How does scientific observation differ from everyday observation? What is the difference between experience and experiment.

Observation method. Observation stages

Observation is carried out by the researcher by inclusion in an experimental situation or by indirect analysis of the situation and recording the phenomena and facts of interest to the researcher.

Stages of observational research (according to K.D. Zarochentsev):

1) Definition of the subject of observation, object, situation.

2) Choosing a method for observing and recording data.

3) Creation of an observation plan.

4) Choosing a method for processing the results.

5) Actually observation.

6) Processing and interpretation of received information.

Similarities and differences between observation and experiment

Observation according to Meshcheryakov B.G. - “organized, purposeful, recorded perception of mental phenomena for the purpose of studying them under certain conditions.”

Experiment according to Meshcheryakov B.G. - “an experiment conducted under special conditions to obtain new scientific knowledge through the purposeful intervention of a researcher in the life activity of a subject.”

Analyzing the specifics of observation and experiment methods, we will determine their similarities and differences.

Common features in observation and experiment:

Both methods require preliminary preparation, planning and goal setting;

The results of research using observation and experiment require detailed processing;

The results of the study may be influenced by the personal characteristics of the researcher.

Differences in observational and experimental methods:

The ability to change the situation and influence it in an experiment and the inability to make changes in observation;

The purpose of observation is to state the situation, the purpose of the experiment is to change the situation, to monitor the degree of influence of certain means on the situation;

The experimental method requires clear knowledge about the object being studied; this knowledge is often acquired through observation.

Practical task

The topic of the survey was developed taking into account the characteristics of the target group with which we intended to work. Teenagers from high school were selected as such. According to Vygotsky L.S. The leading activity at this age is intimate and personal communication. Through communication with peers and adults, a teenager builds his personal attitude towards the world and forms his own unique image. In this regard, it is dangerous for a teenager not to be among his peers. It is extremely important to have friends and associates at this age.

That is why the following topic was chosen for the survey: “Me and my friends.”

The purpose of the survey: to determine the level of formation of friendships among modern teenagers of high school age.

To achieve the goal, a questionnaire was developed:

Questionnaire “Me and my friends”

Instructions:

Hello.

You are invited to take part in a scientific study.

Please read each question carefully and answer it as honestly as possible by circling the answer that seems correct to you, or by entering the answer you need in the special answer field. For multiple choice questions, you only need to choose one.

Personal data:

Last name, first name_______________________________________ Class_________________

1. Do you have a circle of friends?

a) yes; b) no.

2. What unites you?_____________________________________________

3. Which friend would you trust with your secret?______________

4. Which friend would you turn to for help in a difficult situation?_________________________________________________

5. What qualities do your friends value in you?___________________________

6. Remember the times when you helped one of your friends cope with any problem________________________________

7. How do you feel with your friends?

a) good, fun;

b) boring, sad;

c) first one thing, then another.

8. What kind of friends would you like to have?________________________

9. What character qualities are most valued among your friends?___________________________________________

10. What would you call the group where you spend your free time?

a) my friends;

b) my company;

c) party;

d) my yard;

e) my team;

f) your own version_________________________________________________________

11. Do you have adults with whom you communicate? Who is this?_______________________________________________________

12. Do you have conflicts? If so, how are they usually resolved?

b) a fight;

c) thanks to the intervention of the leader;

d) thanks to the intervention of an adult;

e) a compromise of some of the guys.

13. How do adults feel about your group?

a) kindly;

b) hostile;

c) neutral.

14. Mark which statements you agree with:

a) I am often consulted;

b) I can’t make an important decision without my friends;

c) no one truly understands me;

d) it’s easier for me to make a decision myself and tell others about it;

d) it’s easier for me to make a decision together with everyone.

15 How would you describe your mood when you are with your friends?_________________________________

The questionnaire contains quite informative instructions that help you understand the essence of the task. In total, the questionnaire contains 15 questions, both open and closed. The different types of questions are mixed, which helps the interviewee focus on each question. The most difficult questions that require the most honest answers are located in the middle of the questionnaire.

12 people took part in the survey - students in grades 9-10 of a secondary school. The gender and age composition of the target group is presented in the diagrams below.

Diagram 1-2. Sex and age composition of respondents

Let's move on to analyzing the data obtained and their interpretation.

Absolutely all teenagers answered the first question positively, saying that they have friends. Among the factors that unite respondents with their friends were: common interests, studies, spending time together, mutual acquaintances, and parent-friends.

Diagram 3. Factors that unite friends

In the answer column to the third question, the names of friends or the number of friends were often indicated. The number of friends to whom respondents could entrust personal secrets did not exceed 1-2.

The answers to the fourth question were similar. The respondents' circle of help consisted of the same people as their circle of trust.

Among the qualities valued by the respondents' friends in the respondents themselves were: humor, the ability to understand, the ability to trust, the ability to help, and sociability.

Diagram 4. Qualities valued by friends

To question 6, the most common answers were “I find it difficult to answer” or “I can’t remember.” It was also not uncommon for respondents to skip a question. Only 15% of the total number of respondents answered this question. Among the answers, there were cases from personal life that practically did not intersect with each other.

80% of respondents responded that they feel fun in the company of their friends. 20% of respondents have mixed feelings.

Among the qualities of ideal friends, respondents named honesty, sense of humor, responsibility, devotion, and respect.

Most of these qualities were also named among those considered basic among the respondent’s friends.

The answers to question 10 were distributed as follows:

Diagram 5. Name of circle of friends by respondents

Among the adults with whom teenagers communicate, the following stood out: parents, teachers, and coaches. Adults often have a neutral (55%) or negative (30%) attitude towards age groups.

Conflict situations do not arise often and are resolved by finding a compromise between the children.

The answers to the penultimate question were divided as follows:

a) people often consult me ​​- 25%;

b) I can’t make an important decision without my friends - 20%;

c) no one truly understands me - 15%;

d) it’s easier for me to make a decision myself and tell others about it - 20%;

e) it’s easier for me to make a decision together with everyone - 20%.

85% characterize their mood among friends positively, 15% negatively.

Interpretation of the data obtained during the survey leads to the following conclusions:

1. Among schoolchildren and teenagers there is a great desire to form peer groups;

2. All teenagers believe that they have a large circle of friends. Meanwhile, they can only tell a secret or turn to a small number of people for help.

3. Most teenage groups are formed on the basis of common leisure, educational activities and interests.

4. Teen groups often change their composition and are unstable.

5. Teenage groups influence the opinions of the teenagers included in them, but often are not a resource for making serious decisions regarding the teenager’s personality.

6. Teenagers have rather vague ideas about friendship. They call a large number of people friends.

7. Adults are practically distant from the processes of forming and managing teenage groups.

8. Modern teenagers value reliability, honesty, mutual assistance, trust and the ability to help.

Scientific progress cannot be stopped, and methods of studying the environment have always improved and become more complex. Observations and experiments have been known for centuries; they are not only compared, but also identified. At the same time, there is a colossal difference between these concepts, which reflects the dynamics of the development of scientific thought.

Observations- these are studies in which the scientist maintains visual control of an object, allowing events to develop naturally and noting any changes. The result of the work is recorded on a storage medium for subsequent analysis. Observations can be carried out without equipment, as well as with the use of special means.

Experiments– these are studies in which objects are placed in an artificially created or natural environment, and the scientist enters into active interaction with the subject being studied. In the process of experiments, a hypothesis built on the basis of available theoretical data is confirmed or refuted.

Thus, observations do not involve active interaction with the object. The researcher distances himself from them, recording the data obtained. This is the main goal - collecting information, which will then be analyzed. During the experiment, the scientist enters into active interaction with the object. The purpose of this action is to test the hypothesis by confirming it an unlimited number of times.

Experience always has a plan; observation does not. To conduct an experiment, the researcher needs to recreate certain conditions. The observation is carried out in a natural environment, because intervention in the life of the objects being studied will mean the beginning of the experiment. Both the first and second research methods are extremely useful for science; they do not contradict, but complement each other.

1. Influence on the object. Observations do not involve active interaction with the object being studied, while experiments are based on such intervention.
2. Use of special equipment. Research can be carried out with the naked eye; the experiment always requires instruments and other scientific and technical means.
3. Having a plan. Observation is carried out in the same way, experience is carried out according to a pre-developed scenario.
4. Wednesday. Observation takes place in a natural environment, experience - in an artificial one.
5. Target. Observations are carried out to collect information for subsequent analysis, experiments are carried out to confirm the hypothesis.

It is generally accepted that the defining property of observation is its non-intervention into the processes being studied, in contrast to the active implementation into the area under study that is carried out during experimentation. In general, this statement is correct. However, upon closer examination, it needs to be clarified: after all, observation is also active to a certain extent. There are also situations when observation itself will be impossible without intervention in the object being studied. For example, in histology, without preliminary dissection and staining of living tissue, there will simply be nothing to observe.

The intervention of the researcher during observation is aimed at achieving optimal conditions for the same observations. The observer's task is to obtain a set of primary data about the object. Of course, in this totality, certain dependencies of data groups on each other, some regularities and trends are often already visible. Preliminary guesses and assumptions about important connections may arise in the researcher during the observation itself. However, the researcher does not change the structure this data does not interfere with the data recorded by it relationship between phenomena.

So, if the phenomena A And IN accompany each other throughout the entire series of observations, then the researcher only records their coexistence (without trying, say, to cause the phenomenon A Without IN). This means that empirical material during observation increases extensive by - by expanding observations and accumulating data. We repeat a series of observations, increase the duration and detail of perception, study new aspects of the original phenomenon, etc.

In an experiment, the researcher takes a different position. Here, active intervention is carried out in the area under study in order to isolate various kinds of connections in it. Unlike observation, in an experimental research situation the experimental material grows intense way. The scientist is not interested in accumulating more and more new data, but allocation in the empirical material there are some significant dependencies. Using various controlling influences, the researcher tries to discard everything unimportant and penetrate into the very interconnections of the area under study. An experiment is an intensification of experience, its detailing and deepening.

In general, the relationship between the experimental and observational components is complex, depending each time on the specific circumstances of the study. It should be understood that in their “pure form” observation and experiment are, rather, idealized strategies. In various situations, as a rule, the methodological strategy of either observation or experiment prevails. It is by this predominance that we qualify this or that research situation. We, of course, call the study of distant space objects observation. And conducting an experimental laboratory intervention with predetermined objectives (say, testing a working hypothesis) and clearly defined dependent and independent variables comes close to the ideal of a “pure experiment.”

Thus, observation and experiment are idealized strategies actions in real research situations. The activity of the researcher during observation is aimed at the extensification of empirical data., and during experimentation - to deepen them, intensification.

Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably involves the perception of the characteristics of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. Moreover, experiment, testing, oral or written survey, expert assessment, content analysis, etc. can well be considered as types of observations, differing in their conditions and the nature of the procedures performed. However, the scientific tradition has long been entrenched in the identification of a special observational method, relatively independent from all others, combining observation and introspection (introspection).

Of course, within the framework of a particular science, this method acquires its specific content.

However, it is certainly based on two principles:

Passivity of the subject of cognition, expressed in refusal to interfere in the processes being studied in order to preserve the naturalness of their flow;

Immediacy of perception, which implies limiting the possibility of obtaining data within the limits of a clearly presented situation of the present time (what is usually observed is what is happening “here and now”).

In psychology, observation is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals based on recording manifestations of their behavior.

It is impossible to observe the internal, subjective essences of thinking, imagination, will, temperament, character, abilities, etc., taken by themselves, outside of specific external manifestations. The subject of observation is verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment. It is they, identified and registered properly, that become characteristics of intellectual and personal development, the dynamics of achievements, the severity of states and much more.

Thus, when studying people, a researcher can observe:

1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity...);

2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);

3) position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement...);

4) physical contacts (touching, pushing, hitting, passing, joint efforts...).

In this case, a lot depends, naturally, on observation skills- the ability to notice significant, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena. Without developing this quality in oneself, it is impossible to effectively carry out research activities. However, the matter does not stop there.

If, for example, a very observant person looks around, without having specific goals for observation and without recording its results in any way, then he will only see many faces and witness various events. The information he collects cannot be considered as evidence or refutation of facts, patterns, or theories. Such a person saw and heard a lot, but did not conduct observations in the strict sense of the word.

Scientific observation is different from everyday life with the following properties:

Purposefulness; the observer must clearly understand what he is going to perceive and why, otherwise his activity will turn into the registration of individual bright and distinct secondary stimuli, and essential material will remain unaccounted for;

Systematicity, which will reliably distinguish the random from the typical, natural;

Planned, since following a plan or program helps to increase the efficiency of the study, determining how the observation will be carried out; when, where, under what conditions;

Analyticity, because it involves not only a statement of observed facts, but also their explanation, the identification of their psychological nature;

Registration of results, which eliminates memory errors, thereby reducing the subjectivity of conclusions and generalizations;

Operating with a system of unambiguous concepts, special terms that contribute to a clear and unambiguous designation of the observed material, as well as the uniformity of possible interpretations.

Because of this, scientific observation acquires fundamental repeatability of results. The data obtained by a researcher under certain conditions will most likely be confirmed by another researcher if he works under the same conditions and the object of observation has not changed. For the results of scientific observation, while maintaining a certain subjectivity, depend less on the personality of the perceiver than the results of everyday observation.

As a method of psychological research, observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Let's look at their approximate list:

Psychological research is not complete without using the observation method at any stage, but it is extremely rare that the matter is limited to using only this method, without including others. The study of complex mental phenomena requires the researcher, as a rule, to consistently apply a whole complex of empirical methods of cognition.

So far we have been talking about the general characteristics of psychological observation. However, this method has many varieties, distinguished for one reason or another. Let's move on to the question of classification of observations.

Depending on the degree of involvement of the researcher in the environment being studied, two types of observations are distinguished:

Included when there is personal participation of the observer in the activity perceived and recorded by him. At the same time, other people usually consider him a participant in the event, and not an observer;

Third-party, when an event occurs without the direct participation of an observer acting as if “from the outside.”

It should be noted that in most cases, people's behavior changes dramatically if they notice that they have become the object of research. This violates the requirement to preserve the naturalness of the conditions of the activity being studied. But in practice, for ethical or other reasons, it is not always possible to study their mental characteristics unnoticed by the subjects.

Therefore, according to the nature of interactions with an object, there are the following types of observations:

Hidden, in which people do not know that they are being observed. (In this case, the psychologist is either “disguised” as an ordinary participant in events, that is, his behavior for others is quite consistent with what is expected in a given situation, does not arouse suspicion, or he observes them indirectly, “from the outside,” using, say, Gesell’s mirror or a hidden video camera);

Open, in which people are aware of the observation being made. Usually, after some time, they get used to the presence of a psychologist and begin to behave more naturally, unless, of course, the observer provokes close attention to themselves.

External, behind the behavior of other people;

Introspection (from the Latin “I look inside”, “I peer”), that is, introspection. The results of the latter in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but are taken into account as facts requiring an objective scientific interpretation.

Regarding the research time observation is distinguished:

One-time, single, produced only once;

Periodic, carried out over certain periods of time;

Longitudinal (from the English “longitude”), characterized by a special extent, constancy of contact between the researcher and the object for a long time.

By the nature of perception observation could be:

Continuous, when the researcher turns his attention equally to all objects available to him;

Selective, when he is interested only in certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral reactions (say, such as the frequency of manifestations of aggression, the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, the characteristics of speech contacts between children and teachers, etc.).

By the nature of data recording observation is divided into:

Ascertaining, where the researcher’s task is to clearly record the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior and collect facts;

Evaluative, where the researcher compares facts according to the degree of their expression in a certain range. In doing so, he uses a rating scale, which will be discussed later.

And finally, according to the degree of standardization of procedures, they are distinguished:

Free or exploratory observation, which, although associated with a specific goal, is devoid of clear restrictions in the choice of what to pay attention to, what points to record, etc. It is permissible to change the subject of research and rules if the need arises . Observation of this kind is usually used in the early stages of scientific work;

Structured or standardized, when events occurring are recorded without the slightest deviation from a pre-developed program. At the same time, the rules of observation are clearly defined, the entire content of research activities is prescribed, and uniform methods of recording and analyzing data are introduced. Such observation is usually used where the researcher is required to highlight already known and expected characteristics of reality, and not to look for new ones. This, of course, narrows the field of observation to some extent, but increases the comparability of the results obtained.

These are the main types of observation. As a training exercise, we will try, as far as possible, to characterize the examples of research given below according to all the classification bases we have considered.

So, what kind of observation are we talking about exactly?

EXAMPLE 1. In the 60s, Jane Goodall studied the life of wild chimpanzees. During the research, the observer usually sat quietly in the thickets until the objects, having become accustomed to him, ceased to pay attention to the strange viewer and returned to their normal course of action. At the same time, in several cases, episodes were captured on film indicating that chimpanzees use and even make tools. In particular, having cleared the twig of leaves, they slowly lowered the “fishing rod” inside the termite mound. Insects that clung to a foreign object were pulled up and eaten by cunning catchers... (According to Jan Lindblad).

EXAMPLE 2. If an outside observer simply characterizes a teenager from the “Skillful Hands” circle as “inclined to cooperate,” then the psychologist “working” on a nearby machine records that this teenager, during one lesson, lent his tool to other members of the circle five times, eight times provided assistance and asked for help himself twice. In addition, the behavior of the observed is compared with quantitatively expressed similar characteristics of the behavior of the people around him. (According to K. Ingenkamp).

EXAMPLE 3. In a famous study by Kurt Lewin, subjects spent 10-15 minutes in an empty room, expecting that they were about to be approached, and were unaware of the observation being carried out. Each of them, finding himself in such a situation, began to examine the surrounding things; his actions were determined by what he saw. Things seemed to attract to themselves, causing behavior that K. Levin called field behavior. (According to I. Yu. Kulagina).

Let us now move on to a description of the stages of scientific observation. Traditionally, the following stages are distinguished:

1. Determining the purpose of observation (why, why is it being carried out?);

2. Selection of the object of research (what individual or what kind of group is to be studied?);

3. Clarification of the subject of research (which aspects of behavior reveal the content of the mental phenomena being studied?);

4. Planning observation situations (in what cases or under what conditions does the subject of research reveal itself most clearly?);

5. Selection of an observation method that has the least impact on the object and ensures the collection of the necessary information to the greatest extent (how to observe?);

6. Establishing the duration of the total research time and the number of observations (how many to observe?);

7. Selecting methods for recording the research material (how to keep records?);

8. Forecasting possible observation errors and searching for ways to prevent them;

9. Carrying out a preliminary, trial observation session necessary to clarify the actions of the previous stages and identify organizational shortcomings;

10. Correction of the monitoring program;

11. Observation stage;

12. Processing and interpretation of received information.

We should dwell in more detail on the question of methods for recording the observed material.

Let's start with the fact that the process of effective observation is impossible without artificially isolating certain units of object activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Such units of activity are expressed using ordinary words or scientific terminology. They are recorded in the observation protocol.

Typically, there are three types of procedures for recording results. Namely:

1) use of attribute (sign) systems. At the same time, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, they record which of them appeared and how often during the observation period. Each sign must be formulated unambiguously for understanding by different people and not require additional explanation.

For example, what signs of student interest in the content of the lesson can you name? What are the signs that they are not interested in the material they are learning?

Of course, among the designations you named there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, etc., which need to be specified in meaning. And such signs as “animated gestures”, “chewing a pencil”, etc. indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.

It is obvious that the proposed system of features is not exhaustive. During the observation, some significant characteristic may well emerge that we had previously missed. With this method of recording results, the set of characteristics is considered open. If necessary, it is allowed to make certain additions to it after the start of observation.

2) application category systems. Such a system contains a complete description of all types of possible behavior. You cannot add anything new to it during the observation process.

The fact is that the set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied.

Bales, through free observation of the work of groups, identified more than eighty signs of interpersonal communication, which, when systematized, were combined into 12 categories, and the latter into four classes. This is what they look like (according to T.V. Kornilova):

Class A. Positive emotions:

1. Expresses solidarity, increases the status of another, rewards;

2. Expresses relaxation of tension, jokes, laughs, expresses satisfaction;

3. Agrees, expresses passive acceptance, gives in;

Class B. Problem solving:

4. Gives advice, direction, implying the autonomy of the other;

5. Expresses an opinion, evaluates, analyzes, expresses feelings, desires;

6. Gives orientation, information, clarifies, confirms;

Class C. Statement of problems:

9. Asks for advice, direction, possible course of action;

Class D. Negative emotions:

10. Objects, gives passive rejection, is formal, refuses help;

11. Expresses tension, asks for help, gives in to a problem;

12. Expresses antagonism, undermines the status of another, defends or asserts oneself.

Lowercase Latin letters here indicate connections between categories. More precisely, a - problems of orientation, b - problems of assessment, c - problems of control, d - problems of finding a solution, e - problems of overcoming tension, f - problems of integration. The identification of these connections is based on the corresponding concept of the stages of group work when solving problems.

Working with R. Bales' system of categories, the observer has the opportunity to record the formal (but not substantive) side of the group discussion. To do this, he, having learned a list of categories, correlates them with the remarks of the participants in the communication.

What is observed can be recorded as follows:

Who's speaking? (message source);

Who is he addressing? (destination);

When analyzing a recording, the category number indicates both the type of statement, its emotional coloring, and the stage of problem solving. The frequency of speech acts also reflects the peculiarities of the discussion, in particular, in the form of percentages of different types of acts at different stages of the discussion.

It is believed that the described system of categories is mainly adapted for observing discussions on a given topic in student groups. It is actively used to this day despite a number of significant criticisms (the formality of the analysis, the arbitrariness of identifying the number and content of categories, etc.).

3) Rating scale, (from the English “assessment”, “order”, “classification”). With this method of recording results, the researcher’s attention is drawn not to the presence of this or that characteristic, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence and representation. In this case, the work is carried out according to a pre-prepared ordinal scale.

For example: What interest does the student show during class?

Weak average strong

The specificity of the rating scale is that it is usually filled out either at the last stage of observation or at its end. Of all the data recording methods, this is the most subjective. The researcher acts here not so much as an observer, but as an expert, comparing behavioral signs with “standard” samples known only to him. Therefore, the rating scale is often used not independently of other registration methods, but along with them. Then filling it out on the basis of a system of signs or a system of categories becomes the beginning of procedures for interpreting the observation results.

Let's study the typical mistakes of researchers using observation. Here are the most common ones:

In an effort to confirm his hypothesis, the researcher sometimes unconsciously ignores everything that may contradict it;

Mixing the main and the secondary, the random and the natural in the process of observation;

Premature generalizations and conclusions;

The assessment of one mental phenomenon is made on the basis of a sign of behavior related to another phenomenon (for example, many are inclined to draw conclusions about intelligence based on fluency of speech);

Focusing the observer's attention on the opposite character traits or forms of behavior of the observed;

The determining influence on the results of observation is the first impression about a person or group:

Failure to take into account possible motives for actions, observed well-being, and significant changes in the conditions of the situation.

These are the “traps” of psychological observation. To increase its reliability, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions and resist the temptation to superficially interpret complex processes.

IN for objectification purposes Observation procedures in psychology involve collective study of an object by researchers working independently of each other, technical means of recording and processing data are used, observation programs are developed in detail, and repeated repeated observations of the same objects are practiced.

BASIC CONCEPTS: observation; observation; types of observations: included, third-party, hidden, external, introspection, longitudinal, continuous, selective, ascertaining, evaluating, free, structured; feature (sign) system; category system; rating scale.

Issues for discussion:

1. What are the main features of the observation method?

2. What types of observations are there?

3. How is observation carried out? What stages can be identified in this?

4. How are its results recorded?

Exercise 1:

By observing a school class or student group, compare engagement rates during any two instructional sessions. To record the results, use a feature system.

Exercise 2:

Create the most complete program of standardized observation based on the hypothesis you formulated yourself. Explain how such observation can be carried out in practice.

Exercise 3:

Using R. Bales' category system, observe the progress of a discussion in a school class or student group. To do this, organize a research situation in collaboration with one of the teachers. Compare the content of the observation programs and the results you obtained with similar characteristics of the work of other observers from among your colleagues.