Independent work of students. D.Z.: Chapter 17, preparation

Spatial development has two basic properties - it is uneven and inertial.

The centers of growth in Russia are very stable and change only when basic factors change - in the event of the emergence of new technologies, resources, trade routes, as a result of the restructuring of economic relations. At the same time, new growth centers do not arise in the lagging periphery; they become the “near semi-peripheries” of the old centers, seizing leadership when development conditions change. Thus, at the end of the 19th century, Donbass, industrialized due to foreign investment and technology, was ahead of the Urals, and the transfer of the capital to Moscow under Soviet rule allowed it to overtake the former leader, St. Petersburg, in development.

In the Soviet planned economy, new industrial centers were often created in underdeveloped and distant peripheries, so many of them turned out to be uncompetitive in market conditions. It was mainly the resource-extracting industries and primary processing industries, whose products were in demand on the global market, that were able to adapt. As a result, the winners were regions and cities specializing in oil and gas production, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, and petrochemicals. In the 2000s, global automobile companies came to Russia, manufacturing enterprises with modern technologies appeared, located near the country's two largest agglomerations - Moscow and St. Petersburg - and on the Volga. The territories and cities where all these productions are located will be the industrial framework of the country in the next decade.

The service economy developed faster in the two largest agglomerations, especially in Moscow, where the effective demand of business and the population is concentrated. Next come large regional centers, and vast peripheries survive mainly due to employment in the public sector and the informal economy. The center-periphery polarization of development in Russia is enormous both between and within regions, and it is unlikely to decrease in the coming decades.

So, the spatial development of Russia is influenced by two main competitive advantages: the availability of natural resources and products of their primary processing, which are in demand global market, as well as the agglomeration effect - the concentration of the economy and human capital in the largest cities. This effect, which creates economies of scale and diversity of supply and demand, is most pronounced in the capital.

Many cities are economically and socially depressed. In the photo - Omsk.

The spatial development of the Russian economy has changed little since the early 2000s. The superconcentration of the economy in Moscow (21% of the total gross regional product) is due not only to the objective competitive advantages of the largest agglomeration, but also to institutional factors that make it possible to pull together resources - a rigid vertical of power and the dominance in the economy of large companies with headquarters in the capital.

Part big business moved to St. Petersburg, which increased the concentration of the economy in Northern capital up to 5% of GRP. However, the second largest share in the Russian economy remains the Tyumen region with its autonomous okrugs (9%). The economic weight of the Far East is less than 6%, and of all the republics of the North Caucasus - less than 2%.

In the coming years, these proportions will most likely not change, since investments are also concentrated in regions with clear competitive advantages: Moscow received more than 12% of all investments in the country from 2016 to September 2018; Tyumen region with autonomous okrugs - more than 14%; the entire Far East - 7%, and the republics of the North Caucasus - a little more than 2%.

Population and settlement

Polarization of settlement and concentration of the population in large regional centers is a long-term and stable trend. It is caused by economic factors and is typical not only for Russia, but also for neighboring post-Soviet countries. However, not all big cities Russia is growing.

The seventeen regional capitals of the central and northwestern part of the country have limited growth potential - the population in these agglomerations is declining or remains at the same level, since the migration influx into them does not compensate for the natural decline. Regional centers attract only residents of their region, in contrast to the two largest agglomerations, where migrants from all over the country flock.

The total balance of migration inflow to Moscow and the Moscow region in the 2010s reached 150–180 thousand people per year, to St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region - 100–120 thousand people. For regional centers this figure is tens of times lower. The reason is the strong differentiation in living standards between federal cities, especially Moscow, and regional centers, and this difference is not decreasing.

It is generally accepted that Russians have limited mobility and this prevents the concentration of the population in those growth points where there are jobs. Research by Russian geographers shows that real picture more difficult. Regular migration in Russia has been replaced by labor migration of individual family members - otkhodnichestvo.

Workers travel from the periphery to the two largest agglomerations, as well as to the Tyumen north. Otkhodnichestvo and rotational migration reduce the costs of movement, which are unaffordable for the whole family, and allow them to earn money. In this way, the Russian labor market is adapting to the territorial imbalance of supply and demand, and this form of adaptation will continue for at least the next decade.

In the near future, there will be no significant changes in the existing trends in population concentration. Most regions of Russia are in the second stage of urbanization, when the population moves to the largest cities and regional centers from smaller ones. Medium-sized and small cities are mostly losing population, and the demographic resources of the countryside are already depleted. Only the regions of the south with a higher share of the rural population and the republics, where the demographic transition began much later, have not completed the first stage of urbanization, and therefore migration from rural areas to cities is still significant in them.

Agglomerations

In Russia, resource competitive advantages are realized better than agglomeration advantages, with the exception of the two largest agglomerations. At the same time, Russia is a large-city country, 21% of its population lives in cities with a population of over a million, including Moscow and St. Petersburg, and almost a third (31%) live in cities with a population of half a million. If we add here smaller cities that are part of the agglomerations of regional centers, this share will be even higher. However, the benefits of agglomeration development of million-plus cities and other large regional capitals are poorly realized, mainly due to the institutional barriers they face.

All large regional centers are municipalities (self-governing urban districts), but their tax resources are strictly limited. The city budget receives only 15% of the main tax - personal income tax (NDFL), the rest goes to the regional budget, as well as taxes on profits, on the property of organizations and others. As a result, the level of subsidies for urban districts reached 58%, although these are developed cities with a high tax base.

“Medium-sized and small cities are mostly losing population, and the demographic resources of the countryside are already depleted.”

The powers of municipalities are also sharply limited. Management decisions in social sphere and regional authorities take part in infrastructure development. The vertical in Russia operates at all levels; large cities and regional centers have neither money nor authority, and this slows down their development. Horizontal interaction between municipalities also works poorly, without which it is difficult to coordinate the improvement of agglomerations.

The Russian authorities plan to develop large agglomerations from above, additionally financing infrastructure upgrades, but without institutional changes. In the proposals of the Center for Strategic Research, 15 agglomerations were first identified (cities with a population of over a million and two largest centers of the Far East), in the “Strategy of Spatial Development” - already 40 largest cities - potential centers of economic growth (all agglomerations with a population of over half a million people), which is inevitable will lead to smearing of funds.

Financing the infrastructure of agglomerations without reducing institutional barriers to development will lead to the fact that instead of competing for investments and human capital, large cities will fight for federal money by all available means.

State influence

In the 2010s, the role of the state in the Russian economy grew. Expenditures on rearmament of the army (state defense order) have been significantly increased, which has accelerated the economic growth of regions with military-industrial complex enterprises (however, with a reduction in budget funding in these regions, a decline is likely). Significant subsidies were allocated to the agro-industrial complex, which helped to sharply increase grain exports to the agricultural regions of the steppe south and the Black Earth Region, which have a resource competitive advantage in the form of huge tracts of fertile land. Meat production has also increased. Large tax incentives were provided to new projects of large raw materials business (oil and gas production in Eastern Siberia and Yakutia, gas processing in Yamal, Tyumen and Amur regions).

However, the declared “turn to the east” did not happen; the infrastructural and institutional barriers hindering development in this direction turned out to be very large. The authorities do not want to admit that there is not enough money in Russia to raise the Far East. Its development can only accelerate with the widespread attraction of global investment, and for this it is necessary to reduce institutional barriers and abandon the priority of locating manufacturing industries there, which have no competitive advantages other than primary processing of raw materials.

There are no positive changes in the underdeveloped republics either: institutional barriers there are also very high, and the policy of large-scale support from the federal budget corrupts local authorities.

The last crisis of 2014–2017 affected the development of regions differently than the previous one. This time, in most regions, investments (with the exception of Moscow, Tatarstan and a number of new hydrocarbon production regions), household incomes and consumption declined the most. In industry, the dynamics turned out to be better - in the vast majority of regions, the crisis decline was small and has already been overcome. The state supported industry, and not the main risk areas of this crisis: pensions and salaries of public sector employees were not indexed, investments from budgets were reduced.

Presidential decrees of 2018 speak of the priority of investment growth, but there are no specific plans in this regard yet. Perhaps funds will again be invested in large projects (remember the Olympics, the APEC summit, the World Cup). The effectiveness of such investments is highly questionable. No less important is the burden of implementing investment decrees on regional budgets. The experience of previous May salary decrees showed that the risks of non-compliance are high.

Interbudgetary relations

The prospects for financial relations between the center and the regions are also predetermined by the framework of the current political and economic cycle. For the development of the country, decentralization of resources and powers is necessary, but this is hampered by both objective factors (huge differences in the tax base of the regions) and subjective ones - the policy of the federal government, which concentrates and redistributes huge resource rents.

The main source of this rent is the tax on the extraction of oil and gas minerals, and it is completely withdrawn to the federal budget. In 2014, before the fall in oil prices, 27% of all tax revenues of the federal budget came from the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, another 9% from the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Moscow, as the largest end-consumption center, provides 14–15% of federal budget revenues, mainly in the form of value added tax. Thus, half of all tax revenues to the federal budget were provided by only three regions of Russia, and in 2016, after a decrease in oil prices, the same regions together with St. Petersburg.

The rental economy and the severe inequality of the tax base of the regions create conditions for budgetary centralization and the concentration of large funds in the hands of the state, which is engaged in their redistribution. There is no simple solution to reverse this situation.

An equalizing budget policy for the regions is necessary, but in Russia budget processes are opaque and ineffective due to manual management and geopolitical priorities. Thus, in 2017, the total share of Crimea and Sevastopol in all transfers to the regions reached almost 7%, and the share of the North Caucasus republics consistently exceeds 11% - without a noticeable impact on their development.

Tatarstan is one of the five most developed regions of the Russian Federation, but every year it has to tighten its belts. If a year ago Tatarstan transferred 70% of all funds to Moscow, now it is already 75%.

The institutional matrix of interbudgetary relations is very stable. Two trends became a feature of the 2010s. Firstly, the federal government has strengthened the redistribution of taxes in favor of the federal budget and control over the regions through budget policy (an additional 1 percentage point of income tax and part of excise taxes was additionally redistributed from the regions to the federal budget, and another 15 percentage points from municipal budgets to regional budgets. item personal income tax).

Secondly, additional spending obligations were transferred to the regions (the May salary decrees) without an increase in the volume of transfers, which led to the destabilization of regional budgets - in 2012–2016 their deficit and debt increased sharply. Federal assistance to the regions increased noticeably only in 2018 in connection with the presidential elections.

Management trajectories of regional authorities

Examples of the best administrative solutions in Tatarstan, in the south Tyumen region, in the Kaluga and Voronezh regions is still widely known, but economic growth and the influx of investment in them have already slowed down. With the deterioration of economic conditions and the tightening of the vertical power structure, governors cease to be initiators of development.

Today, federal control over regional budgets has increased, and the volume of reporting on federal programs and decrees, imposed from above, has increased. The ability to report correctly has long been the most important competency of regional managers.

The heads of regions are changed like gloves, and in recent years, “young technocrats” are increasingly being sent from the center to control the regions and implement federal policy. This system has already led to disruptions in gubernatorial elections, but in response, the federal authorities are only expanding the landing of appointees from the center.

Mayors of large cities have largely lost resources and powers, and their direct elections have been abolished almost everywhere. The vertical system has reached a dead end; it no longer serves the interests of territorial development. But for now it ensures control over the regions, and for the federal authorities this is the most important thing.

In the absence of radical institutional changes, the future of Russia's regions for the next decade is largely predetermined. Objective barriers to the development of the space will remain; even the expected increase in investment in infrastructure will not help to significantly reduce them, so what lies ahead of us is the continuation of inertial trends in the economy, finance, demography, migration and the process of urbanization.

Natalia Zubarevich

The text was prepared for the conference “Russian Realities: State, Society, Civil Society” (December 2018), organized by the Sakharov Center, International Memorial and Levada Center

Transcript

1 A. G. Kiselev Review of the collection “Reality of the Ethnic Group. Education, culture, economics in the sustainable development of the Russian Federation.” Sat. Art. based on materials from the XVI International Scientific and Practical. conf. within the framework of the Congress of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation. SPb.: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen p. A.G. Kiselev Review of the collection "Reality of ethnos. Educational economy culture in a sustainable development of the Russian Federation". The collection of articles on materials XVI of the International scientific and practical conference within the Congress of indigenous ethnic groups of the North, Siberia and the Far East the Russian Federation. SPb.: Publishing house of RGPU of A. I. Herzen p. The next fifth collection of the annual scientific-practical conference, dedicated to the modern realities of the North, Siberia and the Far East, published by the Russian State Pedagogical University under the editorship of I. L. Nabok, appeared in the collections of the Russian State Library. The collection of articles is divided by the compilers into 7 sections. With the exception of the first two, which emphasize the theme sustainable development and including works devoted mainly to the problems of northern politics and interaction between the state and public organizations, the remaining sections are devoted to issues related to education and traditional culture. The first section of the book, “The Role of Education, Culture and Economics in the Sustainable Development of the Russian Federation,” opens with a report by the President of the Association of Indigenous Peoples G. P. Ledkov and HSE Professor M. M. Solovyov, in which the sustainable development of indigenous peoples of the North is considered as a condition for sustainable development Russian Federation. The authors see disappointing facts about the degradation of the ecological niche of the traditional economy of the aborigines, and attempts by the authorities to support the traditional economy, and a significant lag of the North in terms of basic indicators of well-being from all-Russian indicators. Ensuring sustainable development is seen, firstly, through a conceptual definition of this concept itself and its main parameters in relation to the peoples of the North; Without this, planning, regulation, and control are impossible. Secondly, through targeted support at the family level, taking into account different types of activities and places of residence. The implementation of these tasks, in turn, involves the creation of an appropriate management mechanism. The authors name life expectancy, education, gross domestic product per capita, and assessment of the state of the environment as the main indicators of the effectiveness of policies towards indigenous peoples. These and other criteria, reflected in UN documents and international standards of social responsibility ISO 26000/2010, will allow, according to G. P. Ledkov and M. M. Solovyov, to systematize individual efforts, programs, projects, targeting northern policy as a whole as times to solve family problems, human problems. This can only be done through interaction between the state, corporations and communications.

2 societies of indigenous peoples, in the presence of reliable feedback between the state and indigenous peoples. The second report of the section is a report on the activities of the Ministry of Regional Development in the development and implementation of the concept of sustainable development of indigenous peoples of the North, made by the Deputy Director of the Department public policy in the field of interethnic relations of the ministry by D. A. Ilyin. The author recalled the Concept adopted in 2009, noted its high assessment by the UN, argued its focus on supporting not ethnic groups, but communities engaged in traditional farming, and emphasized that the volume of funding for such support in Russia is greater than anywhere else, with the exception of Canada, where, however, the aboriginal population is much larger than the Russian one. The Canadian authorities “envy us and are unsuccessfully trying to adopt our experience,” this is about organizing education for the indigenous peoples of the North. The author also noted that work on the implementation of the Concept continues, a new stage is opening in connection with the implementation of the Development Strategy of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation. In the report of Federation Council member A. I. Otke on the results and prospects of the second international decade of indigenous peoples, the focus was not on achievements, but on problems. The author sees three such problems: 1) the declarative nature of the rights of indigenous peoples; 2) the essentially unresolved issue of land, the need for a new law on traditional environmental management; 3) a language that is disappearing from circulation, a language that must be taught not only at school, but also at home. The head of the Department for Peoples' Affairs of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), A.E. Serguchev, who picked up one of the themes of D.A. Ilyin's speech, spoke about the problems of indigenous peoples of the North in connection with the new Arctic policy. The author drew attention to the lack of effective mechanisms that would help unite the interests of industrial companies and indigenous communities, spoke about preferences for aborigines when gaining access to land and water resources, and the importance of the presence of native languages ​​on the Internet. Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor of the Russian State Pedagogical University M. B. Glotov focused on the socio-demographic problems of the indigenous peoples of the North. The author clearly formulated the initial position: the indigenous peoples of the North are “in danger of extinction as a result of violations of traditional environmental management.” In almost all indicators characterizing the standard of living and quality of life, our northerners have a deteriorating situation. The mortality rate (2-3 times), suicide statistics (1.5 times), and the incidence of tuberculosis and hepatitis (1.5 times) are noticeably higher than the national indicators. The demographic transition has a devastating impact on families. Women experience late marriage and frequent widowhood, while men experience eventual celibacy. IN individual regions there is a strong imbalance between the number of single men and single women (Kamchatka, Yamal, Evenkia). The demographic situation is also worsening under the influence of economic factors: the traditional economy is shrinking, cash incomes are % lower than the average for the regions of residence, unemployment, on the contrary, is 1.5 to 2 times higher than the all-Russian indicators. Canadians' envy of the state of education of indigenous peoples seems to stem from poor information: almost 48% of our peoples have only primary and lower secondary education, and 17% do not even have primary education. No more than 50% of students study their native language in schools. In these conditions, indigenous peoples are turning to the path of recreating the traditional life support system, including clan or neighboring mutual aid production associations, traditional medicine, a family and group system of teaching children traditional types of economic activities are being revived. “However, this process, M. B. Glo concludes his report, 167

3 Comrade, does not receive financial support either from the state or from other investors.” Scientists from the Russian State Pedagogical University, philologist S. A. Goncharov and philosopher I. L. Nabok made a report on the formation of a culture of interethnic communication. The authors begin by defining the opposition between ethnic and civil as a false opposition, based on an incorrect idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe ethnic. Following A.V. Golovnev, S.A. Goncharov and I.L. Nabok, revealing the content of the ethnic, come to the concept of “ethnoregional identity,” which precisely integrates the ethnic and the civil. From an ethnic point of view, one of the pressing problems is the problem of conservation. In this regard, the authors discuss the relationship between the concepts of tradition and traditionality, agreeing with A.V. Golovnev that traditions can only live “in the flow of reality”; they are dynamic. Considering the problem of language as a means of intercultural communication, the authors note the idea of ​​Yu. Well about the choice of the Russian language as “the Nenets-Khanty-Russian language in the Nenets-Khanty-Russian form.” Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, UNESCO expert A. Yu. Goncharuk, discusses the role of socio-cultural and pedagogical innovations, the need for a systematic update of the “worldview foundations” (!) of pedagogical tools in modern conditions . The report is written in a specific “pedagogical” style, characteristic of some modern authors writing about scientific problems. Quote: “Essentially, this goal represents a real educational value guideline for the spectacular, audio-video arts and moral-aesthetic creativity as probabilistic-perspective functions of emotional factors-regulators of the sociocultural-pedagogical energy of the dialectical process under consideration, accentuated by the harmonious dominants of the geopolitical context of the ethnopedagogical co-development of society and the individual homo noospherikus.” The reports of historians D. A. Safonov and K. Sh. Akhtyamov from the Orenburg region are devoted to the problems of ethnocultural education in a multi-ethnic region. There is a low level of national self-awareness and neglect of parents and children towards the national language, low qualifications of teachers, a shortage of literature, and the need to create preschool institutions with an ethnocultural profile is discussed. At the same time, according to D. A. Safonov, there is a regulatory framework that promotes ethnocultural revival in the Orenburg region. There is also some experience in ethnocultural education and upbringing, accumulated in 13 preschool and 99 general education institutions. Ethnocultural festivals are held regularly. Hopes for an improvement in the situation lie in the interaction between the authorities and civil society. In turn, K. Sh. Akhtyamov spoke about the state and prospects of religious Muslim education, which in the Orenburg region, in his opinion, organically interacts with secular education, “contributes to the strengthening of interethnic tolerance in society.” Historian S.V. Bereznitsky in his report made an original attempt to construct V.I. Vernadsky’s “concept” of the relationship between the education system, science and national culture. The approach to the problem and the materials used are certainly interesting. However, by and large, the author limited himself to listing assumptions. It does not at all follow from the work that Vernadsky actually thought systematically according to the stated relationship, but spoke on this matter situationally. The speech by sociologist A.V. Krivoshapkin from Yakutsk was dedicated to the memory of the first Russian teachers who started the cultural revolution of the 30s. in the Far North, the first Soviet northern scientists. The question of the sociological measurement of the effectiveness of socio-economic policy in relation to the indigenous peoples of the North was presented by S. Kh. Khaknazarov. Based on data from social surveys of 2008 and 2010. in the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, he points, in particular, to the respondents’ dissatisfaction with certain government structures and speaks of ignorance of organizations dealing with the problem of preserving and developing national languages. Polls on - 168

4 also said that the future of the native language, in the opinion of people, depends to a greater extent not on the state, but on themselves. Economist L.V. Larchenko, reflecting on the prospects for preserving the traditional economy in the context of the ongoing industrial development of the North, notes that despite the importance of state financial support, it is necessary to preserve the production sphere of life of indigenous ethnic groups. The author talks about the need for marketing support for “commodity experiences” of the traditional economy, financial support for the “growing” of small businesses, and the importance of spreading a network of trading posts. Philosopher G.N. Bilyalova from Pavlodar (Republic of Kazakhstan) dedicated her speech to the methodological foundations of ethnomental memory. In relation to the problem, she characterizes the methodology of physicalist (relatively speaking, mentality = brain) and emergenceist monism (again, conditionally: mentality arises from the brain, but is not reducible to biological), on the basis of which she builds her own concept of ethnomental memory, including how mechanism for the transmission of ethnic culture. Lawyer A. A. Dorskaya discussed tolerance in interfaith communication. Noting the potential conflict between cosmopolitan tolerance and fundamentalism, the author notes the growing influence of the confessional factor and suggests looking for a solution to the problem through the legal regulation of relations. In particular, A. A. Dorskaya points to the Declaration of Principles of Tolerance, adopted by UNESCO in 1995, the norms of which, in her assessment, can become the basis for building harmonious interfaith, and therefore intercultural relations. Ethnocultural and national problems associated with the process of globalization were examined by political scientist D. S. Martyanov. The scientist focused his attention on the characteristics of the “by-products” of globalization: “micronations” of quasi-states, neo-tribes or bunds of ethnic or professional communities seeking to regulate relations within the same broader communities, as well as on the phenomenon of linguistic separatism. Historian T. B. Uvarova and specialist in the field of automated information retrieval L. V. Shemberko (INION RAS) devoted their report to information competence in ethnological and anthropological research and education. In this regard, we talked about visual anthropology, the websites of the Institute of Anthropology of Moscow State University, the Educational and Scientific Center for Social Anthropology of the Russian State University for the Humanities, the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after. Peter the Great, libraries “Ethnonational communities of Russia: historical-demographic and ethno-socio-cultural characteristics”, Anthropology Plus and other information databases. Cultural expert L.V. Sanzheeva from Ulan-Ude spoke about cultural values ​​in the process of forming modern education. The author advocates a spiritualized education, connected with the values ​​professed, including by religions, and directly speaks of the need for “harmony and integration of knowledge and faith.” Sociologist M. M. Shulga presented the ethnosocial attitudes of students in the North Caucasus Federal District in order to adjust educational work. The material for the report was the results of a survey of students in Dagestan, Chechnya, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, Alania and the Stavropol Territory. The author talks about the persistence of conflict potential among the region’s youth, the high probability of any social conflict transferring to an interethnic level, and the need to increase general culture youth, optimization of legal and political education, targeted formation of student ethnocultural competencies. Biologist V. G. Sveshnikov spoke on the issue of the “ecological vector” of the individual, as an element of ethnic and civil identity. Ethnic identity, the author believes, comes into conflict with civil 169

5 identity only if it is filled with intolerance. The ecological vector of knowledge, norms and rules of attitude towards nature are also intended to help avoid this prospect. The second section of the collection is called “Interaction between the state and public organizations in the conservation and sustainable development of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.” The section opens with a report by E. T. Pushkareva, a member of the Legislative Assembly of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, which is somewhat awkwardly titled “The role of local governments and regional authorities in the formation of (?) tolerance of compactly living different (?) ethnic groups.” Essentially, this is information about what and how is planned and done in our national policy in general and in Yamal, in particular, and what result we want to have. The text, unfortunately, is poorly edited; for example, the reference to the Constitution, which is actually linked not to the Basic Law, but to the decree of December 19, 2012, “hurts the eye.” A unique report on the activities of communities of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East and, at the same time, emphasizing pressing issues was the speech of the chairman of the Union of Communities A.G. Limanzo. The author notes the inextricable connection between communities and traditional types of economy, speaks of the need to develop public-private partnerships and the development of territorial public self-government, its community forms, and formulates proposals for planning the socio-economic development of indigenous peoples. A. G. Limanzo emphasizes the importance of preserving the status of communities non-profit organizations otherwise they will not withstand market competition. We are also talking about such an important condition for the sustainable development of a traditional economy as the legal securing of the necessary fishing areas, their inclusion in the territories of traditional environmental management, and the mandatory participation of industrial companies in financing traditional economy, on the transparency of spending funds generated through compensatory environmental payments to industry. Economist T. S. Mostakhova devoted her work to the problem of demographic security of the Arctic territories using the example of Sakha (Yakutia). The author notes an increase in population outflow due to the curtailment of the mining industry, a decrease in natural increase, linking the latter, including with changes in the value orientations of women and social disadvantage, as the reason for the reduction in life expectancy. In connection with the relevance of the issue of Arctic development and the unsustainable development of indigenous peoples, T. S. Mostakhova proposes measures to strengthen material, broader social support for the family and the development of healthcare. An official of the administration of the “Polar Region” from Naryan-Mar, I. S. Semenov, spoke in his speech about the support of municipal events reflecting the national identity of the Nenets culture, ethnographic camps, reindeer herders’ holidays, song festivals and other measures. The interaction of the public Nenets movement “Yasavey” with the authorities of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug was analyzed by speech therapist, Nenets language teacher and public figure Yu. A. Ledkova. The author, in particular, draws attention to paradoxical troubles. So, on the one hand, Nenets children do not have the opportunity to exercise their constitutional right to study their native language, on the other, teachers of the Nenets language are not in demand, and are sometimes forced to change their profession. Apparently that’s why they stopped cooking them in the district. At the same time, the author expresses hope for understanding national problems Nenets district administration and prospects for productive interaction with it by the national community. A short outline of the activities of the Vepsian culture society in the Republic of Karelia was presented by L. V. Chirkova. The report is not without interest even for a reader who is not interested in Karelia. The author showed how much our community could do: 170

6 Vepsian writing was restored, the language was returned to school, in the media, the Vepsians acquired the status of an indigenous small people of the North. The report ends with optimism that young people have also reached out to the Vepsian Culture Society. Postgraduate student of the Bashkir State University D. A. Gilmullina, citing the relevant federal and regional legislation, spoke about the role of political governance in the sustainable development of indigenous peoples of the North. A.V. Khuryun devoted his speech to the pressing topic of cooperation between the indigenous peoples of Sakhalin and oil companies, noting the existence of business contacts of the aborigines only with foreign (Exxon, British Petroleum, Sakhalin Energy), but not Russian companies. Rosneft and Gazprom prefer to cooperate not with indigenous communities, but with local authorities. Z. I. Strogalshchikova from Petrozavodsk, apparently, repeated her report on the European Charter for Regional Languages, which she made at the previous conference in 2011. V. V. Finashin gave a brief report on the activities of the branch of the Kamchatka community “Gamuly” that he heads In Petersburg. The third section of the collection, “The personnel training system for the regions of the North, Siberia and the Far East: problems of development and modernization,” opens with a report by the director of the Institute of Northern Peoples, L. B. Gashilova, dedicated to the problems of national philological and cultural education in the Russian State Pedagogical University. The author talks about the need to take into account the presence of a common cultural core and the characteristics of individual peoples, the importance of ethnic self-identification and at the same time the readiness to work in the multicultural northern regions of the country, informs the reader about the directions of scientific and methodological work of the institute. Art critic E. A. Aleksandrova devoted her report to an analysis of the education of the indigenous peoples of the North in Russia and Scandinavia, Canada, and Greenland. The work is interesting as a summary of relevant comparative information about individual countries and forms international cooperation. Thematically close to the work of E. A. Alexandrova, but more analytical, the report of V. P. Salinder and I. L. Nabok on the education of indigenous peoples in Canada turned out to be. The authors talk about a radical change in the programs of Aboriginal schools. If before the 70s. XX century Aboriginal schools were designed to separate them from their native language culture in order to adapt to modern civilization“white man”, then at the end of the century, in connection with the general turn in aboriginal politics, the recognition of the fact of genocide of the northern aborigines, the school turns towards ethnocultural values. Canada's achievement is the recognition of the Inuit-Vinuktitut language as the official language in which government records are conducted, and a course towards the formation of ethnic identity, considered as the basis of the Canadian civil identity. Comparing the current educational situation in the Canadian and Russian North, the authors note, respectively, the Canadian mono- and Russian multi-ethnic composition of the population. It is obvious that our conditions require much greater efforts from society and the state to preserve and develop northern national cultures. Ethnoregional aspects of teacher education at the Murmansk Pedagogical College were presented by its director N.F. Vukolova, who spoke about the need to educate an ethno-oriented personality, a culture of interethnic relations, and relevant events held in the educational institution. Philologist V.R. Dedyk devoted her speech to the experience of preserving the language and culture of the Karyak people, using the example of the activities of Palansky College in the Kamchatka region. The report of the historian M. Kh. Belyanskaya based on materials from the school of Sakha (Yakutia) is similar. The report by O. L. Bolotayeva on technologies for teaching the native language is of a methodological nature. Philologist and literary critic S. S. Dinislamova spoke about the importance of visiting lectures for the formation of value orientations of northerners, noting great interest, 171

7 positive attitude of northerners to visiting lectures in the outback. Another form of work aimed at preserving and developing national culture was presented in the report of an official from the education department of the Taimyr Dolgano-Nenets municipal district, D. S. Bolina, on the experience of the Entets language language nest. The administrator of the teacher training system, V. G. Leonova, spoke about the concept for the development of native languages ​​in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The section ends with a purely philological topic of the Lower Kolyma dialect of the Evenki language, presented in the report by S. I. Sharina. The fourth section, “Traditional culture and traditional values ​​in the modern socio-economic space of the regions of the North, Siberia and the Far East,” opens with a report by historian, specialist in ethnography of indigenous peoples of the North N.V. Lukina, dedicated to famous northern ethnographers, primarily our fellow countrymen: Tatyana Alexandrovna Moldanova, Marina Afanasyevna Lapina, Svetlana Alekseevna Popova, Timofey Alekseevich Moldanov, and also Galina Pavlovna Kharyucha. The author names the most significant recent scientific works of each, emphasizes the originality of their creativity as carriers and researchers traditional culture. About the spiritual dimension of identity arctic civilization teacher N.F. Zolotukhina spoke in her report, discussing the Vedic-Buddhist basis (?) of the worldview of the Ob Ugrians, which needs (!) adjustment (?) with the help of theosophy (?!) of the late 19th century. That's it, no more no less. A. A. Alekseev and S. A. Alekseeva presented a unique report on international research at the North-Eastern Federal University in Yakutsk. The authors consider the most important task to be fundamental interdisciplinary research into the historical evolution of the life support system of the northerners and their adaptive experience. Cooperation with the University of Cambridge significantly expands the possibilities of such work, primarily in terms of the exchange of research experience and the use of the latest research tools and technologies. Beautiful story Our fellow countrymen N.I. Velichko and E.A. Nyomysova presented about the life of generations of the famous Khanty family of the Nemysovs. The result is a very personal text, the main thing in which is hope, hope for the continuation of life, the family, for children and grandchildren, for the future. Based on expedition materials. M.E. Belyaeva made a report on the rituals of the indigenous inhabitants of Kamchatka. The author states the transformation of traditional rituals into mass holidays with the preservation of the main ritual elements, demonstrating this using the example of the rite/holiday of the “First Fish”, “Hololo” of the Karyaks, the rite of rebirth of the Sun and the New Year among the Evens, and the “Alhalalai” holiday among the Itelmens. The fact of the revival of the last two holidays through the efforts of folklore specialists and the duplication of the text in Russian is noted. Materials from the expeditions have been published, including audio CDs, and a number of holidays have been included in the catalog of objects of intangible cultural heritage of the peoples of Russia. Traditional values ​​and modernity in relation to the Kumandins became the subject of analysis by M. V. Belekova. The author notes the characteristic features of the current state of the ethnos: only a third knows the language, and therefore folklore is forgotten; epic storytelling is forgotten; we can only talk about “some fragments” of the traditional way of life in rural life Kumandins, which differs little from the peasant one. Food and associated household utensils are relatively well preserved. Moreover, utensils are often preserved in families intentionally as a kind of “ethnic marker”, as a memory of their ancestors. Wedding, maternity, funeral rites, preserved only in the memories of old people. Young people are indifferent to their traditions. Hope for the preservation of culture is probably given only by the revival of national self-awareness, which was facilitated by the official recognition of the Kumandins as an independent ethnic group and their inclusion in 172

8 among the indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East; as well as the formation of national communities and public organizations. The work on the age periodization of child socialization among the Komi people was presented by A. A. Filippova and Yu. G. Kustova. The authors note the Komi’s detailed ideas about the age-related physiology and psychology of the child; it is enough to refer to the identification of 6 stages from the age of one to two or three years. The emergence and strengthening of social coloring of attitudes towards boys and girls as they grow older can be traced. The role of toys, oral folk art in raising children of different ages. A. A. Filippova and Yu. G. Kustova express their belief in the need to turn to pedagogical traditions for the modern Komi family. Anthropologist P. Mankova from Norway presented a report on the social memory of the Sami. The author spoke about the differences in the worldview of the Sami living in Russia and the Scandinavian countries, changes in the policy of the Russian (Soviet) and Norwegian states on the Sami issue and its results, the process of assimilation in Norway and Russia and its features. Of interest to specialists will be the problem of the perception of the state as a threat to the Sami in Norway and Russia, the question of the nature of the relationship between the Sami and the Komi. Philologists N.V. Bogdanovskaya and V.L. Tiunova spoke about the content of the concepts “native land”, “far away land”, “pride” in the works of Marina Tsvetaeva, the “correct” understanding of which helps the process of ethnic self-identification of an individual. In the report “External Factors of Preservation and Reproduction of an Ethnic Group,” philosophers A. M. Bespalov and M. M. Prudnikova, following A. A. Khamidov, talk about three types of interaction between cultures: another culture is perceived only as a means of one’s own self-understanding; from a foreign culture only that which develops is borrowed own culture; cultures improve themselves in each other. A brief summary of cultural changes in Yakutia of the twentieth century in the field of science, education and culture was presented by philologist A. A. Petrov. M.V. Minina and her colleagues paid attention to the development of tourism in the northern regions of Russia. Teacher N.A. Matveeva talked about nurturing as initial stage ethnocultural education of the individual in Russian culture. The author examines the etymology of the word “nurture” and reveals the content of nurturing. Everything is fine, it’s not clear why there was a need to delve into those areas of knowledge that are not related to the author’s profession. We are talking about the ethnic history of the Russian people, the reproduction of scientifically unsubstantiated concepts of “the Russian people”, “Ursu Major”, etc. Teachers, of course, teachers, but why be so bold at a scientific conference? Pride has always been considered a sin in Rus'. Culturologists S. A. Sorokina and S. L. Chernyshova presented a report based on materials from field work supported by the Russian Humanitarian Foundation on the role of leisure in the prevention of social deviations among the youth of Chukotka. The authors say that the cultural demands of modern youth from among indigenous peoples are associated, first of all, with the preservation of a rapidly disappearing traditional culture - a request for traditional crafts, music and dance arts. To implement them, we also need a system in operation, which was lost in post-Soviet period, and personnel, and financing. Yu. A. Yankhunen discussed the experience in the field of preserving the languages ​​of small peoples of the North, characterizing the problems of “sick” languages, noting the experience of Canada and Finland, where some languages ​​(for example, Inari-Sami) survived, “stepping through one generation.” The fifth section of the collection is called “Formation of ethnic and civil identity, patriotism and tolerance as vectors of cultural and educational policy.” The section opens with a report by culturologist N. N. Gasheva “Ethnic and national in the texts of Russian literature. The author presents culture as a multi-level system in which both ethnic (folk) forms interact with their inherent pre-reflective, unconscious mental impulses and 173

9 national culture, where the mental principle is realized in reflective values. Their interaction is complex and contradictory. This idea is revealed through the concept of an automodel of the form in which the people think about themselves, through manifestations of the tragedy of the worldview, eschatology, messianism at both the ethnic and national levels of culture. Philosopher and sociologist O. L. Gnatyuk dedicated her speech to P. B. Struve’s views on national problems. The scientist analyzes the main concepts used by the thinker: the nation, understood constructivistically; national liberalism and typology of nationalism. The work, of course, is interesting in itself, and will be read with interest in the context of the so-called search for a national idea. Historian O. N. Khakimulina presented a short but very informative outline of the history of the formation and development of ethnological expertise/practical ethnography, including in our country. Psychologist V.I. Shcheglov responded to the draft Fundamentals of State Cultural Policy with his polemical speech on the issue of tolerance and the boundaries of intercultural pluralism. The author reflects on the relationship between the concepts “Russian”, “Russian”, “Orthodox”, not unreasonably reproaching the drafters of the Fundamentals project for the methodologically flawed concept of “center-periphery”, implying the presence of “elder” and “younger brothers”, in such an understanding of tolerance, which in reality turns into militant intolerance. In continuation of the topic raised by V. I. Shcheglov, philologist S. A. Khakhalova gave a linguistic-cognitive analysis of the concepts of “tolerance” “tolerance” “patience”. The author believes that “tolerance acts as a European and American value introduced into the Russian cultural, social and educational space.” Moreover, its use in Russian cultural tradition“allows you to hide the hidden meanings of an ideological sense with a negative assessment.” The philosopher I.M. Gabdulgafarova spoke about the value of human spiritual life in culture and education, noting, following the classics of Russian religious thought turn of the XIX century XX centuries as criteria for spirituality are sincerity, truthfulness, and conscience. The author views education as a continuous process of self-knowledge and self-improvement of a person, as a result of which a knowledge culture and a culture of human value preferences are formed. With a report on the activities of mosques as centers of spiritual and moral education using the example of the village. Tatar Kargala in the Orenburg region was performed by M. O. Shamsieva. Teacher I. V. Vlasova spoke about a certain social and philosophical orientation in the educational space of St. Petersburg. The author noted, on the one hand, the great interest of metropolitan periodicals in the second half XIX beginning XX centuries to social problems, and on the other hand, the beginning of the development of professional philosophy, including at St. Petersburg University, the influence of Russian philosophy on Russian literature. Legal scholar Z. Sh. Matchanova spoke about ethnic intolerance as one of the potential factors in the development of ethnic terrorism. The author analyzes the concepts of ethnic intolerance, ethnopolitical mobilization, and ethnic terrorism. The student conflict potential was studied by the philosopher N. A. Berkovich. Here the reader will find an analysis of the concepts of ethnic conflict potential and ethnic clash, a characterization of student conflict potential as situational, rhetorically categorical, irreconcilable, infantile, and a rather pessimistic assessment of the current situation and its prospects. The report of N. A. Berkovich echoes the work of teacher N. G. Markova on the culture of interethnic relations among students. Unlike a philosopher, a teacher sees the causes of conflict in intolerance, selfishness, internal hostility, ambition, etc., and the solution to the problem is through understanding the values ​​and characteristics of national cultures. The last thesis is based on the idea of ​​​​the existence of cultural universals, hopes for the rapprochement of cultures in the future. Yu. V. Rakh spoke about teaching tolerance in the course “Ethnosociology”.

10 mana. The author boldly begins by pointing out the formal nature of teaching tolerance in educational process. And he immediately proposes his measures to overcome this formalism in relation to the course “Ethnosociology”. Reads with interest. Well, how convincingly can pedagogy specialists judge this? With the support of the Russian Humanitarian Foundation, historian M. I. Vasiliev searched for traditions and innovations, general and local, in modern holiday brands of modern Russia. The report notes the universality of “big” national holidays, their best presentation in large, capital cities against the backdrop of the originality of regional local holidays. The latter are increasingly becoming the basis for the development of local tourism. At the same time, some of these holidays are built around literary, sometimes neo-mythical heroes (Kikimora, Baba Yaga, etc.); there are cases of “copying” these holidays, and unsuccessfully, from foreign models (Finnish Santa, Russian Father Frost), which is explained by banal considerations of quick profit. Overall real folk traditions, even among those currently “living”, are little used in tourism branding, the development of which is obviously at an early stage. The ethnocultural calendar, the creation of which was initiated by the participants of the St. Petersburg “Tolerance” program, was presented in his report by the philosopher M. G. Malashonok. The experience of compiling such a calendar was undertaken in Tambov. The work also required well-known local history research, through which the calendar compilers hoped to show the origins of certain holiday traditions. The ethnocultural calendar can be directly included in the teaching of certain general education subjects, used in organizing the search and research activities of students, and in the preparation of various elective courses. Teacher Z. Sh. Kasimova analyzed the problems of aggressiveness of adolescents with deviant behavior. The work identifies psycho-physiological, social, cultural and other reasons that cause such aggression, describes an experiment to determine the level of aggressiveness and its results. The report ends with recommendations for preventing deviant behavior among adolescents. Materials of the experiment, or rather the whole program practical work served as the basis for the report of historian M. G. Temina on tolerance and fostering a culture of interethnic relations using the example of students of the Nikolaev-on-Amur Pedagogical College. In fact, this is a report on what has been done and the prospects for further work on the formation of tolerance among the youth of Nikolaevsk-on-Amur. Students A.V. Kostin and K.E. Polskikh spoke about how and why Khakass folklore is used in mathematics lessons in Abakan. The authors testify to the increased interest of children in mathematical tasks compiled using folklore and local history material. Historian M. M. Kolovangina reported on the use of political information as a means of instilling patriotism in history classes. Graduate students I. A. Ponomareva and E. S. Kornilova discussed the problems of teaching history and patriotic education. The report was quite small, so to speak, indicating participation in a prestigious conference, for which the speakers should be congratulated. A conceptual analysis of the ethnic and professional components of personal identity using the theory of reference groups was carried out by sociologist N. A. Martyanova. Art critic I.F. Dvuzhilnaya from Belarus in her report presented the song as a means of forming historical memory among young people. Her assessments of the “educational impact” of various song genres may be of interest to all educators and teachers who carry out relevant work among young people. The sixth section of the collection is called “Traditions and innovations in the multicultural space of Russian regions.” It opens with a report on the work of the North-Eastern Federal University on the development of distance education for indigenous peoples by teacher L. S. Yadrikhinskaya and her colleagues. The question of the need to study foreign languages ​​in universities - 175

Historian M.I. Azarenkova put 11 Chinese teachers in her report. The historian I. A. Lapina spoke about the principle of polytechnicism in the educational projects of Proletkult and their significance for modern education. Teacher V.I. Prokopenko spoke about the threshold of spiritual revival on which Russia is located. We could not do without the Higher Spiritual Hierarchs, who helped us annex Crimea, and the Teachers of Shambhala. Problems and prospects for the development of ethnocultural traditions of the Khakass in the field of education were presented by teacher K. I. Sultanbaeva. The scientist notes such negative phenomena as the decline of the indigenous population, the reduction in the level of knowledge of the native language and the decline in its prestige. At the same time, the national intelligentsia managed to consolidate, establish a dialogue with the authorities, and revive some important folk traditions that had begun to be forgotten: the holiday of first milk, the holiday of Mother Earth, the Eastern New Year, etc. It is gratifying that the preparation and holding of these holidays is widely children are involved. hope for national revival The author connects it, first of all, with the restoration of the people’s knowledge of their native language. The speech of K. I. Sultanbaeva echoes the report of Yu. G. Kustova on the traditional food system of the Khakass. This is a retrospective look at the evolution of the food system, which changed under the influence of the Russian neighborhood in the pre-revolutionary period (pig farming, gardening, grain growing, mushroom picking), as well as the ups and downs Soviet history(collectivization, Great Patriotic War, etc.). However, despite the changes, in general, both the diet and the order of eating among the Khakass have generally remained the same. And apparently, there will remain a large modern interest to national cuisine. About the educational policy of Khakass State University named after. N. F. Katanova and the preservation of ethnocultural diversity were discussed by teachers A. G. Tolmashov and K. N. Odnokurtseva. In fact, this is a report on the work of the university in the specified area. But it certainly may be of interest to all specialists involved in higher education in national regions. “Yiddish communities” as a formative factor of the social space of the Jewish Autonomous Region were studied by graduate student Yu. N. Averina. Jews in the autonomous region are a minority. For them, like many small peoples, the language problem is acute. “Yiddish communities” are precisely intended to revive interest in the national culture and language, but, apparently, this cannot be done without government assistance. The phenomenon of seniority cultural complex The Buryats were presented by the philosopher Ts. Ts. Anandaeva. The report is read with interest. And where the author examines the views of one of the Buddhist clergy Dorji-Zhigmit Danzhinov, and where the phenomenon of seniority is revealed in his connections with the “political”, family relationships, ritual culture. The author emphasizes two things. Firstly, that the most important functions of seniority, rights and responsibilities are largely determined by the psychological universals of the Buryat people, such as collectivism, mutual assistance, authoritarianism. And, secondly, the fact that the phenomenon of seniority is multidimensional: seniority by position, seniority by education, seniority in the family, in society. Seniority relied on and permeated beliefs, everyday consciousness, legal culture, national psychology and pedagogy. Issues of methodological support for professional training of bachelors of pedagogical education by means museum pedagogy Teacher Ya. V. Makarchuk dedicated her speech. Teacher I.P. Kovalevskaya spoke about the use of active teaching methods in mathematics lessons. Lawyers A.V. Aleshina and V.A. Kosovskaya discussed traditions and innovations in the study of inheritance regulation in the course of private international law. Teacher V. E. Bagdasarova made a report “Modernization processes in the culture of traditional representation of form through education” (?!). In fact, she tried to analyze 176

12 to summarize certain images “in plane and volume”, identifying 5 groups: 1) ideal, 2) primitive, 3) folk (amateur), 4) craft (professional), 5) design and “reveal the meaning of these concepts.” Teachers E. I. Brazhnik and A. D. Abashina talked about the value of health and modernization processes in culture and education, while expressing paradoxical things, such as: “it is social relations, sociality as such, society that has been and will remain one of the main obstacles on the way to achieving an individual’s ideal of health.” As if personality, not to mention ideals, is possible outside of society. At the same time, the authors, apparently, do not consider traditional society, as opposed to modern society, to be a “society”. The content of the speech of teachers A.V. Rubtsova and Yu.V. Eremin is best evidenced by the title of the report: “Updating the meaning-defining function of productivity-oriented educational environment in the field of foreign language education in higher education.” Teacher M. A. Ivanova spoke about the interaction between education reform and tradition, drawing attention to the glaring problems: the decline in the quality of education, the degradation of language and “historical deafness,” the erosion of traditional moral guidelines. As if to continue the theme of cultural heritage (including folklore) as a means of moral and aesthetic education of schoolchildren, teachers I. A. Nuzhnaya and E. A. Samostrelskaya spoke. Report by teacher L.-E. I. Dargeviciene “Innovation-oriented teacher: reality and possibilities” is based on the results of a sociological study. The author comes to the conclusion that there is a contradiction “between the subjectively perceived need to update the education process and< >low motivation and insufficient professional readiness of teachers for innovative activities.” At the same time, “innovation activity” itself is considered necessary a priori, although what it should be is not defined. Teachers I.V. Abramova and E.V. Malysheva devoted their report to the role of teaching history in the formation of Russian patriotism, highlighting theoretical and practical aspects. The report by teachers Yu. G. Osieva and I. A. Krivashkina gives a brief but at the same time meaningful description of the author’s set of activities aimed at developing students’ speech culture. Interesting are the observations and thoughts of the rural teacher E.V. Morus from the Surgut region of Ugra, presented by her in a report on her experience of working with children who came from the Khanty camps. I would like to express my gratitude to the author for such a highly professional and civil position. The report by N. S. Chertenkova is devoted to some organizational problems of modernization of education. In continuation of this report, G. P. Korneeva and G. P. Maltseva discussed the need to teach teachers to work on the Internet, how necessary condition“listen and hear” your students. Section VII is called “Preservation and updating of language, folklore, literature, traditional culture as a condition for the sustainable development of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.” It opens with a report by philologist O. M. Goncharova “ Ethnocultural world in the genre of "children's autobiography". The author proceeds from the idea of ​​the literature of the peoples of the North as a “relay<...>cultural memory fundamental to the ethnos.” The features of the northern “children's autobiography” are highlighted. This is her focus not on the individual I, but on the collective We, her drama and even tragedy of the split-gap between “civilization” and “tradition,” the ability of a little person to “speak and be silent in all languages,” the ability to experience everyday life as being. Philologist M. Ya. Barmich dedicated her speech to the work of one of the founders of Nenets literature, Nikolai Semenovich Vylka. Some development results literary language Philologist N.G. Zaitseva tried to let down the Vepsians. The author analyzes the activities of Karelia scientists to revive the language and culture of the Vepsians, their folklore heritage, the development of the Vepsians - 177

13 Russian language as a newly written language. Expresses hope for the possibility of revitalizing culture, based on the experience of creating a new epic poem “Virantanaz”. V. B. Bakula devoted her report to the history of the development of literature of the Russian Sami. Philologist A. M. Novozhilova spoke about the role of landscape in the lyrics of the Dolgan poetess Evdokia (Ogdo) Aksenova. A new source for studying the poetics of the Nivkh epic was discovered and described by the historian A. B. Ostrovsky. We are talking about the extensive epic text “Settlement of the Black Land Bay,” recorded on Sakhalin by the Nivkh writer V. M. Sangi in 1974. Studying the text, according to the author, can become “a decisive factor for creating a holistic, well-founded concept of the heroic epic of the Nivkhs.” Philologists L. B. and A. I. Gashilov devoted their presentation to the topic of epic folklore in the works of Vladimir Mikhailovich Sanga. The traditions of environmental education of children in the works of the Evenki writer Andrei Krivoshapkin were examined by history teacher T. A. Petrova. The author notes, among other things, the unobtrusiveness and delicacy of parental education among the Evenks, and draws attention to his hero’s recognition of the possibility of returning “to the traditional way of life of modern young people, combining the European level of culture with the irreplaceable experience of their ancestors.” Philologist V. G. Belolyubskaya spoke about the legends and myths of the Evens of the Gotnikan clan of the Oymyakon region of Yakutia, who once again recalled the need to record folklore texts that are passing into oblivion with older generations. The motives for preserving the native language and its role in preserving the ethnic group in the work of the Evenki writer, doctor of philology Galina Ivanovna Varlamova-Keptuke were analyzed by her colleague G. I. Demidova, who noted, among other things, her heroine’s interest in ethnic names, proverbs and sayings, their allegorical nature , the “bizarre pattern” of Evenki speech. Analysis of the functioning of the languages ​​of indigenous peoples in the Ulchsky district Khabarovsk Territory presented in a speech by historian M.V. Osipova. A sociological survey she conducted recorded a paradox: the majority of respondents do not know the language and do not need it, since they have broken with the traditional way of life, but the same majority recognizes learning the language as very desirable and preschool institutions and at school. The phonetic aspect of the speech of the Norsk Evenks was studied by O. N. Morozova, who noted the preservation of the phonetic features of the speech of the Norsk group of Evenks, lost by their neighbors, who were largely influenced by the Russian language. V. E. Cheboksarova reported on the uniqueness of the vocabulary associated with the names of food products and dishes of the Yukaghirs, who determined that “the vocabulary associated with the names of food products and dishes of the Yukaghirs goes back to the original vocabulary and is a stable vocabulary of the language, and also serves as the basis for formation of new lexical units and descriptive names." The speech of historian A.I. Kirillova, dedicated to the history and current state of language teaching, is permeated with concern for the state and development of the Evenki language. Language lessons at school do not solve this problem. It is necessary to increase the number of hours spent studying it, teach at least a few more subjects in the language, and conduct official document flow in two languages. The author comes to these conclusions. ABOUT current state the study and development of the culture and languages ​​of the indigenous peoples of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, using the example of the Bilibino region, was reported by student T. A. Terletskaya and, apparently, her supervisor, culturologist S. L. Chernyshova. The authors noted the processes of degradation of ethnic culture and the efforts of the authorities and the public to revive it, including the development of folk arts and crafts, the work of a local museum, a leisure and folk art center, and modern ethnic holidays. Philologist A. N. Zhukova spoke about the preservation and development of the language and culture of the Koryaks, in particular, proposing to finance those educational institutions “that themselves are active in resolving issues related to the preservation and development

Even during the life of Yaroslav the Wise and especially after his death, the fragmentation of Rus' into small appanage principalities with their own table began. Strengthening princely strife in the 12th century. led to the active separation of individual lands. In the XII – early XIII centuries. in different Russian lands their own art schools appeared: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn, Ryazan, schools of Polotsk and Smolensk. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each brings something of its own, characteristic only of this land, associated with everyday characteristics and artistic achievements, with socio-political and geographical conditions.
Each land, each principality has a main city, diligently defended, like all medieval cities. The upper part of the city, the most fortified, is the detinets, later more often called the Kremlin, the lower part is the settlement with a trading area, also often surrounded by a rampart and wooden walls. Small towns were strengthened in a similar way.

Kyiv traditions were preserved for the longest time in Chernigov. In the 12th century. The “striped” masonry system is being replaced by a new, row-based, equal-layer masonry system made of rectangular bricks. To prevent the facades from looking poor, they are modestly decorated with arcature belts, also made in brick, multi-step portals and niches. Some Chernigov churches, such as the now restored Church of Boris and Gleb, had pilasters with beautiful capitals decorated with white stone carvings. The Church of Boris and Gleb is a majestic six-pillar temple, like another Chernigov church that emerged as a result of excavations - the Annunciation Cathedral of 1186, which preserved fragments of a richly decorated mosaic floor.

In the Chernigov Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, with the help of a special system of girth arches and false decorative zakomaras - kokoshniks at the base of the drum - a design of amazing simplicity was achieved architectural image rapid upward movement while maintaining the traditional layout of a four-pillar, three-apse temple. There is a version that the Chernigov church was built by the architect Pyotr Miloneg.

The Pyatnitsky Church itself is a modification of the already found image of increasing movement (thanks to the high pedestal of the central part, bearing the drum and the head) - in the Transfiguration Cathedral of the St. Euphrosyne Monastery in Polotsk, executed by the architect John in 1159 in the ancient technique of “striped” masonry with a “recessed” nearby” and has preserved beautiful fresco paintings, still awaiting their complete clearing. We see the same principle in the Smolensk Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, built by order of Prince David Rostislavich in the 80-90s of the 12th century, with its cubic main building, as if elevated above three vestibules. The upward direction is emphasized by beam pilasters of complex profile. The building material here is also brick, but Smolensk architects preferred to hide it under whitewash. Highly qualified teams of builders worked in Smolensk; here they found a creative embodiment of the traditions of Byzantium, the Balkans, and the Romanesque West. The same variety of cultural contacts is characteristic of the Galician-Volyn school, which developed in the west of Rus', in the Dniester region. The originality of the Galician-Volyn culture was especially manifested in the style of the chronicles, in their complex ornate style with bold, unexpected turns: “Let us begin countless armies and great labors and frequent wars and many seditions, uprisings and many rebellions” - with these words the Galician-Volyn chronicle begins .

The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, from which they built churches of a wide variety of plans: four- and six-pillars, pillarless, and round in plan - rotundas. Unfortunately, Galician architecture is known to us mainly from literary descriptions, but as a result of archaeological work recent years the nature of this art school. Restore the original appearance of temples Western Rus' It is especially difficult because the Catholic Church has been destroying all traces of Russian culture for many centuries. The Church of Panteleimon near Galich (early 13th century), with its perspective portal and carved capitals, speaks of high level Galician architectural school. It is interesting to note that if the masonry technique and decoration of Galician churches are associated with Romanesque architecture, then the plan of these four-pillar cross-domed churches is typical of Russian architecture of the 12th century. Let us note here that in those terrible decades of the second half of the 13th century, when most of the Russian lands were scorched by the Mongol-Tatars, it was a relatively prosperous time for Galich and Volyn (the western part of the principality). Center artistic life then the new capital of the Galician principality becomes Kholm, where particularly active construction is carried out under Prince Daniil. The Church of St. John Chrysostom, for example, was decorated with carved stone, colored and gilded, the carving was performed by the Russian master Avdiy in 1259. Inside the temple, the floor, lined with copper slabs and majolica, sparkled. And such a church was not the only one, which is confirmed by excavations.

Galician-Volyn architecture experienced a certain influence of Western early Gothic architecture. This is evidenced by round rotunda churches (for example, the remains of a church in Vladimir-Volynsky), and new type brick - block (and not flat Kiev plinth). In the middle of the 14th century. The Galicia-Volyn lands lost their independence and became part of Poland and Lithuania.

The art of the Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod-Pskov lands is developing most interestingly. The lands of Vladimir and Suzdal, rich in forests and rivers, stretched from Ustyug to Murom. The Slavs, who settled these territories in the 9th–10th centuries, merged with local tribes Finno-Ugric group (Mer, Ves, Muroma), creating a center of the Great Russian people. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave birth to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded a city named after himself - Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereslavl-Zalessky, in which he built the Cathedral of the Transfiguration, and in his princely residence Kideksha - a church in honor of the martyred princes Boris and Gleb (1152). At the dawn of the formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal artistic tradition, in the 50s of the 12th century, mainly Galician craftsmen worked here.

Even during the life of Yaroslav the Wise and especially after his death, the fragmentation of Rus' into small appanage principalities with their own table began. Strengthening princely strife in the 12th century. led to the active separation of individual lands. In the XII – early XIII centuries. in different Russian lands their own art schools appeared: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn, Ryazan, schools of Polotsk and Smolensk. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each brings something of its own, characteristic only of this land, associated with everyday characteristics and artistic achievements, with socio-political and geographical conditions. Each land, each principality has a main city, diligently defended, like all medieval cities. The upper part of the city, the most fortified, is the detinets, later more often called the Kremlin, the lower part is the settlement with a trading area, also often surrounded by a rampart and wooden walls. Small towns were strengthened in a similar way.

Kyiv traditions were preserved for the longest time in Chernigov. In the 12th century. The “striped” masonry system is being replaced by a new, row-based, equal-layer masonry system made of rectangular bricks. To prevent the facades from looking poor, they are modestly decorated with arcature belts, also made in brick, multi-step portals and niches. Some Chernigov churches, such as the now restored Church of Boris and Gleb, had pilasters with beautiful capitals decorated with white stone carvings. The Church of Boris and Gleb is a majestic six-pillar temple, like another Chernigov church that emerged as a result of excavations - the Annunciation Cathedral of 1186, which preserved fragments of a richly decorated mosaic floor.

In the Chernigov Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, with the help of a special system of girth arches and false decorative zakomars - kokoshniks at the base of the drum - an architectural image of rapid upward movement was created with amazing simplicity while maintaining the traditional layout of a four-pillar, three-apse temple. There is a version that the Chernigov church was built by the architect Pyotr Miloneg.

The Pyatnitsky Church itself is a modification of the already found image of increasing movement (thanks to the high pedestal of the central part, bearing the drum and the head) - in the Transfiguration Cathedral of the St. Euphrosyne Monastery in Polotsk, executed by the architect John in 1159 in the ancient technique of “striped” masonry with a “recessed” nearby” and has preserved beautiful fresco paintings, still awaiting their complete clearing. We see the same principle in the Smolensk Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, built by order of Prince David Rostislavich in the 80-90s of the 12th century, with its cubic main building, as if elevated above three vestibules. The upward direction is emphasized by beam pilasters of complex profile. The building material here is also brick, but Smolensk architects preferred to hide it under whitewash. Highly qualified teams of builders worked in Smolensk; here they found a creative embodiment of the traditions of Byzantium, the Balkans, and the Romanesque West. The same variety of cultural contacts is characteristic of the Galician-Volyn school, which developed in the west of Rus', in the Dniester region. The originality of the Galician-Volyn culture was especially manifested in the style of the chronicles, in their complex ornate style with bold, unexpected turns: “Let us begin countless armies and great labors and frequent wars and many seditions, uprisings and many rebellions” - with these words the Galician-Volyn chronicle begins .

The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, from which they built churches of a wide variety of plans: four- and six-pillars, pillarless, and round in plan - rotundas. Unfortunately, we know Galician architecture mainly from literary descriptions, but as a result of archaeological work in recent years, the character of this art school is becoming increasingly clear. It is especially difficult to restore the original appearance of the churches of Western Rus', because the Catholic Church for many centuries destroyed all traces of Russian culture. The Church of Panteleimon near Galich (beginning of the 13th century), with its perspective portal and carved capitals, speaks of the high level of the Galician architectural school. It is interesting to note that if the masonry technique and decoration of Galician churches are associated with Romanesque architecture, then the plan of these four-pillar cross-domed churches is typical of Russian architecture of the 12th century. Let us note here that in those terrible decades of the second half of the 13th century, when most of the Russian lands were scorched by the Mongol-Tatars, it was a relatively prosperous time for Galich and Volyn (the western part of the principality). The center of artistic life then became the new capital of the Galician principality - Kholm, where particularly active construction was carried out under Prince Daniel. The Church of St. John Chrysostom, for example, was decorated with carved stone, colored and gilded, the carving was performed by the Russian master Avdiy in 1259. Inside the temple, the floor, lined with copper slabs and majolica, sparkled. And such a church was not the only one, which is confirmed by excavations.

Galician-Volyn architecture experienced a certain influence of Western early Gothic architecture. This is evidenced by round rotunda churches (for example, the remains of a church in Vladimir-Volynsky), and a new type of brick - block brick (and not the flat Kiev plinth). In the middle of the 14th century. The Galician-Volyn lands lost their independence and became part of Poland and Lithuania.

The art of the Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod-Pskov lands is developing most interestingly. The lands of Vladimir and Suzdal, rich in forests and rivers, stretched from Ustyug to Murom. The Slavs, who settled these territories in the 9th–10th centuries, merged with the local tribes of the Finno-Ugric group (Mer, Ves, Muroma), creating a center of the Great Russian people. On these lands, the princes founded new cities: Yaroslav the Wise gave birth to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded a city named after himself - Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereslavl-Zalessky, in which he built the Cathedral of the Transfiguration, and in his princely residence Kideksha - a church in honor of the martyred princes Boris and Gleb (1152). At the dawn of the formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal artistic tradition, in the 50s of the 12th century, mainly Galician masters worked here.

CULTURE OF VLADIMIR.

The art of the Vladimir land acquires its distinctive features and reaches its peak under Yuri’s son, Andrei Bogolyubsky, who moved the table to Vladimir and strengthened the city with a wooden wall. The Ipatiev Chronicle says about him that he “made Volodimir a great deal.” The surviving monument of those years is the Golden Gate in Vladimir, built in the western part of the city, facing Moscow, and so named in imitation of those in Kiev: two powerful supports (a triumphal arch and a defense unit at the same time) with the gate church of the Deposition of the Robe (1164). Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158–1161), a majestic six-pillar temple, built from large slabs of local white limestone tightly fitted to each other with backfilling (“but” - crushed stone, construction remains that filled the space between two slabs). An arcature belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; the portals are perspective, the windows are slit-like. The spinning wheels are (still very sparingly) decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The majestic helmet of the powerful drum sparkles with gold. The cathedral rises proudly above Klyazma. The interior of the cathedral was no less solemn, as contemporaries wrote, richly decorated with precious utensils. Both Russian and foreign craftsmen took part in the construction of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral. As in Chernigov, Romanesque features appeared on this land mainly in decoration, in carvings, but in the main thing - in design, plan, in the design of volumes - Kyiv traditions were reflected. It is not for nothing that Vladimir Monomakh built the Rostov Cathedral on the model of the Kyiv Assumption Cathedral (to the “same measure”, as stated in the Pechersk Patericon - a collection of tales about the monks of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery).

In memory of the successful campaign of the Suzdal troops against the Volga Bulgars, one of the most poetic ancient Russian churches was founded - the Intercession on the Nerl (1165). It is dedicated to the new holiday of the Mother of God cycle - the Feast of the Intercession. (According to one ancient source, the prince built a temple “in the meadow,” grieving over the death of his beloved son Izyaslav.) The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl River is like a typical one-domed four-pillar temple of the 12th century. It displays all the features characteristic of Vladimir architecture: slit-like windows, perspective portals, an arcature belt along the facades and apse cornice. But unlike the Assumption Cathedral, it is all directed upward, vertical lines predominate in it, which is emphasized by narrow beams, windows, semi-columns on the apses, and even by the fact that, starting from the arcature belt, the walls at the top are somewhat inclined inward. Excavations by N.N. Voronin showed that in the time of Prince Andrei the temple looked somewhat different: it was surrounded on three sides by a gallery-promenade and stood on an artificial hill, paved with white slabs, the construction of which was necessary, since the meadow was flooded in the spring. The interior of the temple is expanded by moving the pillars of the side naves closer to the walls, and in this case the height of the naves is 10 times greater than their width.

The three wide central spindles of the three facades of the temple are decorated with the figure of David the psalmist, with a harp on his knees, surrounded by animals and birds, singing all the diversity of the world, glorifying “all the creatures of the earth” (“Praise the Lord in heaven, praise him, all the creatures of the earth”). The motif of a woman's mask is also often found. The harmony of forms, lightness of proportions, and poetry of the image amazes the Church of the Intercession of anyone who sees this amazing creation of ancient Russian architects. The chronicle says that craftsmen “from all lands” took part in the construction of the Intercession Church.

There is a legend that Andrei Bogolyubsky was carrying the icon “Our Lady of Vladimir” from Kiev, but before reaching Vladimir 10 km, the horses stumbled, and this was regarded by the prince as a sign to build his suburban residence there. This is how, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace (1158–1165) arose, or rather, a real castle-fortress, which included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince’s tower, etc. In front of the cathedral on the square there was an eight-column ciborium (canopy) topped with a tent with a holy bowl of water. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. It was probably in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloodied, crawled up the stairs, as it is unforgettably vividly described in the chronicle. Excavations in recent years have also discovered the lower parts of the church, the ciborium and the remains of stone walls around it.

During the reign of Vsevolod III, nicknamed Vsevolod the Big Nest for his numerous offspring, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir received the appearance that is familiar to us. After the fire of 1185, the cathedral was rebuilt into a five-domed one, equipped with a gallery, and thus the old St. Andrew's Church was, as it were, enclosed in a new shell. On the central hill of Vladimir, in the complex of a palace that has not survived to this day, the Demetrius Cathedral (1194–1197) was erected in honor of Vsevolod’s patron, Dmitry of Thessaloniki, a single-domed, three-nave, four-pillar, originally having towers, galleries, and a cathedral of the same clear and precise design, the same as the Church of the Intercession, but significantly different from it. Dmitrievsky Cathedral does not point upward, but stands solemnly, calmly and majestically on the ground. Not lightness and grace, but epic strength emanates from his impressively massive image, as from epic hero Ilya Muromets, which is achieved by proportions: the height of the wall is almost equal to the width, whereas in the temple on the Nerl it is several times greater than the width. A special feature of Demetrius Cathedral is its carvings. A powerful columnar belt divides the facades horizontally into two parts, the entire upper part is completely decorated with carvings. In the middle zakomars, as in the Church of the Intercession, David is also depicted, and on one of the spindles there is a portrait of Prince Vsevolod with his younger son Dmitry and other, older sons approaching him on both sides. The rest of the space is occupied by images of animals and “birds”, filled in abundance with floral ornaments, fairy-tale and everyday motifs (hunter, fighting people, centaur, mermaid, etc.). Everything is mixed: people, animals, the real and the fabulous - and everything together makes up unity. Many of the motifs have a long “pagan history”, inspired by pagan symbols, and once had an ancient magical, incantatory meaning (the “tree of life” motif, images of birds, lions, griffins, two birds fused with tails, etc.). The manner of depiction is purely Russian, flat, in some cases coming from the skills of wooden carving, in which the Russian people were so skilled. The arrangement of reliefs is “lowercase”, as in folk art, in the art of embroidering towels. If under Prince Andrey craftsmen “from the Germans” still worked, then under the successors of Vsevolod III other cities of the principality began to rise: Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod. Under Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary was built in Suzdal (1122–1125, the upper part was rebuilt in the 16th century), six-pillared, with three porches and initially with three domes. One of the last buildings of the pre-Mongol era was St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky in honor of St. George (1230–1234): a cubic temple with three porches, unfortunately rebuilt in the 15th century. and became, as a result of the restructuring, much more squat. The zakomars and archivolts of the portals have retained their keel shape. A distinctive feature of the cathedral in Yuryev is its plastic decoration, for the building was completely covered with carvings. Reconstruction of the 15th century also violated its decorative system. Individual figures of saints and scenes of the Holy Scriptures were made mainly in high relief and on separate slabs inserted into the walls, and continuous patterned ornaments - plant and animal - were performed directly on the walls and in flat carvings. Covered from top to bottom with a carving pattern, the temple really resembles some kind of intricate box or a giant board woven with a pattern. Religious and political themes, fairy-tale plots, and a military theme are reflected here; it is not without reason that on the main, northern façade, warriors are depicted - patrons of the grand ducal house of the Vladimir land, and above the portal - St. George, patron of Grand Duke Yuri, in chain mail and with a shield decorated with the figure of a leopard - the emblem of the Suzdal princes.

The typical temple of the feudal era is not this majestic six-pillar cathedral, but a small cubic one-domed church with one or three apses, of which the two side ones are lowered, such as, for example, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa in 1198, built (already in accordance with tastes of the Novgorod settlement) by Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich at the settlement.

Spas-Nereditsa as a princely order is an exception in the second half of the 12th century. From now on, these churches become the parish churches of the street, or “end”; they are created with the money of the “ulichans” (residents of one street) or a rich boyar, from local lime slabs, rubbed with mortar interspersed with rows of bricks. The local stone did not lend itself well to carving - and Novgorod churches, in fact, have no decor; it is difficult to maintain clarity and geometric lines in it, as with brickwork - and the curvature of the walls erected without a plumb line, the unevenness of the planes give Novgorod churches a peculiar “sculpture”, plasticity . The refined luxury of Kiev was alien to trade, craft, business, and enterprising Novgorod. Democratic simplicity, severity, impressive strength are his aesthetic ideal. As Abbot Daniel said, “not cunning, but simple.” An analogue of the Nereditsa Church, with minor modifications, can be found in the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga (second half of the 12th century). Since the 12th century. Novgorodians began to cover brick churches with whitewash.

The Novgorod school acquired its own identity in the 12th century. and in painting. If the fresco painting of 1108 in Novgorod Sofia is characterized by the highest degree of conventionality of frozen figures, so familiar to the early days of ancient Russian art; If in the fragmentarily preserved painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Anthony Monastery (1125) the influence of the Romanesque and Balkan schools is felt, and in the scene “Job with his wife” of the St. Nicholas Cathedral the classical tradition of Kiev monuments is obvious, then in the painting of the St. George Cathedral in Staraya Ladoga, where he worked, it is more likely In general, the Byzantine master, the planar, linear, graphic principle prevails (for example, in the fresco “The Miracle of George on the Serpent” with its exquisite linear rhythm and color, in which Saint George the serpent fighter is perceived as a valiant warrior, defender of the borders of the Russian Land). The ornamental principle can be seen even more strongly on the preserved faces of saints in the frescoes of the Church of the Annunciation near the village of Arkazhi (now within the city), whose hair and beards are modeled using linear highlights - “gaps”.

A true “encyclopedia of medieval life,” according to V.N. Lazarev, the artistic expression of the medieval worldview was the paintings of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa that were lost during the Great Patriotic War. The temple was painted the next year after its construction, in 1199. Frescoes covered the walls entirely, from bottom to top, like a carpet, regardless of the tectonics of the wall. Their arrangement is traditional, canonical. The composition of the Ascension was depicted in the dome, the prophets in the drum, the evangelists in the sails, the Our Lady of the Sign in the central apse, the Eucharist below, even lower the priestly order, and then the Deesis. On the walls were the Feasts (i.e. scenes from the life of Christ and Mary) and the Passion of Christ. On the western wall, as usual, the Last Judgment was presented, which was supported by the inscription: “The Last Judgment.” The apostles and angels looked with sorrow and anxiety at humanity full of sinfulness; For added credibility, some scenes of hell are provided with explanatory inscriptions: “Mraz”, “Gnashing of teeth”, “Pitch darkness”. Only in democratic Novgorod could a scene depicting a rich man be born, to whom, in response to a request to “drink some water,” the devil brings a flame - visual evidence of the punishment of the rich in the afterlife. The inscription near the naked rich man sitting on a bench in hell reads: “Father Abram, have mercy on me, and eat Lazor, so that he may dip his finger in water and cool my tongue because I am unable to do so in this flame.” To which the devil replies: “Rich friend, drink from the burning flame.”

CULTURE OF NOVGOROD AND PSKOV.

At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, when the unity of Kievan Rus disintegrated and individual principalities and cities gained independence, Novgorod also separated from Kyiv. In its culture, as well as in the culture of Pskov, which was closely adjacent to it, features of originality began to appear more and more clearly. Novgorod as a city took shape during the 11th-12th centuries. The Kremlin and Sofia symbolized the political center of Novgorod. Around the Kremlin, on both sides of the Volkhov, there are five ends of the city, inhabited by representatives of various professions. Directly from the Kremlin across the Volkhov there was a wooden bridge to the veche square. Already created by the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Sophia of Novgorod was marked by certain features of originality, which are clearly expressed in the architecture of the 12th century.

In the middle of the 12th century. In Novgorod, princely construction almost ceases. Many small parish churches are springing up. In many Novgorod buildings it is striking that the walls are not built plumb, but by eye. These irregularities in particular do not deprive Novgorod buildings of stability as a whole. The curvature of the lines gives the impression that they are sculpted. Novgorodians built most of their temples from brick. Since the 12th century. they began to cover them with lime. Most of the Novgorod churches of the 12th century. was painted with frescoes. Some of the paintings were closer to Byzantine traditions, while others more fully demonstrated the original Novgorod artistry. These original features were most fully reflected in the paintings of the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa and the Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov.

In the 70s XIV century major event The artistic life of Novgorod was the activity of the visiting master Theophanes the Greek. Whose creativity connected the traditions of Byzantine and Russian culture. A brilliant artist, a “philosopher,” as his contemporaries called him. He gave his great skill to his new homeland. Behind him stood the creative experience of Byzantium. Soon after the completion of construction of the largest of the new buildings in Novgorod. The Transfiguration Cathedral on Ilinaya Street, Feofan decorated it with paintings. Only a small part of this painting in the dome, altar and behind the choir has survived to this day. In the dome, Feofan immortalized people of strong will, powerful, indestructible legendary heroes. On the eastern wall is the “Trinity”, next to it is the “Our Lady of the Sign”. At the end of the 14th century. Feofan the Greek was “lured” from Novgorod to Moscow, and here he was appreciated no less than in Novgorod. As the chronicle reports, imitators appeared here. He was commissioned to paint a number of Kremlin churches; he worked in the princely mansion of Vladimir Andreevich. While working, he was surrounded by a crowd of admirers. Of the reliable Moscow works of Theophanes, only the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral (1405) has survived to this day, in which he belongs to the middle part of the rank - the Pantocrator, Mary, John, archangels and some other figures.

In the XIV–XV centuries. Novgorod churches, as before, were erected by order of boyars, clergy, rich artisans, merchants, “street residents,” residents of one of the “ends,” as craft settlements are called, members of one corporation. The lively creative imagination of the creators and folk artistic tastes determine the appearance of the buildings. From the end of the 13th century. in Novgorod, building materials and masonry techniques are changing: stone is not interspersed with cement mortar plinth, and the walls are built entirely from local, poorly hewn, rough stone, and only in the vaults, drums and window openings is brick used, less flat than the old plinth. Of the three apses in the temple, only one remains. In 1292, the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna was built, in 1345 - the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (destroyed during the Great Patriotic War and restored), in 1352 - the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Pole (not restored). The classical type of temple, simple and structurally clear, was created in the second half of the 14th century, and there is no analogue to it in the architecture of other countries. These are, first of all, the Church of Fyodor Stratilates on the stream (1360–1361), built at the expense of the mayor Semyon Andreevich and his mother Natalya, and the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1374), similar to the Church of Fyodor Stratelates, but larger and slimmer. Their distinctive feature is the exterior decor, in which the Novgorodians have always been very restrained, and the covering along the so-called multi-blade curve. The wealthy customers of these churches wanted to see spectacular structures built at their expense. Therefore, the facade, which, by the way, is again dissected by blades, is decorated with such details as decorative niches, edges above the windows, icon cases, circles, crosses, an ornamental belt under the drum windows (“curbs” and “towns”) and on the apse (Church of Fyodor Stratelates ). Even more complex decor is the Church of the Transfiguration. Complex profiles of portals and windows, multi-lobed arches of facade niches, and carved crosses have been added here. (The eight-sided completion of the Savior on Ilyin, which we see, is the result of alterations in the 16th century.) Churches were built according to this type throughout the 14th and entire 15th centuries (the Church of John the Evangelist in Radokovice 1384, the Church of Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki 1406 and etc.). In parallel with new construction in Novgorod in the 15th century. monuments of the 12th century were reconstructed, which to a greater extent was associated with the general policy of the Novgorod boyars, who were actively fighting the influence of Moscow at that time. This also explains the fact that the Novgorodians in 1433 directly turned to German craftsmen. The political orientation of the Novgorod boyars and their tastes were conservative. Under Bishop Euthymius (Evfimiy II the Bradaty, as he is known in history, occupied the lord’s see, i.e., was the archbishop of Novgorod for 30 years), the lord’s courtyard was built, which was located next to the St. Sophia Cathedral. It becomes a real feudal castle, in which, among the civil buildings, a watchtower is erected - a “watchtower”, reminiscent in design of watchtowers known to the Slavs since time immemorial. The main building of this palace - the Faceted Chamber of 1433, in which the Council of Gentlemen met - was executed by a German master invited by Euthymius together with the Novgorodians. It is covered with a Gothic vault on ribs. It is significant, however, that the ribs are decorative, they converge towards the central pillar, and this support on the central pillar is a favorite constructive technique of Russian architects, used by craftsmen in all monastery refectories.

At the end of the 15th century. Moscow subjugated Novgorod, resorting to the most brutal measures. The veche bell - a symbol of Novgorod independence - was removed and taken out of the city, and from then on arose poetic legend that he crashed in Valdai, when he was being taken to Moscow, for thousands of “Valdai bells.” Many noble families of Novgorodians were destroyed or forcibly evicted from their hometown, and Moscow merchants settled in Novgorod. The new customer dictated new tastes. The independent development of Novgorod architecture ended. The geographical position of Pskov and the constant danger of attack by the Livonian Order determined the development in Pskov at that time mainly of defensive architecture and the construction of fortresses. The stone walls of the Pskov detinets (Krom) and the “Dovmontov city” attached to it are growing. By the 16th century The fortress walls of Pskov stretch for 9 km. The walls of the Izborsk fortress located near Pskov, which withstood eight German sieges, still amaze with their majesty and inaccessibility.

The independent construction school in Pskov developed later than the Novgorod one. One can speak of complete independence only from the moment when the Pskovites erected the Trinity Church in the center of the Kremlin on the foundations of an old collapsed church of the 12th century. (1365–1367, the temple has not survived; the Trinity Cathedral that has come down to us is from the 17th century).

The 15th century was the time of the most rapid flowering of the Pskov architectural school. Chronicles report the construction of 22 stone churches in Pskov. Erected at the expense of street residents or individual rich Pskov residents, the temple, as a rule, was small in size, built from local stone and whitewashed so that the limestone did not weather. The church was equipped with extensions, its appearance was enlivened by porches, porches, and purely Pskov thick and short pillars. Economical and prudent Pskovites sometimes built the belfry directly from the wall, so as not to waste material on a foundation special for it. Due to the plasticity and unevenness of the walls caused by the building material itself, the Pskov churches are close to those of Novgorod, but they also have their own unique originality, in which the picturesque location of the Pskov churches near the river (there are two of them in Pskov: Pskova and Velikaya), near the ford, plays an important role. on the hill, which is reflected in the names [for example, the Church of Cosmas and Damian from Primostje (1462, the top was rebuilt in the 16th century)].

The 14th century is the time of brilliant flowering of Novgorod monumental painting. At this time, Novgorod already had its own local painting school. In addition, at the end of the century, local craftsmen experienced the influence of the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek (30s of the 14th century - after 1405). Already being a famous mural painter who, according to the testimony of the Russian church writer Epiphanius the Wise, painted more than 40 churches in various countries, “a very cunning philosopher,” Feofan “Grechin, a deliberate book painter and an elegant icon painter,” came through Kafa (Feodosia) and Kiev to Novgorod in search of a place to use his talent, for in the exquisite art of his native country of Byzantium during the time of the Palaiologans, there were signs of fatigue, satiety, and dogmatism, indicating an approaching decline. In Novgorod in 1378, by order of boyar Vasily Danilovich Moshkov and the residents of Ilinaya Street, he painted the Church of the Transfiguration. Christ Pantocrator, surrounded by archangels and seraphim, looking sternly at people, is in the dome, the forefathers and prophets are in the drum (Melchizedek, Noah, Abel, etc.), the Eucharist and the holy order are in the apse, the figure of the Mother of God from the Annunciation is on the southern altar column, gospel scenes on the walls and vaults, as well as paintings in the northwestern chamber on the choir - the Old Testament "Trinity", images of saints and five pillars - give an idea of ​​​​Theophan the monumentalist (everything has been preserved in fragments, with the exception of the Trinity chapel.

CULTURE OF MOSCOW.

At first, after its founding, Moscow was one of the numerous Central Russian appanage principalities. After all, the first chronicle mention of Moscow dates back to 1147, when Moscow was one of the new towns or even villages of the Rostov land that arose during the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky. In the second half of the 14th century. the economic and political rise of Moscow and the ideological upsurge that accompanied it had an inspiring effect on artistic creativity. At the end of the 14th century. art is flourishing in Moscow. At the end of the 14th century. the architectural image of Moscow is taking shape. The most ancient temples Moscow and its environs go back to the type of Vladimir-Suzdal churches. In 1395, the year of the Horde Khan’s campaign against Rus', the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir was solemnly transferred from Vladimir to the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and this event was supposed to strengthen the consciousness of the cultural continuity of the new capital in the Moscow people. According to legend, Mary was painted by the Evangelist Luke (“patron of painters”) on a board from the very table on which Christ had a meal with his mother.

By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. Moscow art rises to great heights of artistic perfection. A major achievement of early Moscow was the revival of white stone architecture. It is impossible to restore the appearance of the most ancient buildings of the Moscow Kremlin. It is only known that under Ivan Kalita, when the Kremlin was fortified with oak walls, the Assumption (1329) and Archangel (1330) cathedrals were built. The construction of monasteries began. In the 14th century, especially in the Moscow principality, monasteries began to be built in remote places. The initiator of the spread of monasteries was Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity Monastery. During the invasion of Moscow by Khan Edigei in 1409, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery was burned by the Tatars. Sergius' successor Nikon took up the restoration of the monastery. The stone Trinity Cathedral was built on the site of the burnt one. Nikon invited Andrei Rublev and his constant friend Daniil Cherny here to paint the walls of the cathedral and complete the iconostasis. The painting of the Trinity Cathedral has not survived. But the iconostasis and the excellent local icon of the Trinity have been preserved. Tradition has long associated it with the name of Andrei Rublev. Rublev's icon depicts three angels. Under the guise of which, according to biblical tradition, the three faces of the Trinity appeared to the elder Abraham and his wife Sarah. Rublev imagined three winged, curly-haired young men with thin staves in their hands sitting at a meal.

Andrei Rublev (about 1350,60-1430). appeared among Moscow icon painters at the beginning of the 15th century. Contemporaries highly revered the master for the fact that everything he created was marked with the stamp of special inspiration. As a painter, Rublev developed in Moscow and began his activities at the court of the Grand Duke. Judging by the first mention of it in the chronicle, in connection with the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral, it was close to the workshop of Theophanes the Greek. At the beginning of the 15th century. Rublev worked for some time in Zvenigorod near Moscow. For the cathedral of the Savvino-Strozhevsky Monastery, he performed the chest-length rank. It probably included seven icons. Only the middle part has survived - the icons of the Savior, Archangel Michael and Paul. In 1408, by order of the Grand Duke, Andrei Rublev, together with his elder friend Daniil Cherny, was entrusted with the painting of the old Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.

In the last quarter of the 14th and early 15th centuries. Construction is picking up in Moscow. Back in 1367, the wooden walls of the Moscow Kremlin were replaced with white stone ones. The Kremlin already occupied most of the territory of the modern Kremlin. The strengthening of Moscow was caused by the plans of Dmitry Donskoy. Moscow was surrounded by monasteries on the closest approaches to the city - Andronikov Monastery, Novospassky, Simonov. Danilov, Donskoy and Novodevichy are located in a semicircle on the southern side, from where the Tatar hordes usually approached.

In the middle of the 14th century. The disciple of Sergius of Radonezh, Andronikos, founded a monastery not far from Moscow on the high bank of the Yauza. At this place, Russian people said goodbye to their relatives, going to the Golden Horde; Through the Andronikov Monastery, as through a triumphal gate, Dmitry’s troops entered Moscow after the victory on the Kulikovo Field. Early Moscow art at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. characterizes a brilliant time in the development of Russian artistic creativity. The flourishing of art was generated by the general rise of national self-awareness during the years of the first achievements of Moscow's unification policy and after its victory over the Tatars.

Art of VELIKY NOVGOROD

Frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration on Nereditsa.

Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Peryn

Art of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality