A. The most important figure here is creator - ancestor, cultural hero organizing the life of a clan or tribe. The most famous such hero is Prometheus from Greek mythology. It is such a hero that becomes one of the most important archetypal images found in a transformed form in various works of literature.

Most often, the archetype is correlated with a motive. Veselovsky defined a motif as “the simplest narrative unit, figuratively answering various questions of the primitive mind or everyday observation.” He considers archetypal motifs, for example, the representation of the sun as an eye, the sun and moon as brother and sister.

Question No. 13

Question No. 14

Socio-genetic method

Prerequisites of the method (V. Keltuyala), varieties and trends (V. Shulyatikov, V. Pereverzev). Characteristic literature How specific form of social, class consciousness, criticism of the idea of ​​“freedom” of creativity in bourgeois society, statement connections between literature and class ideology and psychology. Identification of artistic and philosophical knowledge, absolutization of the social factor when assessing a writer’s creativity, refusal of artistic analysis literary works. Affirmation of the class nature of literature– a characteristic tendency of the socio-genetic method.

In the beginning. 20th century happening strengthening sociological thoughts at all, sociology in art history in particular. First of all, this applies to representatives of Marxism(G.V. Plekhanov, F. Mehring, P. Lafargue). Most Outstanding theorist of sociology of art in the pre-Lenin period should be recognized G. V. Plekhanov. His method is "sociological-genetic". Developing, following Marx, the position of social genesis of art, Plekhanov contrasted subjectivism with idealism. artist critics the thought of objective-historical and the class nature of creativity. The disadvantages of Plekhanov's S. m. include the inability to rise to the understanding of the principle partisanship in literature, and also making itself felt abstract class approach.

Prerequisites of the method - V. Keltuyala - Approaching Marxist literary criticism during the period of its initial formation, K. diverged from it subsequently, moving from specific historical and literary works to presenting a system of his theoretical views on literary criticism. His " Method of literary history"The book is purely scholastic. Method problem reduced to the degree of K. partial and auxiliary reception- he distinguishes between “methods”: socio-genetic, formal-evolutionary, philological-genetic and many others, eclectically combining them with each other. Going against the Marxist view of a poetic work as a specific figurative form of class psychoideology, K. interprets it as an object of “influence” of various external factors. The theory of factors, which Marxists fought so fiercely and will continue to fight, has been resurrected by K. in its most pluralistic and mechanistic variation.

V. Shulyatikov: nominated socio-genetic method, considering literary phenomena “as a product of different forms of class consciousness,” determined by the position of the class in social production. The task of criticism, by analyzing artistic ideas and the form of a work, is to establish the dependence of a literary phenomenon on certain social group, evaluate it on the basis of the share that this group has in social life. The degree of social significance of literary phenomena is determined by the level of “social outlook”, “progressiveness” of a given social group (“ Restoring destroyed aesthetics"). The essence of errors Sh. consisted of a simplified, often mechanical derivation of ideology directly from the practical activities of the ruling class, its economic interests, methods of production, and ignoring the complex conditionality of economics and ideology. These mistakes of Sh. were reflected with particular vividness in his philosophical book "Justification of capitalism in Western European philosophy"(from Descartes to Mach) (1908) and in some works devoted to literature and art: " Non-aristocratic aristocracy" (1909), "New scene and new drama" (1908)

First school Marxist knowledge and evaluation of literary phenomena is becoming sociological-genetic(or, as they also say, socio-genetic) literary criticism. Its the most prominent representatives were V. M. Fritsche, V. A. Keltuyala, V. M. Shulyatikov, V. F. Pereverzev. The sociological approach made it possible to see in literature its objective beginning - reflection and expression of interests, views, sentiments of certain segments of society. The genetic approach (genesis in Greek “emergence, origin”) aimed at studying the process of emergence, formation and development of literary phenomena. Cemented by the doctrine of class struggle as the driving force of not only social but also literary development, they testified to the emergence of a Marxist sociology of art in our country.

In general, the source of the socio-genetic method is organic criticism of Ap. Grigorieva.

Characteristic feature of the socio-genetic method in literary criticism is a corporeal and material understanding of art, emphasizing its total life-likeness and structural identity with reality, as well as a purely statuary, sculptural-plastic interpretation of man and the aestheticism of works of art, which is closely related to it, which, however, has an exclusively vital purpose.

Question No. 15

15. Structuralism as a direction in literary criticism.

He grew up on the shoulders of formalism, but tried to further formalize the study by identifying common, universal structures in different works. The formal method has experienced a rebirth in the form structuralism , which began to take shape already in the 30s in Prague (J. Mukarzhovsky, R.O. Jacobson). After the war, the United States became its center ( Roman Yakobson) and France ( Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, A.Zh. Greimas, J. Genette, etc.), and in the 60s the Tartu School in the USSR, headed by Yu.M. Lotman. Structuralism involves analyzing a work of art according to strict elements and levels. Structuralism rethought the formalists' ideas about dynamic form, abandoning the sharp opposition of form and content. He proposed studying both as manifestations of the same structures; The basis was the theory of Louis Hjelmslev about two planes of language - expression and content, - which each have their own matter and form (structure), and their structures partly correspond to each other, without which understanding of language would be impossible. Therefore, the question arises about the general laws governing the division of both planes. The tool for their description was binary(binary) opposition: complex systems of meaning and form are analyzed as combinations of elementary pairs. The structural description of meaning became a powerful tool for its demystification: the accuracy of the analysis revealed the ideological meanings hidden in the text, as R. Barth did with the help of the theory of connotation. In the course of its evolution, structuralism moved from strictly literary to general cultural problems, extending iconic models to general patterns of social behavior, the structure of society and culture.

Language for describing structuralism: text, structure, level, element, model, invariant, opposition.

Structuralism quickly merged with semiotics(the science of sign systems), the foundation of which was laid by Ferdinand de Saussure.

Within the framework of structuralism there arose narratology– the narrow science of narrative structures: plots and narrators. Terms: narrator (storyteller), actant (doer), function (action), object of the function.

...And there was also poststructuralism, Julia Kristeva and intertextuality.

Question No. 16

Question No. 17

Questions No. 18-19

Question No. 20

Question No. 21

Question No. 22

How does the text work?

There is never anything superfluous or random in the text. The text is perceived as a system of interconnected elements. It is necessary to show the role of each element. The dominant is what unites the text into one whole. The essence of each systems are limitations on the entire range of possibilities. Vocabulary, metaphors, etc. are limited.

Each era has its own set of thin funds.

- dimensions(iamb, trochee...) were created by the reform of the 18th century.

- rigid genre system: ode, tragedy, heroic poem (vocabulary: words that go back to Church Slavonic, and some neutral words).

- rhythm, stress.

19th century – non-classical size.

20th century - Mayakovsky's rhyme.

Those. limitations in formal techniques and subject matter (ode and elegy have completely different themes). Gradually the genres are mixed (novel).

Each era has its own system of art. means, which writers and poets themselves often do not understand. Poetics must restore these restrictions, separate tradition from innovation.

Historical poetics is close to the tasks of linguistics. Linguistics studies the history and evolution of language, at each stage language is a system (F. de Saussure - structural linguistics). At each stage, language is a closed, complete system. Speech is its realization. The challenge of linguistics– study of language as a system (phonetics - phoneme, morphology - morpheme, vocabulary - lexeme, grammar - grammeme; there are rules by which these units are combined). Each language has its own rules that change over time. This idea influenced poetics. The text also began to be represented as a system in which elements are connected according to rules.

The goal of general poetics – restore these systems.

General poetics :

SOUND, WORD, IMAGE.

1. The sound and rhythmic side of a literary text, mainly poetic ( VERSE).

- phonics

Sounds and their combinations, sound features specific to poetic speech. Rhyme - repetitions of sounds, consonances (accurate - inaccurate, terminal, etc.). Assonance. Alliteration.

Speech is constructed in such a way that these repetitions, which perform a specific function, are noticeable.

- rhythm

Explores different types of rhythms. Non-classical sizes, individual characteristics of poets. Rhythm in prose (sometimes the author deliberately writes in some kind of rhythm).

- stanza

Rhyme order. The stanza is a formal unity (substantial unity).

- melody

Intonation (in addition to the possibilities of speech, there are possibilities of intonation in the poem itself). Spoken and sung verse.

2. Word ( STYLISTICS).

- vocabulary

Style. Obsolete words, archaisms, historicisms (may be associated with the Bible), words from the Holy Books - Slavicisms - the effect of high style. Colloquialisms, vulgarisms, neologisms (a sign of individual style) - low style. Functions of words in fiction. text.

- trails

Changing the basic meaning of a word is a metaphor: outdated (erased), copyrighted, individual. A sign of the style of a certain era or the individual style of a writer.

Rhetoric - classification of tropes..

- figures

Rep. synth. figures (anaphora...), omissions, inversions.

Stylistics – between linguistics and literary criticism. A word in art is not equal to a word in the dictionary.

3. Image ( TOPIC, TOPIC).

Any literary text can be considered as a text or as a world. An analogy between reality and what happens inside the pr.

- space and time

Interconnected unity. In any project there are boundaries of the depicted world. The artist in every era is limited by the knowledge and characteristics of the literary trends of the era. Each genre has its own idea of ​​the passage of time.

- objective world – landscape, interior.

What can be depicted and what cannot be depicted. Combination.

- action

The exception is essay, didactic and descriptive poetry. Motive is the elementary unit of action. Narratology is wherever there is a story.

- character

Any literary hero is a conscious construction of the author. Literature cannot exist without a character. pr-nie. Literature is a way of knowing a person.

Poetics is the reconstruction of artistic means for all literature.

Historical poetics– presentation of the literary process as a change in artistic systems.

Question No. 23

Question No. 24

Question No. 25

Motive.

A motif is a component of works that has increased significance. The motif can be a separate word or phrase, act as a title or epigraph, or remain only guessable, lost in the subtext. A.N. Veselovsky spoke of the motif as the simplest unit of narration, as a repeating schematic formula that forms the basis of plots. The term “motive” is also used in a slightly different meaning. This is how themes and problems of a writer’s work are often called motives (for example, the illogical existence of people). In modern literary criticism, there is also the idea of ​​a motive as an “extrastructural” beginning - as a

Literary schools began to emerge in ancient times. Thus, in Ancient Greece and Rome, preference was given to such a science as “poetics”. The school of Euhemerus also functioned actively, whose representatives saw deified historical figures in the heroes of myths, while mythology itself was perceived by them as the soul of all arts, and art arises from the depths of the earthly and cosmic spirit. The established traditions in ancient poetics found their continuation in the new era, and only at the end of the 18th century, and then in the 19th - 20th centuries, literary scientific associations of a previously unknown type took shape. Almost all schools, with the exception of Ukrainian ethnographic, which undoubtedly needs rehabilitation, and Samarkand, originated in the universities of Western Europe, and then they were borrowed by philologists of the Eastern Slavs. In the process of developing the theory of literature, some research methodologies began to reduce the level of theoretical and applied significance, others retained their traditions, but a philologist, no matter what time he belongs to, is obliged to know and, as necessary, use the methods of literary research developed by his predecessors.

In the history of literary criticism, the following typology of the study of scientific schools has emerged: terminological concepts and research methods are being clarified; time of acquiring status; outlines of great achievements and periods of waning interest in their discoveries are indicated; other directions are taking their place. The proposed scheme reflects the objective and progressive development of literary criticism as a whole. Knowledge of the basic principles of the analysis of artistic phenomena discovered in the 19th - 20th centuries is necessary and relevant, whenever they are studied and evaluated. The science of literature cannot be dominated exclusively by one, even one that claims to be universal, methodology for the study of fiction. The art of words has many meanings and it is difficult to understand its aesthetic potential. This explains the history of the emergence of such different scientific schools. And this is good and true, except that Eurocentric literary criticism is not sufficiently familiar with the history and methodology of the literary schools of the East.

MYTHOLOGICAL SCHOOL IN LITERARY STUDIES

Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm; myth as the basis of a scientific school; methods of restoration of ancient cultures: primordial myth, primordial language, primordial people, ancestral homeland; concept by D. Fraser - G. Slockhover (Slockauer)

The mythological trend in literary criticism arose at the end of the 18th century and reached its apogee in the society of German philologists and writers who productively worked on the theory of romanticism. The ground for the mythological school was prepared by the philosophical developments of F. Schelling and the brothers A. and F. Schlegel, for whom myth was objectively perceived as the source of poetry and all philosophical systems. These scientists attributed folk poetry and folklore genres to phenomena of divine properties. They put forward a hypothesis about the ongoing process of myth-making; in their understanding, each era creates its own myth. According to the teachings of F. Schelling, myth becomes a prototype that has equal significance for the past, present and future. Its plot unfolds in the infinity of space and time, and goes beyond the boundaries of the real and historical chronotope. That is why the human mind, which has an understanding of finitude and limit, is not able to understand it completely. Myth, firstly, transforms eternal nature; secondly, it acts as the antithesis of human consciousness (Schelling F. Philosophy of Art. - M.: Mysl, 1966. - P. 112).

In parallel with the works of F. Schelling and F. Schlegel, myth and mythology are studied by H.G. Heine (“Guide to Mythology”), G.F. Kreutzer (“Symbolism and mythology of ancient peoples”) and other representatives of the Heidelberg romantics (KLE, vol. 4, 1967. - Column 874 - 875).

The scientific core of the mythological school is formed around the brothers Grimm - Wilhelm (1786 - 1859) and Jacob (1785 - 1863). These writers and philologists elevated myth and mythology into a new doctrine. Its initial and conceptual provisions were outlined by Jacob Grimm in the book “German Mythology”. Here, methods for restoring the ancient foundations of the language have been developed, national mythology has been formalized into an independent section, and obvious similarities of plots in folklore texts belonging to the Indo-European group of languages ​​have been established. For the first time, the brothers Grimm introduced the following terminological designations into active scientific use: primordial myth, primordial language, primordial people, ancestral homeland. In the above examples, the prefix “pra” has an intensifying meaning and appears in the meaning of “the beginning of the beginning of something.” Max Vasmer admits (“Etymological Dictionary…”) that the morpheme “pra” has an ancient Indian origin “pratar” = “early, in the morning”, at the dawn of humanity.

The mythological school attached great importance to the problem of polysemy of symbolism, which is embedded in the plot, in the name and fate of the heroes. According to German romantics, the first mythological symbol was Prometheus, who brought fire to people, connecting the heavenly and earthly worlds.

The teachings of the Brothers Grimm sharpened the attention of many philologists to the wealth and inexhaustible beauty of ancient cultures, opening up wide opportunities in the knowledge of the aesthetic, magical and historical elements in the works of each ethnic group.

Scientists at the University of Jena also contributed to the theory of myth. Thus, Novalis believed that in myth there is a core of a symbol, from which a chain reaction of mysterious signs - plots - arises. For Novalis, the “symbol of symbols” were “catchphrases,” winged words that elevate the everyday life of human life.

In the second half of the 19th century, the mythological school was replenished with fundamental developments by English scientists Max Muller and John Fraser. D. Fraser wrote his book “The Golden Bough” in 1890; it immediately gained worldwide fame. During this period, scholars developed two concepts about the origin of myths.

I. “Solar” (Latin - sun) theory of the origin of myths, put forward by the English mythologist M. Muller, is imbued with a pantheistic worldview. The starting position of the plot here is the sun. The heavenly body was deified, it gave light and life, it turned into a mysterious mirror, reflecting changes in the destinies of a person, family, tribe, clan. Later, writers develop a craving for the images of the “black sun”, “two suns”, and everything of a similar symbolic kind.

II. The “meteorological” idea of ​​the fundamental principle of the myth, according to the teachings of the German scientist A. Kuhn, fetishized various elements of nature: thunderstorms, wind, distress signals sent by representatives of the animal world.

In the 60s of the 20th century, the mythological school was strengthened by the work of US scientists. During this period, the mythocritic trend in literary criticism made itself known. The outstanding philologist G. Slokhover (Slokauer), who published his book “Mythopoetry” in Detroit. Mythological themes in literary criticism" (1970), updating myth, establishes in it the function of a person’s awareness of his non-loneliness in this tragic world. G. Slockhover's formula is the antithesis of existentialism. Expanding the boundaries of the theory of myth and myth criticism, the American scientist created an original scale that makes it possible to most accurately examine the plot of not only a myth, but also the text of any work of art. The mythological system of G. Slockhover boils down to the following: in each plot structure there are four constant elements operating in strict sequence. Based on these elements, we have compiled the following table:

G. Slockhover’s scale can be successfully applied when analyzing Chekhov’s story “The Death of an Official.” In Chervyakov’s life, the theater becomes an episode of Eden, where he is at the height of bliss while listening to “The Bells of Carneville.” Fall from grace - sneezed on the general's bald head. Expulsion from Paradise (initially the general did not act “like a general”; he forgave the official, but by this act he confused Chervyakov, and only later did he yell at the unfortunate man, i.e. behaved “like a general”). The ending - the hero returned home, lay down on the sofa and... died. The ellipsis takes the reader into the world of high artistry. Whether he died or not is not so important; the main thing is that the electricity of veneration has been restored. In a certain sense, A.P. Chekhov restored the sequence of the parable plot: first “exile” and then “forgiveness”.

Existentialists offer their own version of the “inverted” plot of the parable of the prodigal son. Thus, in A. Camus’s novel “The Stranger,” Meursault is awaiting the death penalty and he comes across a piece of newspaper that tells the story of a Czech young man who left home overseas, became rich, and after twenty-five years returned home with his wife and child and decided to “play a joke” on his mother and sister by posing as a rich stranger. And at night they robbed and killed their son - brother - with a hammer. The ensuing epiphany led to the death and suicide of mother and daughter: the mother hanged herself, the sister threw herself into a well. The joke awakened the tragedy that lay dormant, waiting in the wings. The magical canon of the biblical parable of the prodigal son is violated here. Repentance did not take place, it was replaced by a farce, the prodigal son was punished by disaster.

The structural search framework created by G. Slockhover was successfully used by him in the analysis of ancient tragedies, myths, “The Divine Comedy”, “Hamlet”, “Don Quixote”, “Faust”. G. Slockhover's theory is promising in the sense that it not only allows one to detect a mythological motif in a work, but also confirms the fact that each writer has his own myth.

G. Slockhover's concept is supplemented and improved due to new research findings. Spanish literary critic Navajas also identifies four functioning ideological and thematic levels in the text.

The first is “Paradise Lost” - the hero’s loss of illusions about the harmony and stability of the world order. For young people, the lost Paradise is the world of childhood, kindness, and innocence. In exchange for Paradise, the hero experiences hunger and the devastation of repression; Those contemporaries who were inferior to him in their studies during their school years also bypassed him on the career ladder.

The second is “early rebellion.” The romantic hero rebels against the entire “lot of humanity,” then the rebellion is concretized and anger is directed at the culprit of the unjust order - an individual or the entire political system. Most often, the “first rebellion” is characterized by naivety, and therefore failures and defeats are assumed.

The third aspect is “political engagement” (engage from French - “to invite, to hire under a contract”). There are heroes here with mature age and experience behind them. They maintain their ideals in the face of social injustice.

The fourth option is the hero’s “inadaptability”; he is a victim of the process of alienation that separates the ethnic group. “Those who have not adapted”, who were unable or refused to make a choice, “leave” society, voluntarily joining its marginal strata. Such a hero shows glimpses of romantic originality, selflessness, and idealism.

In the second half of the 20th century, the mythological school achieved its successes due to the work of French scientists, among whom Heredia Eliadi stands out for his works. However, during the same period, theories appeared that substantiate the “death of the gods” and the “death of myth.” The judgments of anti-mythology supporters can be reflected in this diagram:

The doctrine of the death of myth turned out to be untenable due to the fact that each era is the creator of its own mega-myth. Thus, Christian myths were cultivated in the Middle Ages; The Renaissance favors a social mytho-utopia; Classicism attempted to resuscitate antiquity in its pure form; The Enlightenment cultivated the myth of atheism; in the 19th century, romantic ideals manifest themselves and are tested by critical realism; in the 20th century, a cult was implanted - a myth about leaders from the common people, about a new society, a new man, a new world order and a great future. Here the myth is optimized against the backdrop of the bloodiest upheavals in human history.

S. Mozhnyagun, summarizing the works of scientists (“On Modernism”, 1970), groups the structures of mythological thinking: primary - primitive society, when myth, art and language function in a system of syncretism; the romantic stage allows myth to develop as an independent literary genre (early 19th century); the final stage (20th century) is associated with the formalization of the myth into a canon, and its subtext reveals a desire to return to the era of primitive syncretism.

Claude Levi-Strauss in his book “Structural Anthropology” (M.: Nauka, 1983) identified four thematic features of myth: “Blood relationship”, “Alienation in kinship”, “Monsters and their death”, “Negative “portrait characteristics”. Identification of the named structures in each text, according to Levi-Strauss, will make it possible to “discipline” literary criticism.

The mythological school in literary criticism has created its own theory, which from a historical perspective continues to develop and improve. Bright names of scientists appear, but at the foundation of this school are its creators - the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm.

CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF LITERARY STUDIES

Hippolyte Taine as the founder of the school; research methodology: race - environment - historical moment; identification of the human spirit in the fact of creation

The cultural and historical school of literary criticism was created in the mid-19th century by the French theorist of art and literature, writer Hippolyte Taine (1828 - 1893). In his four-volume work “The History of English Literature,” the scientist outlined the main principles of his methodology. The “Introduction” (vol. I, 1963) substantiates the patterns of the emergence and development of scientific schools, literary genres and styles.

I. Ten highlights such exemplary qualities of a scientist-philologist as neutrality, objectivity, non-partisanship, and lack of bias. In his work “Philosophy of Art,” I. Ten resolutely rejected the significant role of the moral and ideological position of the researcher. His following statement can be considered programmatic: “My duty is only to present the facts and show you the origin of these facts.”

I. Ten divided the study of literary issues into several levels: a) collection of material; b) establishing connections between system or disparate parts; c) identification in the text of the desired “whole” as a creation of the human spirit. Having mastered these levels, a literary critic is able to establish the psychology of the writer’s creativity and identify the features of the writer’s artistic style.

Interest in the spiritual and moral life of society occupies a significant place in the teachings of I. Taine. In search of a spiritual whole, the scientist recommends paying attention to three fundamental categories of social psychology.

I. Race is a historically established group of humanity, united by a common origin and the unity of hereditary, physical and spiritual characteristics. Innate qualities extend to an entire ethnic group. Race shapes national character, which largely depends on clan and tribal principles. I. Taine borrowed this category from the German theorists of romanticism.

II. The environment consists of a whole complex of climatic, geographical, political and social circumstances surrounding the writer. A literary critic is obliged to take into account the specifics of the individual “cultural environment” of the artist (family library, art and music, culture of communication and education) and the “cultural environment” of his nation, its centuries-old layer that directly and indirectly affects the author.

III. Historical moment. It is associated with the influence of established traditions (rites, customs, memory of antiquity). The historical moment opens up the prospect of creating an ideal model of a person, which forces a person to express himself in a specific era and cultural tradition. This aspect of I. Taine’s teaching conflicts with his idea of ​​the “neutrality” of the scientist.

The “primary forces” of I. Taine’s triads allow the literary critic to freely work on the fact in search of the creation of the human spirit, which forms the core of the artistic whole. At the same time, I. Ten strongly introduced Charles Darwin’s method of natural selection in art. In his opinion, some genres, themes, and motifs stand the test of time, while others exhaust their aesthetic energy and disappear. An important point in the method of the cultural-historical school is that a literary work should be considered as a changing picture in the chronicle of life, since the ultimate goal of history and art is to change the psychology of people and ennoble society.

The cultural-historical school does not divide literary examples into masterpieces and mediocre opuses. They are equally worthy of attention. Flaubert resolutely opposed this position, believing that there was no point in putting a talented work on the same level as a noticeably ordinary one. However, I. Ten is right that an author’s less artistic creation can serve as an impetus for another writer to create a masterpiece.

HISTORICAL AND LITERARY SCHOOL OF LITERARY STUDIES

Biography, chronology, periodization; Earl Miner as a successor to the scientific tradition

In the second half of the 18th century in France, the historical and literary direction developed a number of research stereotypes, which created the prerequisites for the formation of a literary school. The methodology of the historical and literary direction was already distinguished at an early stage by its consistency: a) it was recommended to create a biographical sketch about the life and work of the writer; b) strictly adhere to historical and literary chronology; c) update and clarify the concept of periodization established in a particular century; d) create a creative portrait of the writer, inserting him into the framework of the literary process; e) use subjective and objective memories of contemporaries; f) involve archival, handwritten and epistolary materials; g) organize the publication of multi-volume studies on the history of literature.

In the middle of the 20th century, this school began to lose its historical and literary stereotypes. This crisis side of the problem was pointed out by Princeton University teacher Earl Miner, who cultivated the methodological principles of this scientific direction. Overcoming the dogmatic techniques and methods of past years, Earl Miner strongly recommends including structural, analytical and linguistic interpretations of texts in biographical material; use models from other sciences. The scientist outlined the prospect of overcoming the crisis of methodology by reducing the role of the chronological aspect of the study and the use of comprehensive analysis. At the same time, Earl Miner considers it possible to consider artistic development as a change in ideological systems; calls for taking into account the cultural environment and its historical stages; trace the relationship between the author’s personality, reality and the system of images of his work; build the evolution or involution of the writer’s creative path; to clarify the intensity of the “readability” of the work (Miner E. Problems and possibilities of literary history today. - “Clio”, Kenosha, 1973, vol. 2, No. 2. - P. 219 - 238). Representatives of the historical and literary school in the 20th century created many excellent biographies, for example, the lives of W. Shakespeare, D. Donne, D. Joyce.

In practice, literary scholars of the 19th and 20th centuries gave preference to the historical and literary method of analyzing fiction. It dominates at the beginning of the 21st century. Critics and literary scholars of European countries put first place the universalism of the historical and literary school.

Bottom line. A literary historian working on a text must: firstly, use information about the writer, his handwritten materials (where he came from and what he came to, how the material controlled the author or the author transformed “someone else’s” into “his own”); secondly, to attract the judgments of critics and literary scholars about the work of the author being studied; thirdly, turn to the science of history, which will allow us to establish what was happening at the time when the work was created, to substantiate the idea of ​​the era that gave birth to exactly the writer it needed; fourthly, working on the text will help clarify the facts of how the era is reflected in it. The questions posed determine the idea, theme, and system of images of the work in the context of its time. One should not lose sight of the fact that the work is not only a modern product, but has also ensured its life in art for all times.

The historical and literary method of analyzing a writer’s work is the most reliable in the sense that it is distinguished by the historicism of the material being studied; it can be most productively used in universities in large cities that have fundamental libraries, large archives, manuscript collections, and a powerful cultural layer.

The literary historian initially describes the historical and cultural environment, then turns to the work of art. An insignificant place is given to the analysis of the text; the work becomes a kind of illustration of the historical and literary background.

BIOGRAPHICAL SCHOOL OF LITERARY STUDIES

C. Sainte-Beuve; biography and personality of the writer as sources of literature; environment, everyday life, meetings; model of analysis: from the writer’s life to his work

This school was opened by the French writer and philologist Charles Auguste Sainte-Beuve (1804 - 1869). Biographical literary criticism considers the personal life of the author to be the decisive source of inspiration for the writer. In connection with this attitude, the scientist’s research emphasis should be on a detailed study of the author’s life path. C. Sainte-Beuve called for penetrating as deeply as possible not only into the inner world of the writer, but also into the home environment. Once you know the author's habits on which he depends, you can look at him as an ordinary person. The artist's process of grounding himself in reality provides the key to unlocking the secrets of the psychology of creativity.

In his three-volume work “Literary Portraits” (1844 - 1852), C. Sainte-Beuve examined almost all French literature, paying special attention to the life of the writers studied and their chance encounters. He transfers these and other biographical techniques to the plot, ideological and artistic originality of the work. However, it should also be remembered that by the biography of C. Sainte-Beuve he understood a wide range of problems, such as the political and social ideas of the century, ringing the writer and his works.

The model of the writer’s creativity, according to supporters of this trend, in addition to asserting the absolute freedom of the author, represents a movement from life to his artistic heritage. Biographers transfer this same scheme to the method of text analysis. The primary factor here should be the personality of the writer, the secondary – his literary production. In the history of the development of this school, there were turning points, but they were persistently overcome. Thus, the Danish philologist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, famous in Europe, G. Brandes, revived the tradition of the biographical “portrait”. In the 20th century, supporters of this trend “cleansed” biography of “extraneous elements,” leaving only the “spirit” of the writer, his “innermost self” (V.P. Palievsky).

The biographical school grew out of late romanticism, but it continued to retain its influence later, when romanticism lost its dominant significance. The connection between biographical literary criticism and the aesthetics of romanticism and its mentality can be read in the very name of this literary criticism. Of all the aesthetic principles, the romantic one turns out to be the most subjective and bears the stamp of the artist’s own personality. No one will separate creativity from personality; they are always clearly individualized. From here such concepts as the style of a writer become noticeable, style is a person, and it is an era. The biographical school is based on exaggerating the role of the author's personality. It is at this point that an attack on the nature of creativity arises, since art is born in the process of artistic generalization.

One cannot discount the writer’s biography; knowing it, one can understand one or another method, the pathos of the direction. However, the life and works of the writer are at different levels. Contradictions arise between the real fact and the creative process; they consist in the fact that the artist does not repeat reality, but generalizes it. The most dubious thing about the biographical method is hidden in the shadow side of the writer’s actions. The reader's unhealthy taste should not be catered to. The key to unraveling the biographical method cannot be sought in the death or suicide of the writer. However, it is well known that writers allowed themselves to violate moral norms, and in this they saw only mischief, pranks, knowledge of life, and they strongly condemn their characters who pay tribute to vice: a writer can sin and rarely anyone blames him, an antihero, on the contrary, doomed to eternal authorial condemnation.

The biographical method in literary criticism has not lost its importance. Many school and university curricula in historical and literary disciplines continue to be influenced by the biographical school.

COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LITERARY STUDIES, OR COMPARTIVISTS AS A SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL

Term; I.G. Herder and T. Benfey are the creators of comparative studies; similar motifs, plots, images and their migration properties; development of this science in different countries

The term “comparative studies” comes from Lat. means "to compare." German philologists, in particular Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 - 1803), are recognized as the creators of comparative historical literary criticism. He considered the literary process depending on the historical and spiritual development of each people. Herder outlined the methods of historical research of literature in his scientific works “On Contemporary German Literature. Fragments" (1766 - 1768) and "Critical Forests" (1769). “Anticipating the comparative historical method in literary criticism, the scientist determines the originality of the literary monuments of different peoples of the world” (N.P. Bannikova; KLE, vol. 2. Column 134). The prerequisites for comparative studies lie in international historical and economic relations.

The manifesto of aesthetic comparativism was the introductory article by Theodore Benfey (1809 - 1881) to the German translation of the Panchatantra (Pentateuch, 1859). Theodore Benfey is the author of the Greek Etymological Dictionary and the Sanskrit-English Dictionary. He wrote the fundamental textbooks “Sanskrit Grammar” and “History of Linguistics in Germany”. The theory of wandering plots and migration of genres brought him worldwide fame. According to the teachings of T. Benfey, all folklore stories were created in India (or Tibet) and then spread throughout the planet. This theory has its positive aspects, firstly, it inspired scientists around the world to debate the concept of T. Benfey; secondly, it forced philologists to see a triadic synthesis in folklore - practical, magical and aesthetic orientation.

The methodology of aesthetic comparativeism finally took shape in the works of the Italian scientist H.M. Poznetta. In 1886 he published the book Comparative Literature. The purpose of this method is to establish typological analogies, common properties, and repeating homogeneous features in works.

He outlined a brief history of the formation and development of Western European comparative studies in a small brochure “What is comparative literature?” Austrian philologist G. Seidler (“Seidler H. Was ist vergleichende literaturwi - ssenschaft? - Wein, 1973. - 18 s.”). The scientist pointed to the origins of this methodology, found in the works of the Frenchman C. Perrault, the Germans G. Lessing, I. Herder and the Schlegel brothers. G. Seidler outlined the sections, including an overview of the development of comparative studies in a number of countries.

In the era of romanticism, philologists localized their teachings within the boundaries of national literatures, but then a period came when the “autonomy” of one artistic culture turned out to be insufficient, and then there was a need to expand the literary search range.

In the 19th century, this school became most widespread in France: departments of comparative literature were created in Lyon and Paris. Since 1921, a special almanac “Revue de litterature comparee” began to be published. In 1829 at the Sorbonne A.F. Villemain gave a lecture on the significant influence of French literature of the 18th century on the entire European culture. The one-sided process of influence is fair, but the scientific community ignored the ideas put forward by A. Vilmain. Moreover, F. Baldansperger and R. Ethiemble opposed the theory of a “purely French” dominant tradition. The comparative historical method of these scientists somewhat reduced the severity in understanding the problem of unilateral French influence on various literatures.

In the USA, comparative studies have been actively developing since 1945. At this time, the American Association of Comparative Literature was created, which joined the International Association of Comparative Literature. Representatives of this direction were prominent scientists G. Remak and R. Wellek (Wellek). As achievements of US comparative studies, G. Seidler names the breadth of comparable materials and the conceptuality of generalized facts. In the 50s, a unified theory of comparative studies was created in America.

In Germany in the 20th century, comparative literature was noticeably hampered by the dictatorship; after World War II, many literary scholars stopped studying the literature of only one country. Success in this area was achieved by K. Weiss and H. Rüdiger. These philologists began to study in depth the thematic analogues of literary texts.

In Poland, G. Markevich stands out for his achievements, in Hungary - D.M. Vaida, in Ukraine - G. Verves. In the 60s of the 20th century, departments of comparative studies were opened everywhere in Western universities.

The task of comparative historical literary criticism boils down to the following: the creation of similar typological models; analysis of the reasons causing the shift of the center and periphery in the process of development of literature; study of the mutual influence of different literatures over a number of centuries; a comparative examination of the history of the origin and migration of literary genres; identification of general principles in literary movements and movements; drawing analogies in the works of two writers of different cultures; application of the method of comparative study within the boundaries of temporal intersections, for example, a writer of the 20th century was influenced by ancient literature. Comparative analysis can be applied within the work of one writer. The method of complex comparison makes it possible to study not only masterpieces, but also artistically mediocre works, unknown and insufficiently known texts.

The purpose of the study is aimed at finding the origins of the problems being studied. For example, generally accepted plot triads of conflicts, called love triangles, operate throughout the entire historical and literary space. And what does this give? The opportunity to know the truth that all beginnings are indecomposable, but the world plot layer on a national basis can revive prototypes. The ancestral home of love plot triangles is in the knightly culture of the Middle Ages.

Comparative studies in literary criticism have a solid scientific basis, but this method also reveals internal inconsistency. Of course, every school of literary criticism is not an absurd and wild delusion, every lie is not an invention born in the head. Here one feature is absolutized, scientists go to extremes, and the scientific paradox is that in “extremes” researchers achieve victories and defeats.

The very name “comparative historical school” is quite eloquent. The word “comparative” confirms that in literature there are artistic parallels that move from one aesthetic formation to another. On the other hand, the name “historical” indicates that similar motifs are not only repeated, but, while maintaining their skeleton, are dressed in new clothes and transformed.

LITERARY SCHOOL OF STRUCTURALISM

Term; birthplace of aesthetic structuralism; subject of analysis; structural research process; scientific status of the structural method; Claude Levi - Strauss, R. Barth, R. Jacobson, Zbigniew Taranenko, V.Yu. Borev, Yu.M. Lotman

Structuralism (from Latin - structure) became widespread in the 20th century in the exact sciences and humanities. It is believed that structuralism in literary criticism originated in Germany and Austria in the 20s of the 20th century (S. Mozhnyagun. About modernism. - M., 1970), then spread among English-speaking cultures and France. The prerequisite for the formation of this science was a turning point when literary methods and styles began to change. Structuralism has become a kind of counterbalance to dogmatic literary criticism. This method declared itself as an objective analysis of the internal structure of the work.

The structural study of literary texts brings the phenomena being studied into a coherent and logical order. A model in mathematics is associated with real-life objects; a model in art is aimed at the structures of human thoughts, feelings, moods, a person’s relationship to the world (see: L. Kogan. Does a falcon dry without a snake? Once again about the sign, image and structural poetics // VL. - 1967, No. 1. - P. 121).

Literary structuralism created a theory of the functioning of micro-details and their analysis without subjective “as it seems to me” and “I think.” Structure is defined by L. White as form seen from the inside. It interacts with space-time forces in infinity and in the change of elusive micro-details. The spiritual world of a literary character is embedded in the following structures: material - analysis - conclusion.

The founders of literary structuralism were Claude Levi-Strauss, Roland Barthes and Roman Jacobson. In the second half of the 20th century, Yu.M. successfully worked in this area. Lotman and V.Yu. Borev. The names of the “persecutors” of this science are also known, but they have lost their incriminating relevance.

V. Borev designated the analytical apparatus of literary structuralism as three formal systems: alphabet, axioms, rules of construction. Structuralism operates with the following categories: subject, process, systems. These categories can be expressed in conditional tables.

Subject of structural analysis

Structural Analysis Process

Structural analysis systems

Structuralism ignores the dominant role of historicism and the imposing ideology. Representatives of this school are more interested in the problematic question: “How was the work made?” This thesis subject includes concepts such as structures, elements, and arrangement of characters in the text. A literary critic and structuralist uses statistical indicators. Here, even a simple calculation of artistic details makes it possible to establish a system of author's preferences or dislikes that appear in the writer at the level of intuition.

The Polish scientist Zbigniew Taranenko outlined the following typology of the evolution of methods of aesthetic structuralism.

The method of the first variety of structuralism was cultivated in the 20s of the 20th century by the Prague circle of linguists, headed by J. Mukarzhevsky. Representatives of this association developed a “static” approach to the analyzed object; they rejected the idea of ​​​​the changing qualities of an object in the process of the movement of time.

The method of the second variety is called “subjectivist” structuralism. It aims at plurality of particulars. This method was established in the French science of literature in the 50s of the 20th century under the influence of the structural studies of Claude Levi-Strauss in the field of ethnology (see his book “Structural Anthropology”).

The third type of method is associated with the doctrine of Text and Work. This scientific direction was discovered by the French structuralist Roland Barthes, who established 7 distinctive features that exist between the Work and the Text.

The method of the fourth variety, according to the typology of Zbigniew Taranenko, recognizes the “objectivity of the subject of research” and takes into account “its temporary changes.” This group includes Roman Jakobson and Estonian literary scholars (University of Tartu).

The heyday of philologists and semiologists fell in the 60s and 70s of the 20th century. The method of semiotic analysis (semiotics from the gr. - sign, attribute) examines signal systems in the text. Semiotics is an exact science because it makes conclusions in relation to mathematical data. Semiologists can conduct calculations of repeated words, phrases, episodes, and portrait details. Thus, counting coloristic designations will allow us to establish the role of substantive representation in the creative practice of the writer.

Aesthetic structuralism was also considered by representatives of OPOYAZ (Society of Poetic Language). They proceeded from the principle of the similarity of a literary text with any applied thing, which determined their methodology, which was expressed in knowledge of the structure of the work. The OPOYAZ team introduced the concepts of “material” and “technique” as primary theoretical premises.

Among structural literary studies, the so-called “morphologists” stand out (morphology from the gr. - form + logos; a complex of sciences that study the form of an object). This branch of literary criticism examines the similarities and differences between text and structure. This is stated in the book by V.Ya. Propp “Morphology of the Fairy Tale” (1928). Literary historians name several authors who used the term "morphology". In 1909, K. Tiander (USA) entitled one of his works “Morphology of the Novel”; in 1930, A. Tseitlin used the phrase “morphology of literature” in the section “Genres” (Literary Encyclopedia); in 1954, the American scientist T. Munro wrote the article “Morphology of Art as a Branch of Aesthetics”; in 1972, M. Kogan published the monograph “Morphology of Art” in Leningrad, in the first part of which the scientist gave a brief overview of the subject identified here. In this context, literary morphology claims to be a methodology that studies the systemic order of the formative elements of a work.

hermeneutics as a literary school

Term; the teachings of Origen and A. Böck; theory of understanding ancient texts; exploration of “dark places” in manuscripts and works; typology of hermeneutics and its methodology

I. “Mythological hermeneutics” (gr. hermeneutics - explaining, interpreting) as a section of the humanities appears in Ancient Greece with its own rules for studying and understanding the text. “Mythological Hermeneutics” names the messenger of Zeus, the god Hermes, as its founder. The works of this period examined pictures of prophecy (Cassandra), predictions of oracles, and systems of riddles (the Theban Sphinx). Ancient hermeneutics divided the text into culminating moments, which contained a secret hidden by the author from the reader. These pictures were deciphered.

II. In the early Middle Ages, hermeneutics was called Hermeneutica Sacra (Latin sacra - sacred). A decisive contribution to this science was made by the famous Latinist and interpreter of theological literature Origen (3rd century AD). In his treatise “On Principles,” the author sets out methods for reading and interpreting sacred scripture. During this period, hermeneutics improves its scientific methodology, which in its main provisions is used by modern philologists. Sacra's hermeneutics performed an explanatory function.

III. Romantic period. In the 19th century, scientists strengthened the category of historicism, which expanded the scope of scientific research in hermeneutics. Enthusiasts of this science pay attention to specific techniques and methods that made it possible to direct the attention of researchers exclusively to ancient texts. Thus, the German historiographer A. Böck (1785 - 1867) cultivated the theory of text understanding. The Romantics were the first to create a typology of hermeneutics: a) grammatical hermeneutics: it should deal with identifying the meaning of each element of language; b) historical hermeneutics, which directs efforts to reveal the author’s hints and “dark places” in the work; c) individual hermeneutics, studying the personality of the author based on the material of his works; d) generic (genealogical) hermeneutics - establishes a connection between the text and the literary genus (genre) (see: KLE, vol. 2. - pp. 138 - 139).

IV. In the 20th century, hermeneutics became an independent literary science, which studies the original meaning of literary monuments that have survived in a distorted or incomplete form. In the second half of the 20th century, literary hermeneutics became a “working” university discipline. Specialists publish monographs, textbooks, and specialized journals. Thus, in 1980, the German scientist Erwin Libereit created “An introductory course to the history and theory of hermeneutics as a method of literary research” (Leiberied Erwin. Literarische Hermenevtik: Eine Einfuhrung in ihre Gesehiehte und Probleme. - Tubingen: Narr, 1980. - 2008).

V. The process of transforming literary hermeneutics into a philosophical science is associated with the name of M. Heidegger, who began to consider the “understanding” of a text not in terms of its knowledge, but in an ontological (the doctrine of being) sense. The method of cognition has passed into a system of existence (existence). The teachings of M. Heidegger are connected with the philosophy of F.D.E. Schleiermacher (1768 - 1834), who in his work “Hermeneutics” (1838) expanded the scientific horizon of knowledge of the meaning of the text and internal contact between the author and the interpreter of his work. The latter allows you to understand the author better than he understood himself. The analysis scheme proposed by Schleiermacher is as follows: a) interpretation of the text as a value object; b) interpretation of significant parts that impressed the researcher; c) generalization of particulars and raising them to integrity.

In the large stream of modern books on hermeneutics, it is appropriate to name the works of such German philosophers as D. Dilthey “The Origin of Hermeneutics” (1908), H. - G. Gadamer “History and Method. Basic features of philosophical hermeneutics” (1960), P. Ricoeur “Conflict of interpretations. Essays on hermeneutics" (1995). Relying on the rich scientific and theoretical fund of hermeneutics created by Western scientists, employees of universities in Moscow and St. Petersburg, starting in the 90s of the 20th century, began to publish one book after another, of course, this is commendable. And, on the contrary, the state of hermeneutics in Ukrainian literary criticism is in a deplorable state.

The transformation of literary hermeneutics into philosophy to a certain extent blurs the boundaries and devalues ​​the methodology of text interpretation. The claim to universalism can destroy hermeneutics as a science. Another threat to hermeneutics comes from textual criticism. In the middle of the 20th century, domestic textual critics almost completely replaced hermeneutics from the scientific and terminological spheres. This is evidenced by works that explore the chronicles and artistic culture of the Kyiv (Ukrainian) state of the 9th - 14th centuries.

In the 21st century, hermeneutics has established its position. One wish: to urgently create and increase the manuscript collection of literary and artistic figures, allocating them places of honor in university libraries and personal archives. Without handwritten texts, hermeneutics has nothing to do. But people of science and culture have a barbaric attitude towards their handwritten materials, which, unlike TV, cannot be bought in a store. However, the Internet and computer literacy are methodically crowding out the very concept of “manuscript” from memory.

EVOLUTIONARY SCHOOL IN LITERARY STUDIES

F. Brunetier - founder of the scientific school; theory of change of literary genres, trends, topics; influence of "evolutionists" on other scientific schools

The evolutionary method in literary criticism is associated with the name of the French art theorist Ferdinand (Fernand) Brunetiere (1849 - 1906). He explained the literary process not by changes in climate, race, environment (I. Ten), but by the influence of one work on another. F. Brunetière saw a change in literary trends and aesthetic tastes in the artistic aspirations of individual creative individuals. In the book “Guide to the History of French Literature,” the author developed the concept of the evolution of artistic movements in the historical period of time, from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Here the following cycle-forming picture is established:

• a) classicism = origin;
• b) romanticism + realism = flourishing;
• c) naturalism + symbolism = decline.

Following I. Taine, F. Brunetière transfers the methods of natural sciences to the history of literature. His doctrine of genres traces the theory of species of evolutionists: from origin to flourishing, from decline to dying.

In another work, “The Evolution of Genres in the History of Literature” (1890), F. Brunetier pointed out those forces and principles that make it possible to penetrate into the mechanism of artistic development, to recognize literature as a process that has the right to claim its natural scientific existence. The most important position of evolutionists comes down to explaining the development of literature not by the divine spirit, but by purely earthly circumstances. Based on the understanding of science, F. Brunetière made an attempt to make the writer’s work more understandable and answer the question: why does art move as if in a spiral? The answer is found in the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin. Hence the title of F. Brunetiere’s work - “The Evolution of Genres...”. In nature there is a struggle between species, and a balanced understanding of the complexity of survival is also observed in art. It is enough to delve into the essence of this problem: why in the 20s of the 19th century poetry faded into the background, giving way to prose; a similar phenomenon happened with poetry at the end of the 20th century. An attempt to bring the literary genre closer to the life of the animal world is undoubtedly flawed. The biological model cannot be identified with art and cannot be transferred from one sphere to another purely mechanically. This concept turned out to be incorrect, although elements of the evolution of genres and other aesthetic categories are visible quite clearly. F. Brunetiere did not create his theory out of nowhere. His mistake lies in the fact that he offers a biological pattern as a universal key that will lead a literary scholar to knowledge of the secrets of the history of literature. In reality, we should not be talking here about a complete disappearance, but about the fading of interest in certain aesthetic trends and genres, which may appear with renewed vigor at another time. And yet the evolutionary method has by no means completed its field. He influenced the development of new literary schools. Thus, OPOYAZ inherited the ideas of F. Brunetier, transformed his thoughts and applied them in studying the issue of storytelling traditions.

Subsequently, the evolutionary school was strengthened by the teachings of Edward Burnet Tylor (1832 - 1917), an English ethnographer and researcher of primitive culture. E. Tylor, together with G. Spencer (the creator of the evolutionary school in ethnography and the history of world culture), developed a theory of the spontaneous generation of plots in world culture. This theory was directed against the doctrine of a single ancestral home of plot formations and the migration of genres, but it could not replace the teachings of T. Benfey; on the contrary, it was significantly strengthened by rich factography. The anthropological hypothesis of the spontaneous generation of myths removed the idea of ​​the romantics about the “folk spirit” as the driving force of poetic development.

PSYCHOLOGICAL SCHOOL OF LITERARY STUDIES

W. Wundt; the psychology of the writer and the psychology of the character; dreams and mythology as sources of the creative act

The pioneer of this school is considered to be the German philosopher, psychologist, and linguist Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920). In the book “Psychology of Nations”, the scientist put forward the idea of ​​​​a collective effort in creating language, myth and poetry, which are exponents of the “national spirit”, and not individual psychological effort. At the same time, human consciousness is largely subordinate to the “primary volitional principle.” In psychologism, representatives of this school see a perspective that allows them to open their eyes to the world of literature. Supporters of this literary criticism are not interested in the personality of the writer, but in the state of his spirit.

In his work “Myth and Religion,” W. Wundt devotes significant space to dreams and hallucinations as creative impulses addressed to a group of creative individuals. Myth-making appears in the form of a mysterious collective letter.

The second feature of the psychological school comes down to knowledge of the character’s psychology. Each literary hero carries within himself a psychoworld that is united by the spiritual energy of the creator. In this sense, the program of psychological literary criticism echoes the motives inherent in the cultural-historical method.

The teachings of V. Wundt influenced the work of Sigmund Freud “The Ego and the Id”. The Austrian philologist explained artistic creativity by unconscious manifestations of the sensual principle, embodied in symbolic form. He derived his scientific formulas from ancient mythology, denoting in it the heroes’ painful awareness of their inferiority or delusions of grandeur, Oedipus and Electra complexes, and sketches of free associations.

The real grain of the psychological school comes down to the fact that the psychologism of literary heroes, the author and society cannot be discounted. The flaw of the research method lies in its pronounced subjective beginning. In the creative process, V. Wundt devoted a significant place to such categories as dreams, hallucinations, and neuroses.

INTUITIVIST SCHOOL IN LITERARY STUDIES

B. Croce; two forms of spirit; transition of the “vague matter” of sensations into a harmonious system

The origins of this school were the Italian scientist Benedetto Croce (1866 - 1952), who believed that the writer is endowed with the gift of the Delphic oracle, he is a soothsayer, his revelations occur in a somnambulant state. To concretize vague material, the creator needs intuition as an ideal model of imagination. The unconscious becomes part of the system of the philosophical spirit; it relates to irrational facts and therefore it is impossible to explain the work of a writer from the point of view of logic. Intuitionism, which has not disappeared from artistic practice even now, is marked by a sharp tilt towards subjectivism, into a closed state of mind.

In the book “Philosophy of Spirit” (1902 - 1914), B. Croce substantiated the doctrine of two forms of the immaterial world - spirit: a) theoretical (intuitive and logical); b) practical (economic and ethical). The source material of spiritual activity is the “formless matter” of sensations, and its passivity does not contain spirituality. The beginning of the creative process begins with the knowledge of chaotic sensations. Thanks to intuition, the “vague matter” of sensations is gradually brought into logical order. The creative role of intuition is especially evident in the process of separating cognitive categories from subconscious impressions.

Intuition, according to the teachings of B. Croce, differs from feelings; it is associated with creativity, and feelings are associated with experiences (Yu. Davydov; KLE).

FREUDISM AS A VARIETY OF PSYCHOANALYTICAL LITERARY SCHOOL

Z. Freud; mythological complexes of literary heroes; "libido", "sublimation"; A writer's love stories are the key to the psychology of creativity

Intuitionism turned inside out into Freudianism. This is a very influential trend in world literary criticism and in the artistic practice of Western writers of the 20th century.

The Austrian psychiatrist, philosopher, literary critic Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) opened an original direction in science; he put ancient myth at the forefront (we note once again that ancient mythology, biblical and Koranic truths were the basis of the foundations of all philosophical systems). Sometimes S. Freud is called not a philosopher, but a conquisador from science, who invades science and commits robbery there. According to S. Freud, spiritual activity refers to a type of mental work. The scientist in his works (“Psychology of the Unconscious”, “I and It”...) substantiates a theory that was supposed to answer the question of what controls creativity, why a person takes up the hand, what forces influence the creative act. What is the essence of Freudianism? In the tenth years of the 20th century, the scientist specialized in the field of psychoneuroses. The experiments he conducted in his private practice allowed him to conclude that all psychoneuroses are based on mental disorders that go into the soil of the subconscious, specifically, into the area of ​​sexual instincts. His term “libido” (Latin - attraction, desire, desire) has become widespread.

Freudianism is based on knowledge of the higher nervous system, but established information is turned on its head. It is known that in the higher nervous sphere of a person there are two floors: a) consciousness (cortex), where the human intellect is concentrated; b) subconscious (subcortex). When he eats food, the subcortex is triggered, and when he counts 2+2, the cortex comes into action. The relationship between the cortex and subcortex is very complex. The task comes down to explaining the nature of the interaction between these two systems. The subcortex apparently influences the cortex.

How does intuition arise? It is still unknown. Intuition gives birth to an unformulated thought, it ripens, it is like a grain thrown into the ground, and the rain will control its growth. Sublimation (Latin - I lift up; and this term was introduced by S. Freud) denotes the mental process of transforming and switching the energy of spectacular sexual desires for the purposes of social activity and cultural creativity. Who is more important in science? It is clear that Salieri, not Mozart. According to the teachings of I. Pavlov, every instinct is sociologized. A person is woven from instincts and his mind conquers the unconscious with his life, of course, if the subject has not lost his moral principle.

According to Z. Freud, everything is different. In humans, the crust plays a decisive role; it helps him to be a rational being. Everything else is controlled by a subconscious closed environment. The key to S. Freud's ideas should be sought in the sexual instinct. Due to the fact that the subcortex influences the cortex, this phenomenon can be imagined speculatively and figuratively: the cortex is a room with light, and the subcortex is a dark basement where a dog is on a chain. A person must keep his instincts on a chain, because a mad dog, for example, jealousy, is constantly breaking out. And this feature of the psyche manifests itself with particular prominence in people of art. If the sculptor’s creativity is controlled by the cortex, then the writer’s subcortex works. He, the writer, dresses up in the myth of the subcortex, and finds himself in the labyrinth of “libido”. All this is included in the Oedipus cycle, which S. Freud designated as a “complex”. An important point in learning the truth is that the creator finds himself in mythology, then one by one he deciphers the plots of unknown texts. The creative process belongs to the category of mythology, and real forces are reduced to the motive complex of Oedipus. According to Z. Freud, it turns out that in the myth of Oedipus there are hidden aspects of human nature that are present in all people without exception: in every person he sees a parricide and a rapist of the mother. Hence, in any family, the daughter is more drawn to her father, and the son seeks protection from his mother.

Using S. Freud's teaching about the Oedipus complex, literary scholars are making attempts to clarify the behavioral motives of, for example, the title character of W. Shakespeare's tragedy "Hamlet" or to understand the nature of Balzac's genius. One can only imagine how supporters of Freudianism in literary criticism would explain the work of the author of The Idiot.

The first conscious stage in the biography of the young writer is associated with the Petrashevites. The question arises: where does a novice author come from with such strong opposition to power? Answer: the writer hated his father - a biographical fact, however, dubious. This is how the idea of ​​parricide in a metaphorical sense arises, which turns into a motif of a purely literary nature in the novel The Brothers Karamazov. By the hand of the writer and the hand of fate he leads hatred towards his father; then the father is replaced by the Tsar - Father, who must be killed (the timid program of the Petrashevites).

The second stage is associated with the period of hard labor. The writer developed an attraction to his mother, to Mother Motherland, hence his pochvenism and anti-Westernism, since the idea of ​​the Third Rome was revived. (In parentheses, we note that in the 20th century, by the way, the myth of the “Third Reich” was born and everyone knows what it was realized into; as for the formula of the “Third Rome”, the world capital is... the West! Why then should Moscow historians polemicize and insistently reject the idea of ​​Eurocentrism?).

From the point of view of S. Freud, a list of the heartfelt stories of any writer will shed light on his psychology of creativity. The woman turns into another creative explosion that influences art. The exaggerated role of the libido factor deviates the literary critic from the truth in understanding the secrets of the psychology of creativity.

This implies the theory of literary Freudianism: creativity is unconscious and cannot be understood. But representatives of intuitionism also say so.

And what does S. Freud himself say? He also believes that the spiritual creation is unconscious, but it is embedded in the subcortex, and in this place the already well-known Oedipus complex should be used as a verified method.

Freudism is inhumane and vicious. It is vicious because it places an exclusive role on the libido. However, one should not look at Freudianism as nonsense plucked out of thin air. The libido instinct plays some role in understanding the nature of creativity. Z. Freud is wrong that everything and everyone is controlled by the subcortex. Of course, it is easiest to dismiss the teachings of the Austrian psychiatrist; one can anathematize his thoughts, but one must put his literary position in its place, and this should be done on a scientific basis. Psychologism as a method of studying unconscious mental processes can contribute to the knowledge and motivation of literary characters. It has been proven that the deformed development of an individual is associated with the system of a person’s experience in early childhood with his forgotten mental traumas. Hence, writers of the 20th century cultivated a manic type of character, turning to the image of a hypnotist who works on memory blocks, relieving the soul of the sufferer.

Psychoanalytic (Freudian) literary criticism recommends reading the myths created by writers through the prism of sensual drives: the Oedipus and Electra complexes; incest as the cause (source) of tragedy; Homer's Odysseus suffers from impotence and delays the time of returning home, his healing occurs with the help of jealousy and killing the fear of a woman in himself; the labyrinths of literary plots coincide with the labyrinths of dreams. And this literary psychoanalytic fund can be easily increased if desired, since each writer creates his own myth.

NEOLYRISM - A CLAIM FOR A LITERARY SCHOOL

France is the birthplace of neolyricism; Jean - Michel Malpois; critical - objective - sobering beginnings of lyrics

At the end of the 20th century, “street” and “stadium” (mass) poetry lost its fans; it began to manifest itself actively only in underdeveloped literatures and in countries with a totalitarian regime of government. There are a number of reasons for the decline in interest in lyrics in general. At the end of the 20th century, poetry lost its mass, prophetic and heuristic purposes, and returned to the world of confidential and confessional communication. The high purpose of lyrics, as is known, is to maintain a sense of wonder in the reader.

French literary criticism has declared a new school, called “neolyricism.” This direction arose as an antithesis of the popular “literalism” and “minimalism” in poetry. The minimalists rejected the verbosity of the surrealist poets and defended stylistic restraint, which turned into an absolute “suffocation” of the word. In the aesthetics of France, the 80s of the 20th century are designated as a time of “glaciation” of poetry, a period of “winter poems.”

The creator of the theory of neolyrism was Jean-Michel Malpois. In his book “Poetry as Love” (1998), he explains the meaning of the nomination “lyricism” from the point of view of Hegel’s idea of ​​literary genera: lyric poetry subjectively reflects the life of the hero’s soul, and epic is characterized by dispassionate objectivity. However, the time of “confessional lyricism” has passed, poets began to abandon the mechanical way of reproducing feelings, and lyricism begins to be filled with new meaning.

Jean-Michel Malpois identified three varieties in the logic of new lyricism: a) critical; b) objective; c) sobering.

The critical (reflective) principle reflects the poets’ painful thoughts about the laws of their right to creativity. As a compelling argument, J.-M. Malpois refers to the words of Charles Baudelaire, who noted that poets are obliged to regularly file complaints in court against themselves and their work.

The neo-lyric theorist connects the objective principle with eternal questions and the search for answers to them in order to assert one’s right to observe reality itself. In this process, the poet abandons his “I” and shifts the emphasis to the relationship with the “other” who appears in the way of life. The objective method, according to the teachings of J.-M. Malpua, establishes a connecting thread between poetry and the world, this thread often broke under the onslaught of “confessional” lyricism. Modernity revealed the center of the emptiness of poetry already at the beginning of the 19th century, although it was still hidden behind religion, ideology, and morality. The crisis in the consciousness of mankind could not but affect poetry.

The sobering beginning finally broke the relationship with the illusions of archaic lyricism. There came a slow death of traditional poetry, which consistently lost faith in the Ideal and sublime Flight, in the Icarus dream. Relegated from heaven to earth, the lyrical hero acquired new features. His soul has lost its integral form, and now it is divided into mosaic pieces. A new image - a type, like a Phoenix, grew on the grave of its fall, and acquired unexpected qualities:

• § became an heir without a will;
• § he is as old as both Homer and A. Rimbaud;
• § he has the sense of smell of Charles Baudelaire, the skull of P. Verlaine, the eyes of P. Valery, the shoulders of Rene Char, the broken arm of A. Michaud, the throat of S. Mallarmé;
• § the new lyrical hero is capable of wandering within poetry: he is an intellectual and emotional nomad;
• § being an exile, the hero is doomed to eternal wandering outside the boundaries of his city - state.

Neolism as a teaching deprived poetry of its sensual static nature and gave it such mobility that it reveals aesthetic values ​​in life itself, in its mysterious opacity and simplicity. J.-M. Malpois brought to the fore not the lyrical “I” of the author, but the face of the “other” person, in relation to the words of A. Rimbaud: “I am the other” (remember Flaubert’s phrase: “Emma Bovary is me”).

Thanks to love, poetry of the 21st century, despite the turning point, fulfills its aesthetic purpose and maintains the effect of a miracle in the reader.

SAMARKAND SCHOOL OF POETICO-STRUCTURAL LITERARY STUDIES

Ya.O. Zundelovich; theory of slow text reading; primacy - the work, secondary - critical material; work with artistic micro-details: selection, listening, seeing, understanding, generalizing; Ef.P.Magazannik and the canonization of poetic-structural methodology

University departments are obliged to develop their own scientific schools, otherwise the work of the team is noticeably reduced, depreciated and loses perspective. Literary scholars of Samarkand University in the 50s of the 20th century, contrary to the dogma of a single, true and all-conquering teaching, having fixed the terminological designation - “poetic-structural study of a literary text”, acquired the status of a scientific school. It is significant that this phrase contains two categories that were prohibited at that time - “poetics” and “structure”. Programmatic prefaces appeared in almost every collection, strongly recalling scientific unity. The creator of Samarkand poetic and structural literary criticism was Ya.O. Zundelovich.

The small homeland of Yakov Osipovich Zundelovich (1893 - 1965) is the city of Lodz, in the “Russian” part of Poland, as well as throughout the empire, at that time chauvinistic administrative measures were officially supported in matters of higher education for representatives of national minorities. Already in his youth Ya.O. Zundelovich was forced to think about choosing a place to study abroad, and at the age of 17 he entered the Faculty of Philology of the University of Montpalier (Southern France), where the future scientist attended a course of lectures at the Faculty of Law for a year. After graduating from university in 1914, he returned to his native Lodz. Later, inspired by attractive social utopias, he comes to Moscow. Indeed, in the 20s of the 20th century, the aspiring literary critic successfully implements his knowledge: he writes reviews and reviews of artistic novelties, his mature professionalism is manifested in the creation of the collective two-volume “Literary Encyclopedia” (1925). Almost all poetic genres and poetic tropes are described by this scientist. His scientific articles could easily form a full-fledged “Poetic Dictionary” or a textbook on the theory and poetics of poetic genres.

In the 30s, the scientist continued to collaborate with the editors of the “Literary Encyclopedia” (vol. 3), TSB and ITU. His problematic works are published on the pages of “Foreign Literature”, “Foreign Book”, “Krasnaya Novy”. In the field of scientific interests is the “Polish theme” (Jan Kochanowski, Edszmit Casamir, L. Kondratowicz, S. Żeromski; publishes “Bibliography of Polish Literature”), attention is paid to French and German writers, and he also turns to the work of the future Nobel Prize laureate E. Hemingway (1935).

Additional touches to the literary portrait of Ya.O. Zundelovich of this period added translations and editing of magazine and newspaper articles, and tried his pen in the art of poetry: in 1922, a collection was published under the modest title “Poems

The Moscow stage in his work outlined its own main line, which will be implemented in Uzbekistan. Camp pause in the biography of Ya.O. Zundelovich's recovery lasted until the mid-40s, and after rehabilitation he was not allowed to live in large cities.

The Samarkand period turned out to be the happiest, it begins in 1947 and successfully continues until 1965. The main attention of Ya.O. Zundelovich devoted his time to classroom work; his scientific knowledge had not yet been completely “unfrozen” from suspicion, so regular publications began to appear after 1955. The scientist publishes two books: “The System of Images of Gorky’s Story “Foma Gordeev” and “The Novels of Dostoevsky.” After the death of Ya.O. Zundelovich (during a trip to Leningrad), his like-minded people and students, based on lectures given to students, published the book “Studies on Tyutchev’s Lyrics”.

It cannot be said that philologists of equal talent did not work at the university before Yakov Osipovich. In the 30-40s of the twentieth century, doctors and candidates of science came here from Ukraine and other centers. This is L.N. Chernets, P.V. Vilkoshevsky, P.P. Belov, B.V. Mikhailovsky, S.A. Malakhov, R.K. Woyzeck, L.A. Dombran. However, over two decades they published no more than 3 collections of scientific works, and accordingly, they were unable to create schools; at the end of the 40s, scientists fulfilled their educational mission in Samarkand. And what ending fate had in store for them is unknown, because they did not have like-minded students.

Theoretical and practical provisions of the method of Ya.O. Zundelovich is contained in his research techniques, as well as in the memoirs of Eph. Magazannika, R.P. Shaginyan, E.B. Magazanika, G.F. Menshikova, V.B. Lagutova, L.Kh. Abdullaeva, Yu.P. Golzeker. The traditions of poetic and structural analysis of the text were preserved by the staff of the Department of Theory of Literature and Foreign Literatures, which successfully functioned at the faculty from 1964 to 1995. This department was headed by prof. R.P. Shaginyan, associate professors V.B. Lagutov and B.S. Mikhailichenko. Then there were processes of reorganization and merger of departments, and now it has received the name - the Department of Russian and World Literature, where associate professors R.G. work. Nazaryan, K.T. Mustaev, D.Kh. Alimova, A.S. Abdullaeva, V. B. Lagutov, Sh. A.. Ishniyazova, B. S. Mikhailichenko.

Methodology Ya.O. Zundelovich is understood as a branch of literary criticism that studies the text, structure, artistic fabric of a work, and its formal and content integrity through the prism of micro-details. The scientific outlines of this method were concretized due to the following provisions, which were sufficiently verified by practice.

I. Researcher and text. At the first stage, a literary critic is obliged to work exclusively on a work of art. It is urgently required to renounce studying the history of the issue, critical and historical-literary materials. No one denies the importance of a wide and thorough familiarization with the works of philologists, but turning to auxiliary aids first only causes harm. A gifted literary critic will force the neophyte to think on the same wavelength, force him to agree with him, and subdue him with his argumentation. This is especially doubly dangerous for capable young philologists who, with increased acuity and strength, feel the attractive power of another person’s mind, and against the background of the brilliant work of a specialist in this field, it will be difficult to put forward his own, as it now seems to him, insignificant thoughts. The budding literary critic is overwhelmed by the critic’s big name; his popularity and talent do not allow his nascent independence and originality to break through. Its sprouts are nipped in the bud. And a completely different perspective opens up when the creative process begins with a thoughtful study of the text of the work, with observations that are established during the reading, with personal considerations and assessments. After working on the text, you can now master any official literature; it will not harm the main idea, will allow you to change something, will force you to give up something, but the open “personal” will not be destroyed. Critical literature in this case will contribute to the emergence of new versions and will not surprise with the discovery of “open Americas” (E.B. Magazanik and his literal, word-for-word interpretation of the scientific methodology of Ya.O. Zundelovich: primacy - literary text; secondary - critical material).

II. Selection for analysis of the writer and his work. When a philologist turns to an ordinary literary text, then the analysis will turn out to be uncomplicated, lightweight, one-dimensional, and “distance” from the work will become simple. But when he is dealing with a creation of unusually deep ideological and artistic thought, then in the implementation of the moment of “distancing” the masterpiece itself begins to dictate to the literary critic the solution to a complex problem.

III. The process of “slow reading” as a technique for poetic and structural study of the text. The concept of “slow reading” first appeared at the end of the 19th century in the works of Western philologists; unfortunately, domestic scientists, with the exception of Gnat Khotkevich and L.V. Shcherby timidly referred to this terminology. Modern literary criticism widely uses the methodology of “slow reading” of a text. Madeleine Jean Riddle (USA) approves her method of “close reading” of a literary work and ways of “explaining” it. Swedish researcher Marianne Thormälen, considering in her dissertation the system of images and symbols of the chronotope and the “fragmentary integrity” of the poem by T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land,” created in 1922, also uses the method of “close reading” of the text (see: Tormahlen M. The waste land: A fragmentary wholeness. - Lund Gleerup, 1978. - 248 p.). “Slow reading” allows you to understand the complex world of a continuous “flow of experience” (M. Thormählen’s concept: “experience as a flow”). Another literary scholar, R. Christiansen, considers the “multi-layered structure” of the ballad as a method of studying the text from action to action, from line to line. Here there is a selection of passages of the work that are forgotten, as a result it is necessary to redo the models in order to comprehend the clarity of their presentation (see: Cristiansen R.J. Book reviews // JEGP. - 1962, No. 2. - P. 120 - 122). In the second half of the 20th century, Western literary scholars began to cultivate the “floating reading” technique. Its essence boils down to repeated re-reading of the work, during which, against the background of studying “the length and breadth” of the text space, unique individual words, motifs, images emerge that previously seemed to be deliberately hidden from the reader. “Floating reading” allows you to establish subconscious thematic complexes, characterized by high intensity, when a whole “network” of others is tied around one plot motif (see: Borgomano M. Duras: Une lecture des fantasmes. - Petit Roeulx: Cistre, 1985. - 237 p .).

A completely different rationale for the “slow reading” technique was proposed by Ya.O. Zundelovich back in the 50s of the XX century. He outlined the true meaning of such work on the text, which manifests itself in the very process of analyzing micro-details. Reading “slowly” into a work, a literary critic must immerse himself deeply in the entire mass of figurative details, stop in front of one of them, peering inquisitively and thoughtfully at it, walk around it, looking from all sides, and sometimes, when it is too small, it is necessary to bring it closer to the eyes or examine it by taking it in the palm of your hand. This scheme - the scheme of the slow reading model is strongly affirmed by Samarkand philologists.

IV. A method for studying “sounding” artistic details. The Samarkand scientist created a perfect typology and an effective way to master repeating micro-details: see - listen - understand - display.

“See” the details. The writer, as you know, depicts the world, and therefore it is extremely important to learn to see what the artist shows, you need to “see” the hero or picture placed not only in the foreground, but also what stands behind them or is pushed behind the scene, into Rembrandt’s cherry shadow. Consider the gestures - the characters of the hero at the moment when his excitement manifests itself, attention suddenly switches to another object, in another direction, closely monitor who is speaking and how, fix portrait details, although the author may not have depicted them. But the most important thing is to practice the technique of “seeing” and distinguishing repeated words, phrases, pictures, episodes that create a motivic “undercurrent”.

“Listen” to the details. This instruction applies to a greater extent to the dialogical speech of characters, and therefore a literary critic must be able to listen to the conversations and inner speech of the character and the narrator (chronicler), behind which the subtext is hidden. It also happens that you need to “hear” in literature in order to “see” how artistic micro-details work.

“Understand” the details. The methodology of “seeing” and “hearing” the smallest elements presupposes the moment of “understanding” them, being aware of them, comprehending them logically, translating their emotional significance into the language of rationality, including them in the system of analysis of reasoned generalization.

"Selection" of parts. The artistic details in the work are by no means equivalent: some are characterized by figurative and emotional (and through them, indirectly and logically, semantic) richness, while others have it to a small extent or completely absent. The latter perform in the work not the actual artistic, but the specifically service function of a connecting link between “sounding” and elementary informative details. The imaginative fullness of the detail opens up a broad perspective for the literary scholar.

“Work” with details. Above-average literary qualifications are acquired, developed, and improved through the practice of analysis itself. Progressing skills will, in turn, allow you to anatomize the work more deeply and accurately. In the process of experience, the writing technique is honed, one’s own research style is developed, and poetic-structural methodology and methods of studying the text are used. The high art of analysis is manifested in the ability to reveal an aesthetic perspective in detail, in a mass of details, in a flow of details. You need to immerse yourself in the detail, but you can’t drown in the material; you need to rise above the particular to see the whole picture, be able to step aside to look at the micro-detail from a different perspective. It should be remembered that not only a literary critic studies small details, but also the detail itself in a literary text “works” for the integrity of the work. The art of a literary critic is manifested, let us recall, in the ability to approach a detail, enter into it, live in it and move away, in order to then synthesize the structures of fragmentation and bring literary detail into unity. The method of “distancing” allows you to take the position of the author: to unravel his thoughts, feelings, soul, intuition, to understand when the writer saw a person, object, phenomenon in this way, to discover the “image of the artist’s world.” At the same time, one cannot ignore what the author “did not say”; establish what he had not thought about, but intuitively it manifested itself.

V. The role of objective and subjective principles in the analysis of artistic details: conclusions, generalizations, results.

• 1. Objective factor. The figurative filling of details, the relationship and connection of microelements with each other, their cohesion into a single whole - all this is impartial in nature, since it does not depend on research perception and interpretation and is subject to the internal ideological and artistic logic of the work. An objective analysis of micro-details ignores speculation and conjecture; here the scientist must be guided only by the laws of the system of events. Of course, there must be “guesses”, but they must be based on real artistic material. The more firmly a literary critic relies on reliable indicators of the plot, the more valuable and significant his analysis.
• 2. Subjective factor. In the process of observing the details, it becomes clear that the subjective element also performs its positive function. It is quite clear that this is not a matter of deliberate falsification and distortion of a fact for the sake of a preconceived idea or a lack of skill and inability of the philologist to understand and analyze micro-details of a literary text. The subjective, scientifically approving principle can be more clearly seen in the example when the same work is considered by two or more literary critics. Their observations are reliable and correct, but some work was done more deeply than the other. The personality of the researcher is revealed both in the vector of choice or selection of material, and in the very method of interpretation. Here there is a factor of a truly personal approach to the subject, which is inherent only to this individual, her individual and unique in the scientific and human sense.

VI. An amalgam of subjective and objective as the final method of text analysis. A work of art belongs to the phenomena of special art; it is addressed directly to emotional perception. Here the private moment constitutes a necessary element of literary criticism of the author’s work and appears in inextricable unity with its objective beginning. Behind each analysis of details there is, on the one hand, a personal (my) understanding of the text, and on the other, perception (mine) only within certain limits, beyond which one’s own arbitrariness may be revealed, and not a genuine individual reading.

The methodology of poetic and structural analysis of micro-details, developed by Ya.O. Zundelovich, one should not be interested in all microparticles without exception for the sake of the details themselves, although they work for the aesthetic, often invisible integrity of the work. Some you need to focus on, others you need to attract less attention, and others you need to be able to pass by. The key to selecting the necessary material is the ability to “see”, “understand”, “hear” and “work” with micro-details. Poetic-structural methodology, we repeat once again, is understood as a branch of literary criticism that studies the text, structure, artistic fabric of a work, its formal and meaningful integrity through the prism of micro-details. Supporters of this school do not polemicize or reject the achievements of others; on the contrary, they accept their discoveries as a scientific fact. The literary text of a masterpiece is potentially inexhaustible, and there is enough room for representatives of different research methodologies to work.

Concluding the essay review of the methodology of the Samarkand poetic-structural school of literary criticism, it is appropriate to recall the attitude of two domestic theorists towards it. Is not it. Timofeev spoke approvingly of the new and largely original methodology for analyzing a work of art (see: Timofeev L.I. Letter to Ya.O. Zundelovich // Uzbek University newspaper, 1958, June 30). As for G.N. Pospelov, he orally playfully addressed Samarkand graduate students who studied at Moscow State University in the 60s and 70s of the 20th century, emphasizing the significance - the unknown with the words “The so-called Samarkand school.” But at that time there was only “one”, the most advanced school in the world. However, this is not a reproach to G.N. We note to Pospelov that he included in his theory Gogol’s portrait techniques (the head of Iv. Iv. and Ivan Nikif. - radish up and radish down), discovered by Eph. Shopkeeper.

Modest information about the Teacher’s archival material and the index of his works can be gleaned from the collection: “The ideological and figurative world of a literary work and the artistic process.” - Samarkand: SamSU, 1988. - P. 204 - 224.

A significant contribution to the deepening and wide popularization of the theory of Ya.O. Zundelovich contributed Eph. P. Shopkeeper. In his programmatic work “On Literary Analysis” (1963), the conceptual provisions of this methodology, which became the foundation of the school, were preserved and significantly strengthened, which, in fact, we reliably reproduced and repeated here.

In the 70s of the twentieth century, literary scholars of the center began to complain about the dominance of the historical and literary methodology of analyzing a work, where sociological assessments and factual constructions obscure the idea of ​​the text as a phenomenon of art. In this regard, Ef. Magazannik wrote: “Literary research, whatever its immediate tasks and goals, should be as close as possible to its specific subject - the artistic, aesthetic essence of the work. (...) It is possible to overcome the separation of the research view from the artistic and aesthetic quality of its subject only through a poetic analysis of the work. In our understanding, poetics, the poetic structure of a literary work is not the structure of its elements formalized in one way or another, but the structure of elements, as we would call them, “organic”, “natural” elements, the properties of which are in the structure of the work, their role in it is revealed directly - aesthetically, as a kind of artistic content-formal given, and not as a consequence of abstract-logical formalizing operations, by which an element is torn out of the system of its organic (i.e., artistic-aesthetic) connections and transformed into an abstraction...

Poetic-structural methodology may seem like “minor digging” into particulars, devoid of significant perspective... To solve some problems, an analysis of a more detailed level will be required, for others, much less detail will be required, and still others can be solved on the basis of the most generalized poetic analysis. It is only essential that behind each study... one feels living artistic flesh, and not ethereal abstractions (then this “flesh” in the perspective of analysis can be revealed by a variety of abstractions of generalization) (see: Magazinnik Eph. Several thoughts on poetics, poetic analysis, methodology // Problems of poetics. - Samarkand: SamSU, 1980. - pp. 3-10).

The building of a work consists of particles of the Text, and since this is so, then these particles, these artistic details should be considered from the perspective of completely independent images - a “molecular” image, a micro-image, an image - a detail.

A verbal portrait of the scientist is drawn in one of the memoirs: “Ya. O. Zundelovich, spontaneously or deliberately neglected the tie, wore a wide satin blouse that resembled a “sweatshirt.” Only on rare, solemn occasions did the “old man,” as we lovingly called him, appear, as they say, “in parade,” clearly suffering from this, especially from the tie that was squeezing his powerful neck. Yakov Osipovich was a short man, with a powerful torso and strong arms, which helped him survive in inhumane Gulag conditions.

The looseness and democracy in the clothes and manners of Ya.O. Zundelovich, apparently, were a consequence of the originality,... paradoxical worldview of this “remarkable” person. And this was manifested in everything: in his attitude to life, everyday life, almost Spartan, to his craft” (see: Lagutov V.B. “We all came out... from the “sweatshirt” of Ya.O. Zundelovich...” // Zundelovich Readings. Materials of the international scientific conference / Compiled and scientific editor R.G. Nazaryan - Samarkand: SamSU, 2000. - P. 3).

The poetic-structural analysis of a literary text, developed in the works of Samarkand philologists, is conceived as a special literary methodology that united the scientific school.

Literary criticism as a science. The structure of literary criticism. The role of literary knowledge in journalistic activity.

Literary criticism as a science arose at the beginning of the 19th century. Of course, literary works have existed since antiquity. Aristotle was the first who tried to systematize them in his book; he was the first to give a theory of genres and a theory of types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry). He also belongs to the theory of catharsis and mimesis. Plato created a story about ideas (idea → material world → art).

In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “Poetic Art”, based on the earlier work of Horace. It isolated knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.

In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).

At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of the dominance of romanticism began in ideology, philosophy, and art. At this time, the Brothers Grimm created their theory.

Literature is an art form; it creates aesthetic values, and therefore is studied from the point of view of various sciences.

Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them. The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also all the artistic literature of the world - written and oral.

Modern literary criticism consists of:

Literary theories

History of literature

literary criticism

Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader. Develops general concepts and terms.

Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.

Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work.

The theory of the literary process - studies the patterns of development of genders and genres.

Literary aesthetics – studies literature as an art form.

Literary history studies the development of literature. Divided by time, by direction, by place.

Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate a work in terms of aesthetic value.

From a sociological perspective, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she also studies literature.

Auxiliary literary disciplines:

a) textual criticism – studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments

b) paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, manuscripts only

c) bibliography – an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject

d) library science - the science of collections, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, union catalogs

2. Literary theory as the main scientific discipline, its sections. The place of literary theory in the system of art sciences.

The theory of literature examines the ideological and artistic essence of literature, its social significance and features of the artistic form (construction of the work, visual means, literary types and types, etc.), and also determines the principles of analysis of an individual work of art.

Studying works outstanding writers, you became acquainted with primary information from the history of literature, and also learned some theoretical and literary concepts. After carefully reading this section of the textbook, you will repeat the concepts you already know and bring them into a specific system. Systematized knowledge is more convenient to use and easier to replenish. Knowledge of theoretical and literary concepts will help you better understand works of art, more fully comprehend their content and poetic form.

Literary theory consists of four sections:

• 1) fiction as a form of social consciousness;
• 2) a work of art;
• 3.) literary types and types (genres);
• 4) literary process.

THE THEORY OF LITERATURE studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader. Develops general concepts and terms. Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics. Poetics is a part of literary theory that studies the composition and structure of a literary work. The theory of the literary process is part of the theory of literature that studies the patterns of development of genders and genres. Literary aesthetics – studies literature as an art form.

Literary criticism as a synthesis of science, art and journalism.

The subject of criticism is the study of art. works. The task of criticism is the interpretation and evaluation of art. works in accordance with the views of the era. Literary criticism - explains and shows the objective and historical patterns of time. Criticism is subjective - interested in what is happening now, and literature is objective, presented in the form of scientific truth. A literary scholar sees a work in its assessment of time, and a critic must first find the key to the work. A literary scholar knows the history of a creative idea; a critic deals with what the author himself makes worthy of attention. The critic analyzes the text, correlating it with today, while the literary critic analyzes it, correlating it with other works. A literary scholar has the opportunity to evaluate the statements of other literary scholars; this is not necessary for a critic. Criticism is a synthesis of science, journalism and art. For a critic, it is important to express the inner set of lit. works along with your point of view. Criticism deals with analysis. This is the science of perceiving the shortcomings and advantages of a work.

Poetics and methodology of literary criticism are the main components of literary theory.

Literary theory has 2 main content blocks:

Methodology

Poetics

Methodology.

In the development of literary theory, two opposing trends are observed:

~ passion for the theories of comparativeism (the theory of borrowing, see below for more details) and formalism (the very concept of “content of a work” is discarded, it is argued that literature consists only of form, that only form needs to be studied. Life is the “material” a writer needs for formal constructions - compositional and verbal. A work of art is a system of creative techniques that has aesthetic significance).

~ strengthening and deepening of the materialistic worldview in literature.

Literary criticism faces two main questions:

1. why every nation in every era, along with other types of social consciousness, also has artistic literature (literature, what is its significance for the life of this people and all humanity, what is its essence, its features, the reason for its emergence.

2. why the literature of each people is different in each era, as well as within the era itself, what is the essence of these differences, why does it change and develop historically, what is the reason for this and not other development.

In my opinion, this is much more than 2 questions, but since they insist...

Literary criticism can answer these questions only if it establishes some connections between the literature of individual peoples and their lives as a whole.

The method of literary criticism is a certain understanding of the connections that exist between the development of literature and the general development of the life of peoples and all mankind.

Methodology is the theory of the method, the doctrine of it.

There are various schools.

Poetics.

Poetics is the study of the organization of the artistic whole, the science of the means and methods of expressing artistic content.

Happens historical: development of the components of literature (genera, genres, tropes and figures).

And it also happens theoretical: examines the most general laws of content.

Formalist school.

The very concept of “content of a work” is rejected, it is argued that literature consists only of form, and that only form needs to be studied. Life is the “material” a writer needs for formal constructions – compositional and verbal. A work of art is a system of creative techniques that has aesthetic significance.

Structuralist school.

Stage of development of formalism. They consider a work of art as an integral structure, including not only form, but also content. They consider it possible to study the structure of a work using mathematical methods. In fact, only the form of the work is structural.

Mythological school

Creation of literary works based on myths.

Specificity of fiction as the art of words. The role of fiction in fiction. Art and media. Literature and media.

Literature works with words - its main difference from other arts. The meaning of the word is given in the Gospel - a divine idea of ​​the essence of the word. The word is the main element of literature, the connection between the material and the spiritual. A word is perceived as the sum of the meanings that human culture has given it. Through the word, contact is made with the general in world culture. Visual cool - that cat. can be perceived visually. Verbal culture - more meets the needs of a person - the word, the work of thought, the formation of personality (the world of spiritual entities). There are spheres of culture, cat. do not require serious attention (Hollywood films do not require great inner commitment). There is a liter at a depth, cat. requires a deep relationship and experience. Works of literature are the awakening of a person’s inner strengths in different ways, because the work has material. 1Temporary art - developing over time - theater, cinema, music. We cannot go against time (skipping a fragment) 2Spatial art - developing in space - plastic art - painting, sculpture. The perception time is not specified. The painting contains spatial reference points - the artist knows what the viewer should pay attention to first. Against this background of literature, there is a synthesis of the temporal and spatial. Litera has certain segments, fragments - this is connected with the word. Each of the elements can be presented separately. You can treat a sound or a word in isolation, judge a phrase, a paragraph, a chapter. The time course of a work can be interrupted at any moment; the author does not set it. The author does not know the speed of reading, and the reader can stop at any time while reading. A temporary work - its author knows how long his work will last, how long the perception of the work will take. There may be a rhythm disturbance or speeding up. In lit. There is no time built into the work; there is an opportunity to interrupt. In the theater this is impossible, there is always a definition. mood. In literature we return to the same thing; there is an opportunity to return and restore what we need. The time structure of a work of art is freer. We perceive everything as it is in a literary work, but at the same time, this perception can be different for everyone; the word is perceived differently. Any illustration of the text is a distortion of what is conveyed by the text. The word is immaterial. There is no clarity, as in painting, in photography (the table in the literary work is much more general than in the painting). The word carries within itself both a strong and a weak principle. Literature and music:

1) temporary differences 2) essence: in a literary work - a set of words semantic halo noun. literary works. In music the work has no specific connection, does not carry direct associations, we do not relate to the set of sounds emotionally, there is no direct semantic structure. A note is an external sound, but not a semantic meaning; unlike a word, it acquires temporary characteristics. Music is freer from semantic predetermination than literature. Specific forms of verbal art are certain categories of literary works that are closely related to other types of art: drama - with theatre, poetry and graphics (when the author himself illustrates his work).

7. Literature and fiction. Problems of modern literature. Elite and mass literature.

Literature - Most often, literature is understood as fiction, that is, literature as an art form. However, this modern understanding should not be directly applied to the culture of eras distant from today. Literature includes author's texts (including anonymous ones, that is, those in which the author is unknown for one reason or another, and collective ones, that is, written by a group of people - sometimes quite numerous, if we are talking, for example, about an encyclopedia, but still definite). Literature includes texts that themselves have social meaning (or are designed to have one).

Belletre And stick(from the French belles lettres - elegant literature), in a broad sense - fiction in general. In a narrower and more common sense - artistic prose, as opposed to poetry and drama. Sometimes literature is understood as ideologically and artistically imperfect literature. The concept of fictionalization is widely used, which refers to the desire of many authors of scientific and scientific-fiction books to combine documentary material with elements of artistic storytelling for the purpose of entertainment.

Elite literature is literature of a high style, created for understanding by a narrow circle of people by specialists (people with special education).

Mass literature (paraliterature) is literature that is characterized by circulation, popularism, simplicity of presentation, commercial nature, etc.

8. Artistic image. Features of its design and presentation.

An artistic image is a form of thinking in art. This is an allegorical, metaphorical thought that reveals one phenomenon through another. The poet operates with images and pictures. Armed with a lively and vivid language, he shows, acting on the imagination of readers, and convinces with pictures. So, in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" the character of Andrei Bolkonsky is revealed through his love for Natasha, and through his relationship with his father, and through the sky of Austerlitz, and through thousands of things and people who, as this hero realizes in mortal agony, are “connected” with every person .

The artist thinks associatively. An artistic image has its own logic, it develops according to its own internal laws, possessing self-motion. The artist sets all the initial parameters for the self-movement of the image, but having set them, he cannot change anything without committing violence against artistic truth. The artist sometimes comes to a conclusion that is completely different from the one he was striving for.

One of the aspects of the ambiguity of the image is understatement. E. Hemingway compared a work of art to an iceberg: a small part of it is visible, the main part is hidden under water. This makes the reader active; the process of perceiving the work turns out to be co-creation, thought-out, and completion of the image. However, this is not arbitrary speculation. The perceiver receives an initial impulse for reflection, he is given an emotional state, but he retains both free will and space for creative imagination. The understatement of the image, stimulating the thought of the perceiver, is manifested with particular force in the absence of an ending, incompleteness.

The image is multifaceted, it has an abyss of meaning. Each era finds something new in the classical image and gives it its own interpretation. In the 19th century Hamlet was viewed as a reflective intellectual (“Hamletism”), in the 20th century. - like a fighter.

The image is untranslatable into the language of logic because during analysis a “supra-semantic residue” remains, and we translate it because, by penetrating deeper and deeper into the essence of the work, one can more and more fully reveal its meaning: critical analysis is the process of endlessly deepening into the infinite meaning of the image.

An artistic image is an individualized generalization that reveals in a concrete, sensory form. The general manifests itself in the individual and through the individual. Let us recall one of the scenes from the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "Anna Karenina". Karenin wants to divorce his wife and comes to a lawyer for advice. The lawyer listens sympathetically to the visitor. A confidential conversation takes place in a cozy office covered with carpets. Suddenly a moth flies across the room. And although Karenin’s story concerns the dramatic circumstances of his life, the lawyer no longer listens to anything; it is important for him to catch the moth that threatens his carpets. A small detail carries a lot of meaning. It turns out that in this autocratic-bureaucratic society people are indifferent to each other, and things are more valuable than a person and his fate.

It may seem that lyric poetry falls outside the pattern: the image is the unity of the general and the individual. Let us remember the poems of A.S. Pushkin "I loved you." This message from the poet to his beloved speaks about the most secret, intimate things. Everything is unique and individual. Only Pushkin felt this way. The poet expresses himself, his thoughts and feelings, and, it would seem, what general things can we talk about? However, the very individuality of the artist carries within itself the universal. A great poet, wrote V.G. Belinsky, speaking about himself, about his “I,” speaks about the general - about humanity, for in his nature lies everything that humanity lives by; and therefore in his sadness everyone recognizes their own sadness, in his soul everyone recognizes their own and sees in him not only a poet, but also a man, his brother in humanity. The artist thinks in images, the nature of which is concrete and sensual.

Art is capable, without breaking away from the concrete sensory nature of phenomena, to make broad generalizations and create a concept of the world. An artistic image is the unity of thought and feeling, rational and emotional. The ancient Indians believed that art was born when a person could not contain the feelings that overwhelmed him.

The role of the artist’s individuality is especially clear in the performing arts (music, theater). Each actor, for example, interprets the character in his own way, and different sides of the play are revealed to the viewer. The personality of the creator is reflected in the artistic image, and the brighter and more significant this personality is, the more significant the creation itself.

The writer shows us life holistically. The image of a person presupposes an image of the life situation in which he acts, and the image is both individualized and generalized. Many works feature a whole range of characters, and each of them contains a certain artistic generalization. The work gives us a generalization that relates not only to this or that character, but also to a certain social contradiction as a whole (it can manifest itself in the relationships of the created characters (characters)). In their interaction, the characters lead us to a holistic generalization - to a conclusion that can no longer be reduced to any one of the characters, but covers the area of ​​life described in the work in its entirety. This basic generalization, which is carried out throughout the entire system of characters, is called the main idea of ​​the work. (this all seems to be about integrity, which appears in the title, but it seems to me that we are not talking about the integrity that Wilczek had in mind, at the end I added my own piece “about integrity”, perhaps it will fit much better, but this should be removed)

Thus, the work is a complex ideological whole, a chain of the writer’s generalizations, a series of his observations of reality, organized by a single thought, the main idea of ​​the work.

But the main idea should not be understood abstractly, as an abstract formula. It needs to be revealed throughout the work, in the interaction of characters, etc. This ideological complexity of the work is determined by the complexity of life itself. Depending on the tasks set for himself, a writer may strive to show the life process in its most complex forms, or, on the contrary, may reveal the essence of this process in some of the simplest life cases (Chekhov's stories).

In order to understand this complexity of a literary work, you need to clearly understand its structure, the laws that govern this structure, the relationship of its parts, the role played by certain means used by the writer to create specific pictures of life. (this “pouring water” on the topic can also be removed, but you can also keep it in mind so that you know what you can talk about additionally)

The main provision that gives us the key to a correct understanding of all these issues is the provision of relationship between form and content.

Content and form are, first of all, correlative concepts, i.e. cannot exist one without the other: a form is a form of something, otherwise it is meaningless; content, in order to exist, must have a form that gives it external definiteness, otherwise it cannot manifest itself. The content must be clothed in a form, outside of which it cannot exist with complete certainty; form has meaning and significance when it serves the manifestation of content. And depending on the content, it receives its own characteristics that distinguish it from other forms in which a different content is manifested. Outside the finished form, a phenomenon cannot manifest itself; only in the process of its formation does it reveal everything that is contained in it, all its content. Example: In order for our understanding of the Trojan War, depicted in the Iliad, to receive sufficient external certainty, i.e. has become complete and expanded, it is necessary that we imagine the clash of people, their weapons, their exploits, their feelings that led them to war, etc., otherwise our idea of ​​war will be general and vague, it will not manifest itself fully and multifaceted . A complete understanding of the Trojan War arises for us precisely because we have perceived its fully developed form, and, conversely, the complete perception of the form has led us to an idea of ​​the Trojan War as a whole, i.e. to the content. (this example “on the topic” can be removed, you can leave it, again, like the ability to give an example, etc., maybe Vilchek will like it...) Thus, this relationship between form and content, as if transforming into each other, can be expressed as follows: content is nothing more than the transition of form into content, and form is nothing more than the transition of content into form(Hegel).

It's clear. That at the heart of this process of mutual transition of form and content is content. It is looking for a form through which it can most fully express its essence.

The measure of certainty of the immediate content of a work is its artistic form.

In the first case, the objective content of a particular judgment, description, formula, etc. does not require any subjective coloring, emotional presentation to reveal or enhance its significance, in short, which gives the content the features of a specific life phenomenon that requires an individual attitude towards oneself (the formula 2 * 2 = 4 does not require a special form in order to be truth and be perceived as such by the reader).

When the task of an individual, subjectively colored phenomenon arises, then the form of its expression becomes active. Each shade of the speech system participates in the creation of the certainty necessary for the individualization of the phenomenon and enhances the measure of this certainty.

The higher the activity of the form, the more versatile it is, the more fully it outlines all the shades of the immediate content, the higher the measure of its definiteness.

When analyzing a work of art, it is necessary to determine the circle of life material chosen by it, by drawing which the artist affirms his understanding of reality (theme). Roughly speaking, the theme is what the writer depicts, the idea is what he wants to say about the depicted, his assessment. More precisely, the idea is what the writer says through his very topic, directly depicted by the range of life phenomena, their choice, as well as the attitude towards life that he wants to evoke in the reader and which may be broader than what is directly reflected in the work .

Based on our understanding of the content of the theme and its unity with the idea, we can say that a work of art has an ideological and thematic basis, i.e. shows a certain side of life, ideologically comprehended by the artist.

1) as a transition of the ideological and thematic basis into human characters, whose experiences and actions concretize, impart certainty and clarity to the life material realized by the writer.

2) The transition of character into actions (composition, plot) and experiences (language), giving it that external certainty, without which it would be too general, a non-specific phenomenon (a person’s actions in a literary work are revealed in the composition and plot, thoughts, feelings, experiences - in the language in which he reveals them to us).

The inseparable, harmonious coexistence within the framework of a literary work of form and content, themes and ideas of the work, literary characters (characters) and their environment creates overall integrity of the work. Without taking into account the mutual connection and inseparability of these components, the integrity of a literary work is not possible.

11. Ideological and thematic content of a literary work. Thematic integrity of a work of art.

we need to talk about the fact that the text should be coherent. if one topic is raised, continue it throughout the entire work. the topic should be related to ideas and blah blah blah

The principles of connection between events in chronicle and concentric stories differ significantly; therefore, their capabilities in depicting reality, actions and behavior of people also differ. The criterion for distinguishing these types of plot is the nature of the connection between events.

IN chronicles In plots, the connection between events is temporary, that is, events replace each other in time, following one after another. The “formula” of plots of this type can be represented as follows:

IN concentric Plots are dominated by cause-and-effect relationships between events, that is, each event is the cause of the next one and the consequence of the previous one. Such stories differ from chronicles in their unity of action: the writer explores any one conflict situation. All events in the plot seem to be pulled together into one knot, obeying the logic of the main conflict.

Conflict - (Latin conflictus - clash, disagreement, dispute) - a specifically artistic form of reflecting contradictions in people’s lives, reproducing in art an acute collision of opposing human actions, views, feelings, aspirations, passions.

Specific content conflict is the struggle between the beautiful, sublime and the ugly, base.

Conflict in literature is the basis of the artistic form of the work and the development of its plot. Conflict and its resolution depends on the concept of the work.

Based on the classification, the types and varieties of conflicts are determined. Type of conflict - a variant of conflict interaction, identified according to a certain criterion.

The method of resolving conflicts involves dividing them into antagonistic (violent) conflicts and compromise (non-violent) conflicts.

Violent (antagonistic) conflicts represent ways of resolving contradictions by destroying the structures of all conflicting parties or the refusal of all parties except one to participate in the conflict. This side wins. For example: complete defeat of the enemy in a dispute (elections of government bodies, etc.).

Compromise conflicts allow several options for their solution due to mutual changes in the goals of the parties to the conflict, terms, and conditions of interaction. For example: the supplier does not send the ordered raw materials to the manufacturer within the specified period. The manufacturer has the right to demand compliance with the delivery schedule, but the delivery dates of the cargo have changed due to the lack of means for transportation due to non-payments. Based on mutual interest, it is possible to reach a compromise through negotiations and changing the delivery schedule.

The areas of manifestation of conflicts are extremely diverse: politics, economics, social relations, views and beliefs of people. There are political, social, economic, and organizational conflicts.

Political conflicts- a clash over the distribution of power, the form of struggle for power.

Social conflict represents contradictions in the system of relations of people (groups), which are characterized by the strengthening of opposing interests, tendencies of social communities and individuals. Labor and social-labor conflicts are considered a type of social conflicts, i.e. in the sphere of labor activity. This is a large group of conflicts that arise very often in the form of strikes, pickets, and protests by large groups of workers.

Economic conflicts represent a wide range of conflicts based on contradictions between the economic interests of individuals and groups. This is a struggle for certain resources, benefits, spheres of economic influence, distribution of property, etc. These types of conflicts are common at different levels of management.

Organizational conflicts are a consequence of hierarchical relations, regulation of human activities, the use of distribution relations in the organization: the use of job descriptions, functional assignment of rights and responsibilities to the employee; introducing formal governance structures; availability of provisions for remuneration and evaluation of labor, bonuses for employees.

According to the direction of impact, vertical and horizontal conflicts are distinguished. A characteristic feature of them is the distribution of the amount of power that is in the opponents at the time of the beginning of conflict interactions.

IN vertical conflicts the amount of power decreases vertically from top to bottom, which determines different starting conditions for the participants in the conflict: boss - subordinate, higher organization - enterprise, founder - small enterprise.

IN horizontal conflicts There is an interaction between subjects of equal power or hierarchical level: managers of the same level, specialists among themselves, suppliers - consumers.

Tonic versification

The simplest form of an accent system is tonic verse, in which the commensurability of lines is based on the more or less constant preservation of a certain number of stresses in each line with a variable number of unstressed syllables (both in the line as a whole and between stressed syllables).

The same number of stresses in each line may not be observed in practice, but this does not change the rhythmic pattern.

In the simplest way, a tonic verse can be indicated by the scheme: “×′ ×′ ×′”, where “′” is a stressed syllable, and “×” is a variable number of unstressed syllables.

Depending on the number of stresses in a line, its rhythm is determined: three-beat, four-beat, etc.

Syllabic versification

Syllabic verse is a tonic verse in which the number of syllables in a line and the location of some stresses (at the end and in the middle of the line) are fixed.

The remaining stresses (at the beginning of each hemistich) are not fixed and can fall on different syllables.

The scheme of syllabic verse differs from the scheme of tonic verse in that in it a construction like “×′ ×′” at the beginning of a hemistich or verse will end with stress on a fixed syllable, for example. in Alexandrian verse - on the 6th and 12th syllables.

RHYTHM is a natural repetition of commensurate and sensually perceptible units. Eg. the knock of a pendulum or the beat of a pulse is rhythmic: in them we have, firstly, units, i.e. certain (delimited from each other by some intervals, complete) phenomena (knock, beat), and secondly, the commensurability, homogeneity of these units (a blow is of the same quality as a blow), thirdly, the repeatability of units (a number of them), fourthly, orderliness, regularity of repetition, and finally, fifthly, sensory perceptibility, the possibility of direct perception of these units and the intervals between them. R. in a broad sense is inherent directly in a number of natural phenomena (sea waves, etc.) and in the human body (rhythmic breathing, heart function, blood circulation, etc.).

Meter- the measure of a verse, its structural unit. It is a group of feet united by an ikt, the main rhythmic stress.

Rhyme- consonance at the end of two or more words. It is most common in poetic speech and in some eras in some cultures acts as its obligatory or almost obligatory property. Unlike alliteration and assonance (which can occur anywhere in the text), rhyme is determined positionally (by the position at the end of the verse, capturing the clause). The sound composition of a rhyme - or, more correctly, the nature of the consonance necessary for a pair of words or phrases to be read as a rhyme - is different in different languages ​​and at different times.

Types of rhymes

Depending on the position of stress in a rhymed word, three types of rhyme are distinguished:

• masculine rhyme, where the stress is on the last syllable of the rhymed verse. For example, this is exactly the type used in M.Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Death”:
  female rhyme, where it falls on the penultimate.
• dactylic rhyme in which the stress is on the third syllable from the end of the line. hyperdactylic rhyme, in which the stress falls on the fourth syllable or further, is used much less frequently than others.

Rhymes also differ in the accuracy of consonances and methods of their creation:

• rich rhymes in which the supporting consonant sound coincides. An example is the passage from the poem by A.S. Pushkin "To Chaadaev":
  Love, hope, quiet glory
  Deception did not last long for us,
  The youthful fun has disappeared
  Like a dream, like morning fog.
• poor rhymes, where the overstressed sounds and the stressed vowel partially coincide.

Also in versification there is a group of imprecise rhymes that are a conscious artistic device:

• assonant rhymes in which the vowel stress coincides, but the consonants do not coincide.
• dissonant (countersonant) rhymes, where, on the contrary, the stressed vowels do not coincide:

a truncated rhyme in which there is an extra consonant sound in one of the rhyming words.

Understanding the connections that exist between fiction and the life of peoples allows literary criticism to solve its main task - the task of explaining the essential features and historical development of fiction.

To explain phenomena means to find their causes, to establish why such phenomena arise, what exactly causes them, what determines them, what is their essence and meaning. Both the life of nature and the life of society are subject to certain laws and have their own objective laws of origin and development. Phenomena of social life are always caused by those or

other reasons that determine their properties, their features. This applies to all aspects of social life, in particular to all types of art, including fiction.

Therefore, literary criticism faces two main questions. Firstly, why does every nation, in every era, along with other types of social consciousness, also have artistic literature (literature), what is its significance for the life of this people and all humanity, what is its essence, its characteristics, the reason for its emergence? Secondly, why is the artistic literature (literature) of each people different in each era, as well as within the era itself, what is the essence of these differences, why does it change and develop historically, what is the reason for this and not another development?

Literary criticism can answer these questions only if it establishes some connections between the literature of individual peoples and their lives as a whole. Only then will it acquire some understanding of these connections and be able to correctly comprehend the significance of literature in people’s lives, in the life of society. And from here it can become clear why and how literature develops historically, changes from era to era and differs within each era.

Therefore, the works of those theorists and historians of literature and art who at one time sought to somehow understand their connection and dependence on national historical life as a whole are of great value for modern literary criticism. Such, for example, is “Aesthetics” by Hegel, a German idealist philosopher, created in the first third of the 19th century. Hegel saw in art a complete, perfect, figurative expression of the positive, historically progressive essence of human life at various stages of its development, in one or another of its national originality. In his opinion, any truly artistic work is a disclosure of the content of life, its “truth” in figurative embodiment, in figurative form.

But, connecting art with the national-historical life of mankind, Hegel understood this life idealistically. He considered historical reality itself to be a manifestation and generation of some spiritual essence. He called this imaginary entity the “world spirit” or the “absolute idea.” According to his teachings, the “world spirit”

first develops in nature, then in human society and through the spiritual life of humanity - through art, religion, philosophy - finally reaches its own “self-knowledge”.

Idealism prevented Hegel from understanding that art can serve to understand not only the positive, historically progressive essence of life, but also its negative, historically reactionary essence. Hegel brought his understanding of the development of art to its “romantic” degree. He was unable to comprehend and explain the patterns of emergence of the next stage - the era of the heyday of critical realism. He outlined the real connections between art and life in a very abstract, schematic way and basically misunderstood them.

In the second half of the 19th century. a direction arose in literary criticism, which, in contrast to philosophical-idealistic aesthetics, was almost not concerned with the general theory of art, but was entirely focused on studying the real dependence of literature on the conditions and circumstances of national-historical life. This direction was called the “historical-cultural school.” Her predecessor was the outstanding German cultural historian Herder, who lived in the second half of the 18th century. Its most prominent representative in Russia was A. N. Pypin, the author of numerous works on the history of Russian, in particular ancient Russian, literature and folklore; in France - I. Taine, author of works on the history of Western European literature and painting.

Representatives of this trend were sincerely convinced that literature, like other types of art, arises and develops under the influence of various conditions, relationships, circumstances that exist in the life of one or another people, in one or another historical era. They called these conditions and circumstances “factors” of literary development, strove to study them more carefully, tried to find as many of them as possible in order to more fully and more specifically explain the features of a genre in oral folk art or in nameless handwritten ancient literature, as well as the features of the work of individual writers , and sometimes entire literary movements in modern times. Literary phenomena, Pypin wrote, are always so complex that the more active factors we find, the closer we are to the truth. I. Ten “reads it possible to explain the features of art by three main “factors”: “race”, i.e.

the national uniqueness of the life of a particular society, the “environment,” i.e., the conditions and circumstances of its social life, and the “moment,” i.e., the relationships and events of a separate period of national development.

The desire to explain the development of literature by the changing conditions of socio-historical life seemed to be a completely correct starting position of the representatives of the “historical-cultural school”. Indeed, how else can this story be explained? After all, the “world spirit” conscious of itself in literature is a philosophical illusion. It is also, of course, impossible to explain the development of literary content by the emergence of writers with different talents. Talents are given to writers from birth, but they receive one direction or another and are manifested differently in the creation of such and not other works due to certain conditions of national-historical life. If a playwright with Shakespeare's talent had lived in the era of Dickens, he would, of course, have written completely differently. If a poet with Pushkin's talent had lived a life similar to Gorky's, his work would have had a completely different content and form.

However, for a coherent and consistent explanation of literary development by the conditions of national-historical. In economic life, it is necessary to master an equally harmonious and consistent theory of the historical life of society as a whole. Representatives of the “historical-cultural school” did not have such a theory. They attributed the characteristics and development of literature to many different “factors.” But where these “factors” themselves arise, how they are interconnected, which of them turn out to be basic and which are derivative - all this Ten, Pypin and their like-minded people could not, and did not want to, find out. Due to the peculiarities of their social views, they were not at all inclined to broad synthetic philosophical and historical generalizations. That is why the supporters of this school were interested mainly in the influence of various cultural “factors” on literature, and they overlooked deeper socio-historical connections and relationships.

In various countries of the era of the decline of bourgeois society there were and are many literary scholars who, due to the peculiarities of their views, do not at all take into account in the study of literature its connections with the life of peoples. They not only do not comprehend these connections in their research, but even in principle deny the need to study them.

Such scientists cannot say anything about the laws of the historical emergence, existence and development of fiction of the peoples of the world. They, naturally, doom themselves only to collecting, identifying the texts of literary works, describing their features, external classification, and particular generalizations. They can “explain” the development of literature only by external comparison of works, without going in depth to an understanding of causes and consequences.

Such, for example, are literary scholars who created the scientific direction “comparativism” (Latin comparare - to compare). Its founder was in the middle of the 19th century. German scientist T. Benfey; one of them partly belonged to him. the largest Russian scientists of the pre-revolutionary period Al-r. N. Veselovsky.

Comparativists believe that only they study literature through comparison. In fact, all literary scholars study it this way (and cannot help but study it). The essence of comparativeism lies not in comparative study, but in a special understanding of the development of literature - in the theory of borrowing.

According to this theory, the historical development of literature (literature) of different peoples comes down mainly to the fact that folk singers and storytellers, and later writers of different countries, borrow from each other in the process of their creativity those individual “motives” (attitudes, actions, experiences of heroes or thoughts and the author’s feelings) from which their works are composed. As a result, newly created works always turn out - from the point of view of comparativists - to be only new combinations of old, long-established “motifs” taken from the works of the past, very often from the works of literature of other peoples, who themselves borrowed them from somewhere. With such an explanation, everything new is reduced to the restructuring of the old, and everything nationally distinctive, everything epochal, ideologically and creatively original loses its decisive significance.

The history of the literature of the peoples of the world appears, in the interpretation of comparativists, as a continuous transition (“migration”) of the same once-emerging “motifs” from works to works, from one national literature to another. In this way it is easy to humiliate the literature of any people, asserting and proving that it has only imaginary independence and originality, that it consists entirely of “motifs” borrowed from others.

other peoples, supposedly more original, cultural and creatively active.

An even more decisive refusal to comprehend the connections that exist between literature and the socio-historical life of the peoples of the world is demonstrated by literary scholars who have taken the position of formalism. This trend developed in literary and art criticism much later, at the beginning of the 20th century.

For comparativists, the “motifs” that are repeated in world literature were still some elements of the content of the works, although understood very abstractly and schematically. The formalists completely rejected the very concept of “content of works.” They argued that literature consists only of form, and that only form should be studied. For them, the life reflected in the work is the “material” necessary for the writer for his formal constructions - compositional and verbal. From their point of view, a work of art is a “system” of creative “techniques” that has only aesthetic significance. And the whole history of this or that national literature is that works created using one “system of techniques” are replaced by works created using some other “system”, and then using some third, etc. . d. The reason for such a change is supposedly only that each aesthetic “system of techniques” is at first very popular with readers, and then gradually becomes boring to them and therefore must be replaced by another “system”.

Such a superficial and naive “explanation” of the historical development of literature clearly shows the falsity of the entire formalist theory as a whole. By removing its content from literature, depriving it of all cognitive and ideological-emotional meaning and impact, making its aesthetic significance self-sufficient, the formalists thereby reduce literature to the level of everyday decorations and trinkets. Formalists do not want and cannot answer why in the literature of this or that people, in this or that era, exactly this and not another “system of techniques” arises, why it is later replaced by just such a “system” and not some other . For literary criticism as a historical science, formalism turns out to be a completely fruitless theory.

In the last two decades, the formalist study of literature has entered a new stage of its development.

Based on the achievements of cybernetics (the creation and use of computers), as well as related semiotics (the science of sign systems) and information theory, using their new, apparently very complex terminology, it comes out under the name of structuralism. Structuralists view a work of art no longer as a formal “system of techniques”, but as an integral “structure”, supposedly including not only its form, but also its content. Many of them consider it possible to study the structure of a work using mathematical methods; they see this as a sign of the high scientific character of their works.

This approach to works of art cannot be considered correct. Only the form is structural in the works. Structure is a stable combination and interaction of material elements. Structural, for example, are machines and devices, the human body, in particular its brain. But a person’s consciousness, his “inner world,” the interpenetration of thoughts, feelings, aspirations of the individual, generated by ever new, changing influences of real life, has not structure, but systematicity - a special internal consistency and pattern. Not structurally, but in its own way, systematic and conscious behavior of people, depending on the comprehension and assessment of ever new influences of life. Not structurally, but in its own way, the systematic and ideological content of works of art - the ideologically generalizing comprehension and assessment of the social characteristics of life expressed in them. Therefore, the content of works of art does not lend itself to structural (formal) analysis.

The hopes of many structuralists for the accuracy of mathematical methods for studying artistic phenomena also cannot be justified. These techniques can only help in the study of an artistic form, and even then only in some of its external aspects. The form of a work is its images. The image is always the unity of the general and the individual that embodies it. And the first cannot be understood without clarifying the properties of the second, and the properties of the individual in art can be clarified only with the help of aesthetic contemplation and the general observation that follows from it, and not with the help of abstract thinking, especially calculating thinking, expressed in numbers and alphabetic signs. Therefore, the meaningful meaning of the elements of the artistic form is not

can be comprehended using mathematical analysis techniques.

Comparatists, formalists, structuralists, when studying literature, do not proceed from the laws of development of national-historical life. They biasedly and tendentiously deny even the existence of such patterns and recognize only the independent development of literature, arising from some internal, only inherent “immanent” (lat. immanens - inherent) possibilities. This fear of history, the desire to escape its social laws corresponds to the ideological sentiments of bourgeois society.

However, it does not follow from this that the work of comparativeists, formalists and structuralists is devoid of any significance. For all their falsity, their theories contain the formulation of very important questions. Various national literatures indeed reveal much in common in their “motives” and “plots”. But this community mainly arises not as a result of borrowing, but because the social life of different peoples, and hence their social, in particular artistic, consciousness, despite all national differences, goes through the same stages of its historical development. In addition, works of art represent very complex constructions in their form, the “techniques” of which literary critics must be able to evaluate from an aesthetic point of view. But such an assessment is possible only when literary scholars understand the significance of certain “techniques” of creating an artistic form, the role they play in expressing the ideological content of a work. While completely incorrectly addressing these important issues, comparativists and formalists still produced in their research many interesting observations, comparisons, and sometimes even partial generalizations, which to some extent enriched science.

“Motives” and “plots”, “techniques” and their entire “systems” or “structures” always arise in literature according to the creative will of writers. It is the writer who manifests himself with more or less significant mental and moral strength, actively paving his own path in the complex interweaving of all sorts of general cultural artistic influences. It is he who maintains close ties with one or another ideological and cultural environment, or he shuns it and breaks with it. It is he who participates in those and not other literary associations or does without such participation.

It is he who chooses, reads and assimilates some books with sympathy, is “influenced” by some works, but disapproves of others and turns away from them. And all this happens not on a whim, not arbitrarily, but in accordance with ideological, or rather ideological, views, moods, aspirations.

They talk, for example, about the influence of Byron's works on Pushkin's work. At first glance, the works of the English poet were an active “factor”. But it was Pushkin who became interested in Byron's poems. Reading them, he borrowed from them everything that corresponded to his creative ideas, expressing his own ideological understanding of life, excluding from these poems what was uninteresting and unnecessary for him. And, of course, he used everything borrowed in his own way, for his own purposes.

There is no other way. A good writer can only be a person who is distinguished by ideological convictions, who has his own point of view on life, allowing him to choose for artistic reproduction such and such and not other human characters, relationships, experiences and to comprehend and emotionally evaluate them in one way and not another. A person who is ideologically unprincipled and unstable, who does not have clear criteria for understanding and evaluating life, is better off not picking up a pen.

From what has been said, it follows that literary criticism needs precisely such a methodology that would help literary scholars understand the patterns of the historical development of fiction of different peoples of the world.