Famous cultural and scientific figures. Moscow State University of Printing Arts

For Europeans, the period of the dark Middle Ages ended, giving way to the Renaissance. It made it possible to revive the almost extinct heritage of Antiquity and create great works of art. Scientists of the Renaissance also played an important role in the development of mankind.

Paradigm

The crisis and destruction of Byzantium led to the appearance of thousands of Christian emigrants in Europe, who brought books with them. These manuscripts contained knowledge of the ancient period, half-forgotten in the west of the continent. They became the basis of humanism, which placed man, his ideas and the desire for freedom at the forefront. Over time, in cities where the role of bankers, artisans, traders and craftsmen increased, secular centers of science and education began to emerge, which not only were not under the control of catholic church, but also often fought against her dictates.

Painting by Giotto (Renaissance)

Artists in the Middle Ages created works of predominantly religious content. In particular, for a long time The main genre of painting was iconography. The first who decided to depict ordinary people on his canvases, and also to abandon the canonical style of painting inherent in the Byzantine school, was Giotto di Bondone, who is considered a pioneer of the Proto-Renaissance. On the frescoes of the Church of San Francesco, located in the city of Assisi, he used the play of chiaroscuro and departed from the generally accepted compositional structure. However, Giotto's main masterpiece was the painting of the Arena Chapel in Padua. It is interesting that immediately after this order the artist was called to decorate the city hall. While working on one of the paintings, in order to achieve the greatest authenticity in the depiction of the “celestial sign,” Giotto consulted with the astronomer Pietro d’Abano. Thus, thanks to this artist, painting stopped depicting people, objects and natural phenomena according to certain canons and became more realistic.

Leonardo da Vinci

Many figures of the Renaissance had versatile talent. However, none of them can compare with Leonardo da Vinci in his versatility. He distinguished himself as an outstanding painter, architect, sculptor, anatomist, natural scientist and engineer.

In 1466, Leonardo da Vinci went to study in Florence, where, in addition to painting, he studied chemistry and drawing, and also acquired skills in working with metal, leather and plaster.

Already the artist’s first paintings distinguished him among his fellow workers. During his long, at that time, 68-year life, Leonardo da Vinci created such masterpieces as “Mona Lisa”, “John the Baptist”, “Lady with an Ermine”, “ last supper"etc.

Like other prominent figures of the Renaissance, the artist was interested in science and engineering. In particular, it is known that the wheel pistol lock he invented was used until the 19th century. In addition, Leonardo da Vinci created drawings of a parachute, a flying machine, a searchlight, a telescope with two lenses, etc.

Michelangelo

When the question of what the Renaissance figures gave to the world is discussed, the list of their achievements necessarily contains the works of this outstanding architect, artist and sculptor.

Among the most famous creations of Michelangelo Buonarroti are the frescoes of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the statue of David, the sculpture of Bacchus, the marble statue of the Madonna of Bruges, the painting “The Torment of St. Anthony” and many other masterpieces of world art.

Rafael Santi

The artist was born in 1483 and lived only 37 years. However, the great legacy of Raphael Santi puts him at the top of any symbolic rating of “Outstanding Figures of the Renaissance.”

The artist’s masterpieces include “The Coronation of Mary” for the Oddi altar, “Portrait of Pietro Bembo”, “Lady with a Unicorn”, numerous frescoes commissioned for the Stanza della Segnatura, etc.

The pinnacle of Raphael's work is considered to be the "Sistine Madonna", created for the altar of the church of the monastery of St. Sixta in Piacenza. This picture makes an unforgettable impression on anyone who sees it, since the Mary depicted on it in an incomprehensible way combines the earthly and heavenly essences of the Mother of God.

Albrecht Durer

Famous figures of the Renaissance were not only Italian. These include German painter and the master of engravings Albrecht Dürer, who was born in Nuremberg in 1471. His most significant works are the “Landauer Altar”, a self-portrait (1500), the painting “Feast of Rose Wreaths”, and three “Workshop Engravings”. The latter are considered masterpieces of graphic art of all times and peoples.

Titian

The great figures of the Renaissance in the field of painting left us images of their most famous contemporaries. One of the outstanding portrait painters of this period European art there was Titian, who came from the famous Vecellio family. He immortalized on canvas Federico Gonzaga, Charles V, Clarissa Strozzi, Pietro Aretino, the architect Giulio Romano and many others. In addition, his brushes include canvases on subjects from ancient mythology. How highly the artist was valued by his contemporaries is evidenced by the fact that one day Emperor Charles V hastened to pick up a brush that had fallen from Titian’s hands. The monarch explained his action by saying that serving such a master is an honor for anyone.

Sandro Botticelli

The artist was born in 1445. Initially, he was going to become a jeweler, but then he ended up in the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio, who once studied with Leonardo da Vinci. Along with works of religious themes, the artist created several paintings of secular content. Botticelli's masterpieces include the paintings "The Birth of Venus", "Spring", "Pallas and the Centaur" and many others.

Dante Alighieri

The great figures of the Renaissance left their indelible mark on world literature. One of the most prominent poets of this period is Dante Alighieri, born in 1265 in Florence. At the age of 37, he was expelled from his hometown because of his political views and wandered until the last years of his life.

Even as a child, Dante fell in love with his peer Beatrice Portinari. Having matured, the girl married another man and died at the age of 24. Beatrice became the poet’s muse, and it was to her that he dedicated his works, including the story “ New life" In 1306, Dante began creating his “Divine Comedy,” which he worked on for almost 15 years. In it, he exposes the vices of Italian society, the crimes of the popes and cardinals, and places his Beatrice in “paradise.”

William Shakespeare

Although the ideas of the Renaissance reached the British Isles with some delay, they were also created there outstanding works art.

In particular, one of the most famous playwrights in human history, William Shakespeare, worked in England. His plays have been popular for more than 500 years. theatrical stage in all corners of the planet. His pen includes the tragedies “Othello”, “Romeo and Juliet”, “Hamlet”, “Macbeth”, as well as the comedies “Twelfth Night”, “Much Ado About Nothing” and many others. In addition, Shakespeare is famous for his sonnets dedicated to the mysterious Dark Lady.

Leon Battista Alberti

The Renaissance also contributed to changing the appearance of European cities. During this period great architectural masterpieces, including the Roman Cathedral of St. Peter's, the Laurentian staircase, the Florence Cathedral, etc. Along with Michelangelo, the famous scientist Leon Battista Alberti is one of the famous architects of the Renaissance. He made enormous contributions to architecture, art theory and literature. His areas of interest also included problems of pedagogy and ethics, mathematics and cartography. He created one of the first scientific works on architecture, entitled “Ten Books on Architecture.” This work had a huge influence on subsequent generations of his colleagues.

Now you know the most famous figures the cultures of the Renaissance, thanks to which human civilization entered a new stage of its development.

It is still quite early to determine who will be classified as outstanding people modern history, because the 21st century has just begun. But if we remember the famous personalities of past times, we can assume what the Slavic race can give to the new century.

Among the outstanding personalities of Russia there are famous statesmen and politicians, artists, composers, poets and great minds. The achievements of celebrities of past centuries are briefly described below.

Rurik- the prince of the Varangian tribes, about whom legends were made. In 862, he was invited to rule in Novgorod, with his brothers Truvor and Sineus, who became rulers of both Beloozero and Izborsk. When the brothers died, Rurik single-handedly headed Northern Rus'.

Alexander Nevskiy- legendary commander, Grand Duke land of Novgorod. An unsurpassed military leader, he managed to defeat the troops of the Teutonic and Swedish knights. Thanks to the actions of the prince, Russia began to exist as a state based on its cultural and historical traditions.

Peter I- first emperor in history Russian state, who introduced many reforms. He built a flotilla and founded the city of St. Petersburg. Expanded the territory of the country by introducing the Baltic lands into it. He was an innovator and tried to bring Russia closer to the European standards of his time.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin– theoretically substantiated and developed the socialist and communist models of society. He wrote many works on the structure of a new type of state. Known as the leader of the proletariat. The founder of the first socialist state in the world - the USSR.

Russian writers

Alexander Ostrovsky- great playwright, creator of plays:

• “Our people - we will be numbered”;
• "Dowry."

The replicas of his heroes are imbued with the subtlest psychological content. The works he wrote had a significant influence on the worldview and work of playwrights of the 19th century.

Nikolay Gogol- famous writer and playwright. His plays “Marriage”, “The Inspector General” and prose “The Overcoat”, “Viy” gained worldwide fame. Often the main character was chosen to be a small person who suffered from the unfair attitude of the world towards himself. He is also the domestic progenitor of the horror genre.

Fedor Dostoevsky- a talented writer. His novels “Crime and Punishment”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, “The Idiot” and others gained worldwide fame. A subtle psychologist, he managed to completely change the tradition of describing the inner life of literary characters. He attached great importance to the description of the relationship between man and God in his own stories.

Lev Tolstoy- a great writer with a truly Russian soul. His works “Anna Karenina” and “War and Peace” are being made into films by directors from all over the world. He was convinced that only life in unity with nature will make a person happy. He was a supporter of peaceful life and an opponent of all military conflicts.

Talented poets

Alexander Pushkin- a brilliant poet of the Golden Age, the founder of classical Russian poetry. Author of numerous poems and poems, as well as historical novel"Eugene Onegin". The themes of his texts ranged widely: from love lyrics to social inequality.

Mikhail Lermontov- author of the famous poem “Hero of Our Time”. He dedicated many poems to the Caucasus, where he fought. He raised questions about the unnecessaryness of wars, about the alienated position of man. In his work he explored the impact of love on demonic nature.

Vladimir Mayakovsky- a poet who introduced futurism into Russian poetic culture. He had an unusual writing style - stepped in form. Unique poet Silver Age Russian versification, was an ardent supporter and preacher, a mouthpiece of communist ideals and worldview.

Sergey Yesenin– lyrical poet, sophisticated and sincere. At the same time, he remained a hooligan and a teenager at heart. His poetry touched on themes of love for women, the Motherland, nature, as well as personal struggle with the environment. His poems are characterized by a special melodiousness and aching poignancy.

Vladimir Vysotsky– creator of songs and poems, bard, great poet Bronze Age and simply historical figure Russia. In his work he was able to summarize the socio-cultural heritage of the 20th century. His poems are permeated with sharp satire. He sang and wrote about a person’s struggle with circumstances, about the place of the individual in society and in the world.

Domestic filmmakers

Lev Kuleshov– applied editing techniques in Russian cinematography. He is the pioneer of the Kuleshov effect, where two frames of unequal content when glued together give a new meaning. Thanks to his creativity, the country's best figures began to appear in films.

Sergei Eisenstein– creator of the film “Battleship Potemkin”, which later became a cult classic. A film theorist, he first began to use the technique of dynamic editing. He became the first in another matter, namely in the use of color in cinema. For example, this is how the red flag appeared in the film “Battleship Potemkin.”

Mikhail Romm– documentary film director, author of scientific works, teacher at VGIK. He took extraordinary pictures:

• "Nine Days of One Year";
• "Ordinary fascism."

His works received great public response. One of the best film theorists of the mid-20th century.

Andrei Tarkovsky– he shot in an art-house style, which greatly distinguished him from other directors. His famous movies“Solaris” and “Stalker” are filled with deep metaphors and pronounced personal meanings. His works are permeated with allegory and are somewhat akin to parables.

Great Artists

Andrey Rublev- famous icon painter. The founder of Russian painting. He painted many icons. His works are kept in churches, cathedrals, monasteries and art galleries. They are considered standards and samples of icon painting. The next generation of artists literally learned from his work.

Feofan the Greek– one of the best Russian artists. He was engaged in painting temples, including:

• Church of the Savior on Ilyin (Novgorod);
• Archangel Cathedral (Moscow, Kremlin);
• Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

He became famous as a noble icon painter, a deep connoisseur of iconography.

Ilya Repin- a great artist whose brushes include paintings that have become famous throughout the world:

• “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan”;
• "Barge Haulers on the Volga";
• "The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan."

His works are characterized by plot and an accurate depiction of the situation. Each painting captures the culmination of a life event. The canvases do not immediately reveal the essence. The details and feelings of the characters are very sharply drawn.

Kazimir Malevich– author of the acclaimed “Black Square”, modernist artist. I was looking for new ways to express the color spectrum in painting. His paintings contain geometric shapes and abstractions. I dreamed of finding “absolute peace” in works of art.

Composers

Pyotr Tchaikovsky- a professional composer, creating music was the meaning of his life. The themes of the works are vast, each piece evokes a response from any listener. The music is imbued with lyricism, melodiousness, and elements folk motifs. His ballets “The Nutcracker” and “Swan Lake” are performed in theaters all over the world.

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov– great opera composer, based on history and fairy tales (operas “The Snow Maiden”, “Three Miracles”). I thought that musical forms would unite the listener with the true nature of the world. In his arsenal of expressive means: true melody folk songs, particles of harmonies borrowed from buffoons. He was a gifted teacher and conductor.

Dmitry Shostakovich– composer Soviet period, who experimented a lot in music. He worked in all genres, including modern style. However, the opera “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk” was not approved by the head of state I.V. Stalin, after which the composer was subjected to repression. Creativity was limited by “state” preferences. But the subtext of the moods and meanings of symphonies No. 5 and No. 7 is clear to every listener.

Russian scientists

Kirik Novgorodets- a 12th-century scientist who conducted research in mathematics and astronomy. A chronicler and musician, he became the creator of the first Russian scientific treatise, “The Doctrine of Numbers.” Managed to calculate the smallest time period capable of being perceived. There is an assumption that he is the author of the work “Kirikov’s Questioning”.

Dmitriy Mendeleev- a talented scientist who created the periodic table of elements and the periodic law of chemical elements. Thanks to him, Russia, which exported kerosene from America, began to import petroleum products to Europe. The scientist developed oils from waste petroleum products and came up with the idea of ​​a new method of distilling oil.

Ivan Pavlov- a person who discovered the presence of reflexes in living organisms, which changed the content of physiology and biology. Received the Nobel Prize. Already dying, he described his feelings to his students so that science could study the mechanisms of human death.

Top athletes

Ivan Poddubny– Russian professional athlete, athlete, five-time champion in Greco-Roman wrestling, circus performer. Throughout my entire sports career, I have never been in the place of the loser in a sports competition. He was called the “Russian hero of the 20th century.”

Garry Kasparov- World chess champion, winner of the Chess Oscars. A master of combining various tactics and strategies, which made him one of the winners in failed games. The first moves were striking in their novelty and unusualness; they were called “Kasparov’s Openings.”

Lev Yashin– the best goalkeeper of the Soviet period, goalkeeper of the last century. Olympic champion, Honored Master of Sports, champion of Europe and the USSR. The only goalkeeper to have been awarded the Ballon d'Or.

Outstanding personalities in the history of Russia of all eras, a huge contribution has been made to the world treasury of science, culture, sports and government. Many of them changed the course of history, which had a beneficial effect on the evolution of mankind.

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Get to know famous sayings outstanding representatives of Russia about their Motherland.

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ANACREON - (c. 570 - 478 BC) - lyric poet of the mid-sixth century BC. Lived at the courts of Polycrates of Samos and Hipparchus in Athens. Information that has survived to this day says that the surviving fragments of lyrics are dedicated to love, feasts and worldly pleasures. The collection “Anacreontics,” written by later imitators, contributed to the development of so-called “Anacreontic poetry” more than the original; in particular, she provided big influence on young Pushkin. There is a full-length Roman copy of his statue in Athens.

ANAXAGORUS - (c. 500 - 428 BC) - philosopher from Klazomen (Asia Minor). He spread his teachings in Athens; enjoyed the favor of Pericles and Euripides. Only fragments of its main structure have survived to this day. philosophical work“On Nature,” which puts forward the doctrine of indestructible elements, infinitely divisible by nature, which anticipated the modern theory of infinite sets. Anaxagoras considered the origins to be indestructible “seeds” that form forms when combined according to the principle of similarity of qualities. The initial movement was set by Nous (Mind), which is a kind of thin and light matter; Anaxagoras recognized further development as purely mechanical, therefore, in his system there was no place left for gods and supernatural forces. The Sun, Moon, and stars were declared to be red-hot rock masses. It was precisely in atheism that Anaxagoras was accused; he was forced to leave Athens and move in 433 to Lapsak (Troad region), where he founded his school.

ARAT - (c. 310 - 245 BC) - poet, native of Cilicia; in Athens he studied Stoicism with Zeno, achieved the friendship of Callimachus, and since then lived at the court of the Macedonian kings. His most famous work is “Appearances,” a large astrological poem about stars and constellations, astral myths, and signs of nature (for which he used Hesiod’s “Theogony”). The poem contains wonderful descriptions Golden age and stormy sea; she had a great influence on Lucretius and Virgil. Its individual parts, translated by Cicero into Latin, were well known in the Middle Ages. There was also an ancient manuscript of Aratus, which formed the basis of Dürer's famous celestial map (1515), the first chart of the starry sky in which the star gods began to return to their classical image, instead of being depicted in medieval or even Arabian garb.

ARISTOTLE - (384 - 322 BC) - philosopher, scientist of all times, who was born in Thrace and studied with Plato. After Plato's death, he traveled around the eastern Mediterranean and lived for some time at the court of the Macedonian king Philip. II teacher of young Alexander the Great. In 335 he returned to Athens and founded the Lyceum, where he taught until his retirement a year before his death. His school was sometimes called peripathic, since learning took place during walks, under a covered gallery ( peripatos ). His works were collected and published in the first century BC. In form they appear to be outlines of lectures which covered every branch of science and philosophy known in his day. Later, the popularity of the Stoics and Epicureans prevailed, but Aristotle was rediscovered in the Middle Ages, largely through the work of Arab scholars such as Averroes and Avicenna, and in Latin translations were widely known especially after Thomas Aquinas incorporated Aristotle's philosophy into Catholic theology. Dante considered him “first among the knowers,” and all Western thinkers used the Aristotelian system of classification and terminology. The combination of a keen mind with exceptional observation, as well as the consistency of presentation of facts, is characteristic of all his works, whether he wrote about politics, ethics, physics or biology, and his main characteristic can be called “strongly developed common sense.” During the Renaissance, Aristotle's works were translated more than other ancient authors, since they provided common ground for scholastics and humanists. However, if Plato's highest flight of imagination became a revelation, then Aristotle identified himself with scholastic logic, condemned by Erasmus of Rotterdam, and his original works were forgotten or lost scientific significance. It is believed that the dramatic unity of time, place and action, which became the invariable rule of the French classicists, originates in Aristotle’s “Poetics”, but the philosopher himself does not form the rules, he only notices (based on the practice of the theater, of which he was an expert) when comparing epic and tragedy , that the first knows no boundaries in time, and the second “tries to stay within one revolution of the sun, or a little more.” He also pointed out that an epic can describe events taking place in different places, while a play is limited to a stage and a small number of actors. At the same time, he insisted on the “unity of plot.” Aristotle’s “Poetics” also contains a theory of catharsis, the essence of which is the cleansing effect of tragedy on the human soul by arousing compassion and fear in him.

ARISTOPHANES - (c. 445 - 385 BC) - ancient Greek poet and comedian. The only creator of the “ancient comedy” whose works have come down to us (out of forty, eleven). They illustrate his penchant for parody, satire, dramatic composition, and poetic sensuality. His comedies were notable for their topicality, touching on the personalities of Athenian politicians and politicians, contemporary poets and philosophers (for example, Socrates and the Sophists). The most famous of his plays in modern translation are “Wasps” (where the Athenians’ passion for litigiousness is ridiculed), “Clouds” (a parody of sophistic methods of education), “Frogs” (a fight against the innovations of Euripides). Aristophanes had a tremendous impact on the satirical literature of the Renaissance. Erasmus of Rotterdam, Rabelais, and later Racine and Fielding widely used the techniques of factual hyperbole and merciless grotesque.

ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTINE - (c. 257 - 180 BC) - head of the Library of Alexandria, an outstanding philologist. He wrote literary criticism about Homer and Gsiod, and was the first to collect and annotate editions of the works of Pindar, lyrical and tragic poets, and the comedies of Aristophanes. He also wrote a textbook on Greek grammar and dialectics, and introduced a system of accents and aspirations that were adapted in the Byzantine era and are still used in modern times. Greek. Aristophanes is also the founder of scientific lexicography.

ARCHIMEDES - (c. 287 - 212 BC) - scientist from Syracuse, great mathematician of the ancient world. He was educated in Alexandria and then returned to his homeland as an adviser to King Hiero II . Invented the catapult and grappling hook to help defend the city during siege. He died when the Romans took Syracuse. Archimedes calculated the value of the numberπ (the ratio of a circle to its diameter), and its name is associated with several fundamental laws of geometry and mechanics, such as the Archimedean wheel as a means of raising water; Archimedean problem - calculating the volume of a sphere. It is believed that he discovered this law in his bath, when, according to the law of King Hiero, he was thinking about how to determine whether the king’s crown was made of pure gold or whether silver was mixed in there. He ran outside and shouted: “I found it!” ("Eureka!"). His boastful statement, "Give me a fulcrum and I will move the earth," is often quoted as reflecting his belief that large masses can be moved by small forces. Archimedes himself designed a tombstone in the form of a sphere placed around a cylinder to perpetuate the mathematical discovery - the subject of his special pride, which is that the sphere occupies 2/3 of the volume of the cylinder. The works of Archimedes had a great influence on the development of mathematics in Europe in XVI - XVII centuries.

HERACLITUS - (c. 554 - 483 BC) - philosopher from Ephesus. He taught that everything came from fire and is in a state of constant change. Heraclitus was known for his mysterious sayings (hence why he received the nickname the Dark One) and criticism of the religious practices of the Greeks - funeral rites, idolatry, belief in dreams. Some fragments from the essay “On Nature” have been preserved. The world-famous phrase “everything flows, everything changes” belongs to Heraclitus.

HERODOTUS - (484 - 425 BC) - historian, “father of history.” From Halicarnassus he moved to Samos, and then to Athens; traveled extensively in Egypt, Eastern Europe and Asia. Died in Thurii (Southern Italy). Describing the war between the Greeks and Persians in his nine-volume History, Herodotus was the first to be critical of his sources and systematize the facts. Herodotus looked at the Greco-Persian War as a conflict between European and Eastern ideals. Herodotus used his observations made during his travels for anthropological and geographical digressions, and he dedicated an entire book to Egypt. There is a famous colorful episode when his fellow Greeks called him “the father of lies.” Herodotus was practically free from such prejudices: an understanding of the cultural diversity of peoples and a deep interest in individuals make Herodotus one of the most interesting ancient authors.

HIPPOCRATES- (c. 460 - 356 BC) - famous doctor, “father of medicine.” His school was located at the tomb of Asclepius on Kos, but he taught medicine throughout Greece. It is believed that Hippocrates was the first to single out medicine as an independent discipline and tried to rid it of superstitions by looking for natural causes diseases through scientific observations. It is unlikely that extensive medical writings The Hippocratic school was written personally by Hippocrates, but they all bear traces of his teaching. Even at the beginning of the nineteenth century, doctors used treatment methods and diets very close to those proposed by Hippocrates. To this day, there is a tradition that obliges young doctors to take the so-called “Hippocratic oath,” which formulates the basic ethical postulates of a doctor.

HOMER - the first great epic poet of Greece ( VIII in BC). The Greeks believed and still believe that the epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” were composed by the blind poet Homer. Seven Greek cities laid claim to being the poet's birthplace. At the same time, there is no reliable evidence about Homer, and in general it cannot be considered proven that both poems were created by the same person. Both poems contain ancient legends, “travelers' tales” and evidence of the Mycenaean era, and at the same time, the clarity of the plot and the relief of the characters of the heroes makes the “Iliad” and “Odyssey” unlike oral epic poems. One way or another, at the time of Pisistratus, both poems were already known in their final form. Apparently, the author of the Iliad was an Ionian and wrote the poem around 700 BC. on the rich material of Trojan legends. All the events of the Iliad take place over the course of several weeks, but it is assumed that the reader knows the entire prehistory of the Trojan War. It is possible that the Odyssey was written later by the same author. The relationships of the heroes of the Odyssey are more complicated, their characters are less “heroic” and more refined; the author shows his deep knowledge of the culture of the eastern Mediterranean countries. Although the connection between the two poems is close and it is possible that the Odyssey was intended as a continuation of the Iliad, the Odyssey still seems to be the more original work. Alexander the Great always carried The Iliad with him in a golden box. Beginning with VI century BC the so-called “sons of Homer” (rhapsodists) appeared - people who were legally granted the right to publicly recite Homer’s poems. As an introduction to such recitations, “Homeric hymns” were used, containing appeals to various gods.

Aristotle in his Poetics praises Homer as an epic poet and today we can say that no one had such a profound influence on Western European literature as Homer. Homer leads a group of the most famous pagans that Dante and Virgil meet on their way (The Divine Comedy, Inferno). Montaigne called Homer "equal to God." In modern times, major artists often turned to the image of Homer, for example: Raphael (“Parnassus”) and Ingres (“Apotheosis of Homer”). The Old Russian reader could find a mention of Homer (Omir, as Homer was called in Rus', following the Byzantine pronunciation) already in the “Life” of the first teacher Cyril, and read about the Trojan War in the Byzantine world chronicles translated already in the Kievan era. The first attempt at a poetic transcription of small fragments of Homer's poems belongs to Lomonosov.

Trediakovsky translated in hexameter - the same poetic meter that Homer used to write the novel by the French writer Fenelon “The Adventures of Telemachus”, written based on the “Odyssey”. Trediakovsky’s “Telemachida” contained a number of inserts - direct translations from ancient Greek. In the second half XVIII V. Homer's poems were translated by Yermil Kostrov. IN XIX V. classic translations of the Iliad by Gnedich and the Odyssey by Zhukovsky were made. Regarding Gnedich’s translation, Pushkin first wrote the following epigram in hexameter:

“Gnedich was a crooked poet, translator of blind Homer

Its translation is also similar to the example.”

Then Pushkin carefully erased this epigram:

“I hear the silent sound of the divine Hellenic speech,

I feel the shadow of the great old man with my troubled soul.”

Homer's poetic comparisons are such that as soon as the author makes a faint hint, the whole figurative picture builds itself. Homer uses this technique especially masterfully in the Iliad, when a seemingly insignificant detail introduced into an epic narrative can suddenly change its tone. For example, Homer’s Zeus weighs all the arguments that determine the outcome of the war in the same way as a poor spinner weighs wool on hand scales; Achilles compares the sobbing Patroclus with a crying girl who has not yet learned to walk and is unable to rise from the ground on her own. Homer compares the huge Greek armies to a forest fire, to flocks of swans, to clouds of insects circling around a bucket of milk in a barn. Many Homeric images passed into the literature of later eras: for example, comparison human soul, waiting for Charon, transporting souls across the Styx to the kingdom of the dead, with a fallen autumn leaf, after Homer we find in Virgil, Dante and Milton. Russian literature is also saturated with Homeric images: just remember Mandelstam:

"Insomnia, Homer, tight sails

I read the list of ships halfway through.....”

HESIOD - (XVIII - XVII centuries BC) - the first historically reliable Greek poet, possibly living around 700 BC. In Askra (Boeotia), Hesiod had a small estate located on the slopes of Mount Helicon. There, according to Hesiod, he was visited by the Muses while he tended his sheep. Hesiod's father came from Ionia. Hesiod was in litigation with his brother Persian over his father's inheritance. We know these biographical details from the poem “Works and Days,” addressed to Persian. This is a wonderful piece of work full of descriptions peasant life, personal experiences and subtle humor. “Works and Days” uses the myths of PANDORA and the GOLDEN AGE. In Theogony (The Origin of the Gods), Hesiod attempts to present in a systematic form the genealogy of the Olympian gods and to reconstruct the events preceding the seizure of the supreme region by Zeus. Hesiod’s “Theogony” served as the basis for the further development of mythology. Fragments from “The Shield of Hercules” and “Eoia” (a catalog of women - ancestors of noble families), attributed to Hesiod - are of later origin. The didactic fragments of Virgil’s “Georgics” were written under the direct influence of “Works and Days” and even contain direct linguistic borrowings from Hesiod. According to later legends about the competition between Homer and Hesiod, the latter was awarded winning prize.

DEMOCRITES - (c. 460 - 370 BC) - philosopher from Abdera in Thrace. Not a single one of his works, covering many areas of science, has survived to this day. In ethics he was the predecessor of Epicurus and the later materialists. However, Democritus is primarily known in connection with the development of atomic theory, which he studied with Leucippus. Democritus believed that all bodies are formed as a result of random collisions and “sticking together” of tiny indivisible homogeneous particles, and that other worlds are constantly being formed as a result of spontaneous movements in universe. Democritus was popularly nicknamed the “laughing philosopher,” and Juvenal said that he was always amused by the stupidity of people.

DEMOSTHENES - (c. 384 - 322 BC) - Athenian orator and statesman, was considered the greatest Greek orator for his political insight and stylistic mastery. Popular story that he struggled with a lack of pronunciation, coming to the seashore and trying to shout above the noise of the waves with his mouth full of stones, is undoubtedly a later invention. Demosthenes earned his reputation through speeches during civil litigation, and many of his speeches survive. He then began his political career by constantly attacking the increasingly powerful Philip II Macedonian, in whom he saw a threat not only to Athens, but also to the freedom of all Greek city-states. His “philippics” are directed against Philip, and his most famous speech is “On the Crown” ( De corona ) under the pretext of defending a certain Ctesiphon, accused of illegally presenting a golden wreath to Demosthenes, is actually his justification own policy and an attack on those who would prefer peace with Macedonia. Cicero took the name "philippics" for his indictments against Mark Antony.

EURIPIDES - (c. 480 - 406 BC) - last of the three great Athenian playwrights; 19 of his 92 works have reached us. He was an innovator of traditional Attic drama: for example, the chorus in Euripides is often a commentator rather than a participant in the action, and the characters conduct conversations in modern language, he is deeply interested female psychology(Medea, Phaedra). He was criticized for belittling the tragedy, rationalism, and obvious obscenity. Served as the object of brilliant folk for Aristophanes (“Frogs”). Irritated by the lack of significant success in Athens, in 408. Euripides moves to Thessaly and then to Macedonia, where he creates the Bacchae and dies at the court of King Archelaus. After his death, he becomes the most popular playwright, whose plays are often staged. He is the author of beautiful lyrical poems; Aristotle calls him the most "tragic among poets." Milton, citing Plutarch, cites a legend according to which the Spartans spared Athens in 404 BC after hearing the singing of the choir in Electra.

ICTIN - (V V. BC) is an architect about whom almost nothing is known, except that he, together with the architect Callicrates and the sculptor Phidias, built the Parthenon from 448 to 437 BC. Ictinus also rebuilt the Hall of Mysteries (Telesterion) at Eleusis. It is possible that he built the temple of Apollo at Bassae (Phygalia). There are indications that Pericles commissioned Ictinus to build the Odeon (concert hall) on the Athenian agora (meeting area). Currently, only the foundation of this building has been preserved.

ISOCRATES - (436 - 338 BC) - Athenian orator. Not only Isocrates' judicial speeches were famous, but also his political pamphlets. Isocrates advocated an enlightened monarchy and spoke of the need to unite the entire Hellenic world in the face of the danger of Persian expansion. However, Isocrates failed either to moderate the ambitions of the Macedonian king Philip or to achieve the unification of the Greek states. According to legend, Isocrates committed suicide after the defeat of the Greeks at Chaeronea.

XENOPHANES - (c. 570 - 480 BC) - poet and philosopher. Fleeing from the Persians, he left his native Colophon and wandered until he settled in Elea (Southern Italy); ridiculed the anthropomorphism of traditional mythology, mainly in the interpretation of Homer and Hesiod. Several fragments of his pantheistic works have survived. He taught the relativity of religious ideas and the impossibility of adequate knowledge of God, but he had a deep faith in the universal divine spirit, intelligently governing the world; and he may be called the first philosophical theologian who exerted a significant influence on the subsequent Eleatic philosophers.

XENOPHON - (c. 428 - 354 BC) - historian. In his youth, a follower of Socrates, who is depicted in his Memoirs, Apology and Symposium. He later admired Cyrus the Elder and the Spartan king Agiselaus and wrote idealized biographies of both. He spent most of his life on his estate near Olympia, granted to him by the authorities of Sparta for his participation in the campaign against Thebes. He wrote widely on various subjects, and his treatises on hunting and estate management, horsemanship and finance are still of great importance, as are his two main historical works: Greek History and Anabasis, an account of the Persian campaign and adventures of a ten-thousand-strong detachment led by Cyrus the Younger.

PERICLES - Athenian military leader and statesman, who from 460. until his death (in 429 BC during a plague epidemic) he was the first person in Athens. Thus, Pericles led the politics of Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War and during the reorganization of the alliance created to protect against possible attack by the Persians. Pericles was a right-wing democrat, in contrast, for example, to such a radical democrat as Cleon. With enormous authority and popularity, he had many enemies. Thucydides admired Pericles and conveyed his views on the political structure of Athens in the second book of his History. The biography of Pericles is given by Plutarch in parallel with the biography of Fabius Cuntaktor. Thanks to Pericles, remarkable structures were erected Athens Acropolis. Pericles' friendship with the sculptor Phidias, the tragedian Sophocles and the philosopher Anaxagoras is well known.

PYTHAGORAS- ( OK. 540 - 500 BC) - philosophers and mathematician. He was born in Samos and subsequently, after traveling to Egypt and Babylon, lived in Crotone, in southern Italy. There Pythagoras became the leader of an ascetic community, which included both men and women, who considered Pythagoras to be the Hyperborean Apollo.

Pythagoras was a strict vegetarian and developed the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and their purification through the process of reincarnation, which had a significant influence on Plato and Empedocles. Pythagoras also determined the basic musical intervals and believed that celestial bodies obey similar laws of harmony. This concept of “music of the spheres” is reflected in Plato’s Timaeus. The works of Pythagoras have not reached us (we know the so-called “Pythagorean theorem” primarily from Euclid’s “Elements”), and it is very difficult to figure out which of the many legends about Pythagoras are based on actual facts. Valuable information about Pythagoras can be gleaned from the works of Plato and Aristotle, and also, quite unexpectedly, from last book“Metamorphoses” of Ovid - in it Pythagoras expounds his doctrine of the transmigration of souls to Numa Pompilius, who, if he really was the second Roman king after Romulus, should, according to traditional chronology, have lived 150 years earlier than Pythagoras.

PLATO - (c. 427 - 347 BC) - philosopher from Athens, student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. Almost all of Plato's works have come down to us, including the Apology of Socrates, twenty-five dialogues, most of which involve Socrates, and letters (not all of which are authentic). The Apology of Socrates is an attempt to rehabilitate Socrates, who was executed on charges of dishonor. Plato's early dialogues introduce Socrates, who taught that Knowledge and Virtue are one and the same thing: indeed, in order to behave correctly, you need to know what is actually good, and, conversely, you can find out what is good with correct behavior. From here Plato develops his theory of Ideas (Forms); according to Plato, above the changing sensory world things, there is a world of eternal, unchanging Ideas, at the top of which is the Idea of ​​Good (“goodness”). The dialogue “The State,” written in ten books, presents an ideal model of a society in which a few rulers - philosophers who know what the Good really is, that is, what is really good and right, rule all other people who are unable to tear themselves away from the sensual illusory world and therefore having only the most distant idea of ​​the Good. Plato's philosophical views were deeply influenced by the Pythagoreans, whom he met during his travels in Greece; in particular, it was from the Pythagoreans that Plato adopted the use of mythological images to demonstrate their philosophical considerations.

In an olive grove near Athens, Plato founded his school - the Academy. The Academy existed until 529. (almost a thousand years!), when its activities were prohibited by Justinian. Plato did not want to remain a pure theorist and strove to actually implement the form he had conceived government structure. To do this, Plato decided to teach the Syracuse tyrant Dion philosophy, so that he would become a philosopher-ruler in practice and be able to carry out the necessary reforms. This and subsequent similar attempts almost cost Plato his life, and then he created his “Laws,” which set out not only the principles of an ideal state structure, but also all the details of the intended social system, often striking in its inhumanity and cruelty. In general, Plato's state with a clear caste system, socialized property and censorship can rightfully be called totalitarian.

Plato's moral philosophy had a significant influence on Roman thinkers, especially Cicero, and after XV V. Florentine Marsilio Ficino translated Plato's works from Greek into Latin, Plato's influence on the entire Western culture became truly enormous. In Florence under the patronage Lorenzo Medici The Platonic Academy was created, whose followers reconciled Plato’s cosmogonic views with Christian theology. IN XIX V. Plato's views influenced the concept of classical education, while Nietzsche considered Platonism a philosophy of decadence, replacing true reality with fictional reality.

PLUTARCH - (c. 46 - c. 126) - essayist and biographer. Born in Chaeronea, studied in Athens, was a priest of Apollo Pythian in Delphi, traveled to Egypt, Italy, lived in Rome. It has reached us most of Plutarch’s works devoted to scientific, moral and literary issues, the most famous of them are “Morals” and “Comparative Lives”; the latter compares Greek and Roman military and statesmen in pairs. Plutarch does not recognize the determinism of actions, therefore his secondary goal is to analyze certain actions of the character he is considering, their relationship with nature, in the origins of which the circumstances of life are, as it were, encoded. The works of Plutarch are an invaluable document of the era, which had a tremendous influence on Renaissance humanism. Montaigne, Shakespeare, and the German classics owe their inspiration to Plutarch.

SAPFO - (born c. 612 BC) - lyric poetess from Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, modern Alcaea. Around Sappho a group of noble women and girls formed who devoted themselves to Aphrodite. In her poems, sometimes elegant and graceful, sometimes full of painful passion, Sappho expressed to her friends the feelings that overwhelmed her, and this is where the modern expressions “lesbian love” and “lesbian” came from. Very little is known about Sappho’s life - Alcaeus’s unsuccessful matchmaking or the story of her unhappy love for Phaon are most likely fictional. According to this legend, Sappho committed suicide by throwing herself into the sea from a cliff on the island of Leucadia - such jumps were considered ritual within the local cult of Apollo. Sappho wrote poetry in the Aeolian dialect, using a variety of meters, including the famous “sapphic stanza.” Extant fragments of seven books of Sappho's poems, rewritten by Horace, include hymns to the gods, wedding songs and love lyrics. The artistic richness of Sappho's verse, combined with its directness and frankness, place Sappho among the greatest poets.

SOCRATES - (c. 469 - 399 BC) - philosopher, son of a stone cutter and a midwife, husband of Xantipa, whose name became a household name because of her bad temper. In his youth, Socrates served in the army and took part in the fight against the Thirty Tyrants. Socrates believed that the Delphic Oracle entrusted him with the responsibility of finding out the truth by asking people for their opinions on various issues - Socrates called himself a “midwife,” forcing people to think and come to conclusions that were often unexpected for themselves. Socrates himself wrote nothing, and we can judge him mainly from the dialogues between Plato and Xenophon, in which he was involved as the director of the controversy.

Socrates believed that philosophy should not be divorced from human life and that a good person must definitely figure out what is really good and what is bad - otherwise he cannot be considered good (“Virtue is identical to Knowledge”). Thus, Socrates did not accept ready-made ways to achieve life success, which were proposed by the Sophists. The personality of Socrates attracted many of his contemporaries - among his students there were such different people like Plato and Alcibiades. The expression "Platonic love" refers to an episode from Plato's Symposium when Alcibiades talks about his innocent relationship with Socrates. Aristophanes mocked Socrates in the comedy "Clouds", not distinguishing him from the sophists. At the same time, the numerous snub-nosed busts of Socrates are not caricatures: the philosopher’s unsightly appearance is often mentioned by his contemporaries. David in the painting “The Death of Socrates” gave the sage a more heroic appearance than he actually had. Nietzsche anathematized Socrates, believing that he overestimated the rational basis of human life and Western culture in general. Despite this, Socrates will always destroy our cozy but unfounded complacency.

SOLON - (c. 640 - 560 BC) - Athenian statesman and legislator, elected archon in 594 and given extraordinary powers to end civil unrest, Solon really put an end to anarchy by carrying out his famous reforms: with With the help of a law prohibiting borrowing without the appropriate legal registration of this fact, he declared invalid all debts made earlier and thus destroyed the developed serfdom. Solon also made changes to the laws introduced by Draco, strictly defining the duties of the People's Assembly and creating the Council of Four Hundred - a state body of representatives of all Athenian phyla, the decisions of which were submitted to the People's Assembly for consideration. In addition, Solon is the first famous Athenian poet; he wrote mainly on political and patriotic themes; some fragments of his poetry survive. In the second half of his life, Solon traveled extensively throughout Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor. In Lydia, Solon saw Croesus, prophetically noting to him that no one could say that he had lived a happy life before the day of death. This thought subsequently so struck the Persian king Cyrus that he spared the life of the captive Croesus, who conveyed to him Solon’s phrase. Subsequently, Solon was ranked among the Seven Sages.

SOPHOCLES - (496 - 406 BC) - a brilliant Athenian tragedian, friend of Herodotus and Pericles. Sophocles wrote 123 dramas, of which seven tragedies have survived: “Ajax”, “Antigone”, “Oedipus the King”, “The Trachinian Women”, “Electra”, “Philoctetes”, “Oedipus in the Column” and fragments of the satyr dramas “The Pathfinders” and "The kidnapping of cows by the boy Hermes." Sophocles was an innovator: he did not always follow the classical trilogy form and introduced a third actor onto the stage. Sophocles' skill was manifested both in his ability to organize the dialogue of the characters and in the choice of the plot line. Sophocles is known for his peculiar dramatic irony - the character, according to the author's plan, himself does not realize the true - hidden meaning of the words he pronounces, while the audience understands him perfectly. Because of this skillful “inconsistency”, psychological tension arises - the beginning of catharsis. This effect is especially pronounced in the tragedy “Oedipus the King.”

Sophocles is admired by Aristotle in “Poetics” and says that his characters are very similar to real people, only better than them. According to Aristotle, Sophocles depicts people as they should be, while Euripides depicts them as they really are. A volume of Sophocles was found in the pocket of the drowned Shelley.

STRABO - (c. 63 - 20 BC) - historian and geographer from the Pontic city of Amasea. He was rich enough to travel extensively throughout Asia Minor and Egypt and visit Rome several times. Strabo’s huge work “Historical Commentaries” in 47 books has been almost completely lost, however, his “Geography” in 17 books has reached us in full. In addition to valuable geographical information about the lands of the Roman Empire, Strabo’s “Geography” contains remarkable content in which the author talks about the importance of geography as a science. Strabo owes a lot to the Alexandrian geographer Erastophenes (c. 275 - 194 BC) and, in particular, shares his opinion about the sphericity of the Earth, however, Strabo’s political geography, which contains rich historical and mythographic material, is of greater interest not the physical, but the political one .

THALES - (c. 625 - 547 BC) - philosopher from Miletus, representative of Ionic natural philosophy. He tried to determine the basis of the material world and decided that it was water. Thales considered matter to be animate. Herodotus claims that Thales predicted solar eclipse, which was observed on May 28, 585 BC. Thales traveled a lot, visited Egypt, where he studied the causes of the Nile floods; he found a way to measure the height of the pyramids. Thales was considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece.

PHIDIAS - (c. 490 - 415 BC) - Athenian sculptor who worked in bronze, bone with gold and marble. The only original sculptures of Phidias that have come down to us, made by himself or under his direction by his students, are the marble figures from the Athenian Parthenon (Elgin Marbles). Copies of some of Phidias' works have also reached us - for example, the statue of the Virgin Athena. Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to imagine what it was like famous statue Zeus by Phidias, which Pausanias saw at Olympia; it burned down in Constantinople in a fire in 475 BC. There are also no copies of Phidias Athena Promachos (“Victorious”), who stood on the Propylaea of ​​the Acropolis (its height reached 17 m), but a copy of the statue of Athena, located on the island of Lemnos, has survived to this day (one of them is now in Dresden). It is known that in 432 Phidias was expelled from Athens by political opponents of Pericles and he may have died in exile.

THUCYDIDES - (c. 460 - 396 BC) - historian, military leader during the Peloponnesian War. In 424, after defeat in the Battle of Amphipolis, he was exiled from Athens to Thrace for twenty years. His “History of the Peloponnesian War” consists of eight books, the last one ending with the events of 411. (further exposition continued by Xenophon). Thucydides was the first of the historians to begin to consider historical events in an organic relationship with the main driving forces and paths of development, and to evaluate the harmful impact of wars on the national character. He writes his stories concisely, expressively, in clear Greek.

But his long speeches, which serve as a means of analyzing public opinion and the consequences of disagreement, are too abstract and difficult to understand. Most famously, his dialogue discusses the moral right of a strong central authority to use force against unwilling allies if the military situation and advantage require it; and detailed speeches by Pericles that make a compelling case for Athens' contribution to civilization. Thucydides was famous during the Renaissance for Latin translation Lorenzo Valla, and English - Hobs.

AESCHYLUS - (c. 525 - 456 BC) - great Athenian tragedian. The author of at least 79 works, of which only 7 have come down to us: “The Persians”, “The Entreaties”, “Seven Against Thebes”, “Chained Prometheus”, and the “Oresteia” trilogy, including the tragedies “Agamemnon”, “Choephori”, "Eumenides". Aeschylus took part in the battles of Marathon and Salamis against the Persians; the story of his death, which happened because an eagle threw a turtle on the bald head of Aeschylus. Looks like a legend. Aeschylus is the eldest of the founders of Greek drama; he introduced a second actor, which made the dramatic dialogue and action independent of the chorus. All of Aeschylus's plays are permeated with a strong religious feeling; they are based on the conflict between human passions and God's providence; already during his lifetime, Aeschylus was famous for his sublime metaphor and archaic style, which caused the ridicule of Aristophanes and the delight of Shelley.

Antropov Alexey Petrovich(1716-1795) - Russian painter. Antropov's portraits are distinguished by their connection with the Parsuna tradition, the truthfulness of their characteristics, and the painting techniques of the Baroque.

Argunov Ivan Petrovich(1729-1802) - Russian serf portrait painter. Author of representative ceremonial and chamber portraits.

Argunov Nikolay Ivanovich(1771-1829) - Russian serf portrait painter, who experienced the influence of classicism in his work. Author famous portrait P. I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova.

Bazhenov Vasily Ivanovich(1737-1799) - the largest Russian architect, one of the founders of Russian classicism. Author of the project for the reconstruction of the Kremlin, the romantic palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyn, the Pashkov House in Moscow, and the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. His projects were distinguished by boldness of composition, diversity of ideas, creative use and combination of traditions of world classical and ancient Russian architecture.

Bering Vitus Ionassen (Ivan Ivanovich)(1681-1741) - navigator, captain-commander of the Russian fleet (1730). Leader of the 1st (1725-1730) and 2nd (1733-1741) Kamchatka expeditions. He passed between the Chukotka Peninsula and Alaska (the strait between them now bears his name), reached North America and discovered a number of islands in the Aleutian chain. A sea, a strait and an island in the North Pacific Ocean are named after Bering.

Borovikovsky Vladimir Lukich(1757-1825) - Russian portrait painter. His works are characterized by features of sentimentalism, a combination of decorative subtlety and elegance of rhythms with a faithful portrayal of character (portrait of M. I. Lopukhina, etc.).

Volkov Fedor Grigorievich(1729-1763) - Russian actor and theatrical figure. In 1750 he organized an amateur troupe in Yaroslavl (actors - I. A. Dmitrevsky, Ya. D. Shumsky), on the basis of which in 1756 the first permanent professional Russian public theater was created in St. Petersburg. He himself played in a number of Sumarokov’s tragedies.

Derzhavin Gavrila Romanovich (1743-1816) - Russian poet. Representative of Russian classicism. The author of solemn odes imbued with the idea of ​​a strong Russian statehood, which included satire on nobles, landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections- “Felitsa”, “Nobleman”, “Waterfall”. Author of many lyrical poems.

Kazakov Matvey Fedorovich(1738-1812) - an outstanding Russian architect, one of the founders of Russian classicism. In Moscow, he developed types of urban residential buildings and public buildings that organize large urban spaces: the Senate in the Kremlin (1776-1787); Moscow University (1786-1793); Golitsyn (1st City) Hospital (1796-1801); house-estate of Demidov (1779-1791); Petrovsky Palace (1775-1782), etc. He showed special talent in interior design (the building of the Assembly of the Nobility in Moscow). Supervised the compilation master plan Moscow. Created an architectural school.

Kantemir Antioch Dmitrievich(1708-1744) - Russian poet, diplomat. Enlightenment rationalist. One of the founders of Russian classicism in the genre of poetic satire.

Quarenghi Giacomo(1744-1817) - Russian architect of Italian origin, representative of classicism. He worked in Russia since 1780. The Concert Hall pavilion (1786) and the Alexander Palace (1792-1800) in Tsarskoe Selo, the Assignation Bank (1783-1790), and the Hermitage Theater (1783-1787) are distinguished by their monumentality and severity of forms, and the plastic completeness of the image. ), Smolny Institute (1806-1808) in St. Petersburg.

Krasheninnikov Stepan Petrovich(1711-1755) - Russian traveler, explorer of Kamchatka, academician St. Petersburg Academy Sciences (1750). Member of the 2nd Kamchatka Expedition (1733-1743). Compiled the first “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (1756).

Kulibin Ivan Petrovich(1735-1818) - an outstanding Russian self-taught mechanic. Author of many unique mechanisms. Improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments. Developed a project and built a model of a single-arch bridge across the river. Neva with a span of 298 m. Created a prototype of a searchlight ("mirror lantern"), semaphore telegraph, palace elevator, etc.

Laptev Khariton Prokofievich(1700-1763) - captain of the 1st rank. Surveyed in 1739--1742. coast from the river Lena to the river Khatanga and the Taimyr Peninsula.

Levitsky Dmitry Grigorievich(1735-1822) - Russian painter. In compositionally spectacular ceremonial portraits, solemnity is combined with the vitality of images, colorful richness ("Kokorinov", 1769-1770; a series of portraits of students of the Smolny Institute, 1773-1776); intimate portraits are deeply individual in characteristics, restrained in color (“M. A. Dyakova”, 1778). In the later period, he partly accepted the influence of classicism (portrait of Catherine II, 1783).

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich(1711-1765) - the first world-class Russian encyclopedist scientist, poet. Founder of modern Russian literary language. Artist. Historian. Activist of public education and science. Studying took place at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow (from 1731), the Academic University in St. Petersburg (from 1735), in Germany (1736-1741), from 1742 - adjunct, from 1745 - the first Russian academician of the St. Petersburg Academy Sci. Member of the Academy of Arts (1763).

Maikov Vasily Ivanovich(1728-1778) - Russian poet. Author of the poems "The Ombre Player" (1763), "Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus" (1771), "Moral Fables" (1766^1767).

Polzunov Ivan Ivanovich (1728-1766) - Russian heating engineer, one of the inventors of the heat engine. In 1763 he developed a project for a universal steam engine. In 1765 he created the first steam and thermal power plant in Russia for factory needs, which worked for 43 days. He died before its test run.

Popovsky Nikolay Nikitich(1730-1760) - Russian educator, philosopher and poet. Professor at Moscow University (since 1755). Supporter and one of the ideologists of enlightened absolutism.

Rastrelli Bartolomeo Carlo(1675-1744) - sculptor. Italian. Since 1716 - in the service in St. Petersburg, His works are characterized by baroque pomp and splendor, the ability to convey the texture of the depicted material ("Empress Anna Ioannovna with a Little Arab", 1733-1741).

Rastrelli Varfolomey Varfolomeevich(1700-1771) - an outstanding Russian architect, representative of the Baroque. Son of B.K. Rastrelli. His works are characterized by a grandiose spatial scope, clarity of volumes, rigor of rectilinear plans combined with the plasticity of masses, the richness of sculptural decoration and color, and whimsical ornamentation. The largest works are the Smolny Monastery (1748-1754) and Winter Palace(1754-1762) in St. Petersburg, Grand Palace in Peterhof (1747-1752), Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (1752-1757).

Rokotov Fedor Stepanovich(1735-1808) - Russian painter. Subtle in painting, deeply poetic portraits are imbued with an awareness of the spiritual and physical beauty of a person (“Unknown Woman in a Pink Dress,” 1775; “V. E. Novosiltsova,” 1780, etc.).

Sumarokov Alexander Petrovich(1717-1777) - Russian writer, one of the prominent representatives of classicism. In the tragedies "Khorev" (1747), "Sinav and Truvor" (1750) and others, he raised the problem of civic duty. Author of many comedies, fables, and lyrical songs.

Tatishchev Vasily Nikitich(1686-1750) - Russian historian, statesman. He managed state-owned factories in the Urals and was the governor of Astrakhan. Author of many works on ethnography, history, geography. The largest and most famous work is “Russian History from Ancient Times.”

Trediakovsky Vasily Kirillovich(1703-1768) - Russian poet, philologist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1745-1759). In his work “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems” (1735), he formulated the principles of Russian syllabic-tonic versification. Poem "Tilemakhida" (1766).

Trezzini Domenico(1670-1734) - Russian architect, representative of the early Baroque. Swiss by nationality. In Russia since 1703 (invited to participate in the construction of St. Petersburg). Built summer palace Peter I (1710-1714), St. Peter and Paul in the Peter and Paul Fortress (1712-1733), the building of 12 colleges (1722-1734) in St. Petersburg.

Felten Yuri Matveevich(1730-1801) - Russian architect, representative of early classicism. Author of the Old Hermitage (1771-1787), fences Summer Garden(1771-1784) in St. Petersburg. Participated in the construction of granite embankments of the Neva (since 1769).

Kheraskov Mikhail Matveevich(1733-1807) - Russian writer. Author of the famous epic poem "Rossiyada" (1779), written in the spirit of classicism.

Shelikhov (Shelekhov) Grigory Ivanovich(1747-1795) - Russian merchant, pioneer. In 1775 created a company for fur and trapping in the northern Pacific Islands and Alaska. Founded the first Russian settlements in Russian America. Conducted significant geographical research. On the basis of the company created by Shelikhov, the Russian-American Company was formed in 1799.

Shubin Fedot Ivanovich(1740-1805) - outstanding Russian sculptor. Representative of classicism. He created a gallery of psychologically expressive sculptural portraits (busts of A. M. Golitsyn, 1775; M. R. Panina, 1775;

I. G. Orlova, 1778; M. V. Lomonosov, 1792, etc.).

Yakhontov Nikolay Pavlovich(1764-1840) - Russian composer. Author of one of the first Russian operas, “Sylph, or the Dream of a Young Woman.”

It replaced the Middle Ages and lasted until the Enlightenment. It is of great importance in the history of Europe. It is distinguished by a secular type of culture, as well as humanism and anthropocentrism (man comes first). Renaissance figures also changed their views.

basic information

Formed new culture thanks to changing social relations in Europe. It was especially affected by the fall of the Byzantine state. Many Byzantines immigrated to European countries, and with them they brought a huge amount of works of art. All this was unfamiliar and Cosimo de Medici, impressed, created Plato’s Academy in Florence.

The spread of city-republics entailed the growth of classes that were far from feudal relations. These included artisans, bankers, merchants, and so on. They did not take into account the medieval values ​​that were formed by the church. As a result of this, humanism was formed. This concept refers to a philosophical direction that considers a person as the highest value.

Secular scientific and research centers began to form in many countries. Their difference from the medieval ones was their separation from the church. A big shift was made by the invention of printing in the 15th century. Thanks to this, outstanding figures of the Renaissance began to appear more and more often.

Formation and blossoming

The Renaissance came first in Italy. Here its signs began to appear back in the 13th and XIV centuries. However, it failed to gain popularity then, and only in the 20s of the 15th century was it able to gain a foothold. The Renaissance spread to other European countries much later. It was at the end of the century that this movement flourished.

The next century became a crisis for the Renaissance. The result was the emergence of Mannerism and Baroque. The entire Renaissance is divided into four periods. Each of them is represented by its own culture and art.

Proto-Renaissance

It is a transitional period from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. It can be divided into two stages. The first continued during Giotto's lifetime, the second after his death (1337). The first was filled with great discoveries; during this period they created brightest figures Renaissance. The second ran parallel to the deadly plague that tormented Italy.

Renaissance artists of this period expressed their skills primarily in sculpture. Particularly noteworthy are Arnolfo di Cambio, Andrea Pisano, as well as Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano. Painting of that time is represented by two schools, which were located in Siena and Florence. Giotto played a huge role in the painting of that period.

Renaissance figures (artists), in particular Giotto, began to touch upon secular themes in their paintings in addition to religious ones.

In literature, a revolution was made by Dante Alighieri, who created the famous “Comedy”. However, descendants, admiring it, called it “The Divine Comedy.” The sonnets of Petrarch (1304-1374), written during that period, gained enormous popularity, and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), author of the Decameron, became his follower.

The most famous figures of the Renaissance became the creators of language. The works of these writers gained fame beyond the borders of their native state during their lifetime, and were subsequently ranked among the treasures of world literature.

Early Renaissance period

This period lasted eighty years (1420-1500). The figures of the Early Renaissance did not abandon the familiar recent past, but began to resort to the classics of antiquity in their works. Gradually they moved from medieval principles to ancient ones. This transition was influenced by changes in life and culture.

In Italy, the principles of classical antiquity were already fully manifested, while in other states they still adhered to the traditions of the Gothic style. Only by the middle of the 15th century did the Renaissance penetrate into Spain and north of the Alps.

In painting, first of all, they began to show the beauty of a person. The early period is mainly represented by the works of Botticelli (1445-1510), as well as Masaccio (1401-1428).

A particularly famous sculptor of that period is Donatello (1386-1466). The portrait type predominated in his works. Donatello also created a nude sculpture for the first time since antiquity.

The most important figure of that period was Brunelleschi (1377-1446). He managed to combine ancient Roman and Gothic styles in his works. He was engaged in the construction of chapels, temples and palaces. He also returned elements of ancient architecture.

High Renaissance period

This time marked the heyday of the Renaissance (1500-1527). Center Italian art located in Rome, and not in the usual Florence. The reason for this was the newly appointed Pope Julius II. He had an enterprising and decisive character; during his time on the papal throne, the best cultural figures of the Renaissance came to court.

The construction of the most magnificent buildings began in Rome, sculptors create numerous masterpieces that are pearls of world art in our time. Frescoes and paintings are being painted that fascinate with their beauty. All these branches of art are developing, helping each other.

The study of antiquity is becoming more and more profound. The culture of that period is being reproduced with increasing accuracy. At the same time, the calmness of the Middle Ages is replaced by playfulness in painting. Nevertheless, the figures of the Renaissance, the list of which is extensive, borrow only some elements of antiquity, and create the basis themselves. Each has its own distinctive features.

Leonardo Da Vinci

The most famous figure of the Renaissance is, perhaps, Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519). This is the most versatile personality that period. He studied painting, music, sculpture, and science. During his life, Da Vinci was able to invent many things that have become firmly established in our lives today (bicycle, parachute, tank, and so on). Sometimes his experiments ended in failure, but this happened because some inventions, one might say, were ahead of their time.

Most people know him, of course, thanks to the painting "Mona Lisa". Many scientists are still looking for various secrets in it. Leonardo left behind several students.

Late Renaissance period

Became the final stage in the Renaissance (from 1530 to 1590-1620, but some scholars extend it to 1630, because of this there is constant controversy).

In Southern Europe at that time, a movement began to emerge (the Counter-Reformation), the goal of which was to restore the greatness of the Catholic Church and the Christian faith. All chanting human body were unacceptable to him.

Numerous contradictions resulted in a crisis of ideas beginning to emerge. As a result of the instability of religion, the figures of the Renaissance began to lose the harmony between nature and man, between the physical and the spiritual. The result was the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Revival in Russia

The culture of the Renaissance influenced our country in some areas. However, its impact was limited by a fairly large distance, as well as by the attachment of Russian culture to Orthodoxy.

The first ruler to pave the way for the Renaissance in Russia was Ivan III, who during his time on the throne began to invite Italian architects. With their arrival, new elements and construction technologies appeared. However, there was no huge revolution in architecture.

In 1475, an Italian architect was involved in the restoration of the Assumption Cathedral. He adhered to the traditions of Russian culture, but added space to the project.

TO XVII century Due to the influence of the Renaissance, Russian icons acquire realism, but at the same time, artists follow all ancient canons.

Soon Rus' was able to master printing. However, it became especially widespread only in the 17th century. Many technologies that appeared in Europe were quickly brought to Russia, where they were improved and became part of traditions. For example, in accordance with one of the hypotheses, vodka was imported from Italy, its formula was subsequently refined, and in 1430 the Russian version of this drink appeared.

Conclusion

The Renaissance gave the world many gifted artists, researchers, scientists, sculptors, and architects. From huge amount Names can be distinguished by those that are most famous and glorified.

Philosophers and scientists:

• Bruno.
• Galileo.
• Pico della Mirandola.
• Nikolai Kuzansky.
• Machiavelli.
• Campanella.
• Paracelsus.
• Copernicus.
• Münzer.

Writers and poets:

• F. Petrarch.
• Dante.
• G. Boccaccio.
• Rabelais.
• Cervantes.
• Shakespeare.
• E. Rotterdamsky.

Architects, painters and sculptors:

• Donatello.
• Leonardo da Vinci.
• N. Pisano.
• A. Rosselino.
• S. Botticelli.
• Raphael.
• Michelangelo.
• Bosch.
• Titian.
• A. Durer.

Of course, this is only a small part of the figures of the Renaissance, but it was these people who became its personification for many.