Write what ideas of the ancient Greeks were reflected in the myth of Demeter and Persephone and what ancient Egyptian myth can be compared with this myth? Mythology of ancient Greece religious beliefs of the ancient Greeks project. The role of Greek civilization in history

The flora and fauna were not particularly diverse. But the mountainous areas were rich in natural resources. Iron ore deposits have been discovered in many places, precious metals and marble. Deposits of high-quality clay and building stone were encountered.

Ancient periods of development of Greece

The Cretan-Mycenaean period occurred at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e., and is considered the earliest origin European civilization. It was during this period that state formations arose on the territory of Greece.

The first state was formed on the island of Crete, where economic activity, crafts were developed, and trade was established. Masters created delicate masterpieces of ceramics with animals and plants depicted on them, and bronze items. Cities were built on the coast around palaces, the remains of which amaze with the richness of their interior decoration. The Cretan kingdom had a powerful fleet and developed trade relations.

The Cretan state was replaced by the Mycenaean state. The Mycenaeans were warlike tribes that invaded Crete. They developed trade relations and engaged in agriculture. The Mycenaeans adapted the writing that had previously appeared on the island for their language, as evidenced by the found tablets with ancient writings.

Around 1100 BC e. Cretan-Mycenaean civilization completely disappeared. Complete economic decline came, writing was lost, many crafts were forgotten. The population has decreased significantly. Scientists call this period “ Dark Age"in Greek history.

The Archaic period was marked by significant population growth, the development of crafts and an increase in the well-being of the people. Looking for suitable Agriculture Greek lands spread throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea coast, establishing trade relations. Many city-states arose, where various crafts flourished - pottery, metal and iron products were made, stones were finely processed. Greek temples appear, decorated with statues in the style of realism.

The classical period was marked by the rapid development of art, literature, philosophy and politics. It's time to bloom Greek civilization, its culture and statehood. The period was marked by close cooperation between disparate city-states and Athens, whose fleet played decisive role in the war with the Persians.

Mythology

The mythological ideas of the ancient Greeks evolved over centuries, and myths and legends were formed about the immortal gods living on Mount Olympus. It is based on mythological data that one can recreate full picture Greek ideas about the world.

The earth was inhabited by formidable giants and monsters, titans and cyclops. Natural phenomena are reflected in Greek deities. This is how the god Zeus arose - the powerful thunderer, the father of all gods and people.

The gods in the vision of the Greeks were endowed with human traits in appearance, as well as the characters and vices of people. Their relationship was very similar to ordinary human ones. They quarreled, betrayed each other, fell in love, broke up. Each of the gods was responsible for some kind of craft or activity, patronized some kind of art, or personified a natural phenomenon. People built temples for their gods and brought them gifts. Each Greek city had its own patron, protecting its inhabitants from wars and misfortunes.

Myths and tales about legendary heroes are reflected in many ancient literary sources, describing their immortal exploits. Many mythological subjects were used by sculptors to create their masterpieces.

The science

In ancient times, the Greeks explained all natural phenomena and processes by the will of the gods, but over time they began to use scientific approach. In Greece they studied mathematics, rhetoric, biology, philosophy, medicine and many other sciences.

The Greeks managed to systematize the knowledge of the peoples of Mesopotamia and Egypt, combining them into a common mathematical science. Archimedes, Euclid and Pythagoras made great contributions to the development of exact sciences. They also took philosophy seriously, trying to explain the origin of the world and the role of man in it. Particular attention was paid to the problems of a particular person, his professional activities and life in the conditions of the state. The great philosophers of those times were Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and Heraclides Pontius.

Schools were organized where young Greeks could learn reading, writing, mathematics, as well as dancing and athletics, which allowed them to develop comprehensively.

Alexandria became the scientific center of Greece. IN Library of Alexandria and the museum attracted scientists from all over the Mediterranean. Outstanding artists and poets, sculptors and playwrights created their masterpieces here.

Education

In the era of Ancient Greece, there were both private and public educational establishments. Any free person could receive education, regardless of his position in society. The principles of training were based on personal and team competition. The students were instilled with both exact sciences and music, developed physically and spiritually, and were given the basics moral code citizen. Education took place in stages, starting from lower school and ending with gymnasiums.

Boys learned writing and reading, as well as playing the lyre or cithara. Preparation for military service. At such classes, students learned discus throwing, running and jumping, and trained endurance and perseverance. In Sparta, boys were taken from their families and raised with a strong emphasis on physical education. They taught students from a very young age to be able to endure hardship, hunger and pain.

Girls primarily learned crafts - weaving, pottery, spinning. They learned to write and read, as well as dancing, gymnastics and singing.

Arts of Ancient Greece

Of all the arts, the most rapid rise was noticeable in literary genre. Of the large number of ancient masterpieces of Greek literature, very few have reached our time, but they determined the development of literature throughout Western civilization. Ancient literature includes works by philosophers, poets and writers.

Ancient authors borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians. For a long time they wrote from right to left, and only in the 6th century BC. e. writing acquired its usual form. The themes of early literary works are inextricably linked with ancient Greek myths. The most common genre was epic. Considered masterpieces of literature epic poems Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. They were a source of knowledge for many generations, glorifying the exploits and legendary lives of heroes.

Later in Greece, a lyrical form of poetry emerged, as well as fables teaching moral behavior and virtue. An independent genre became dramaturgy, which became widespread.

Ancient Greek theater arose from a ritual performance in honor of the god Dionysus. This is how the first two genres were formed - comedy and tragedy. The plots were closely related to mythology, were of a moral nature, and raised important issues close to every person. Comedies were usually ridiculed human weaknesses and were satirical image famous philosophers and politicians of the time.

Theaters were built in the open air. They had a round or oval shape and reached quite large sizes. Performances could last for several days, with each playwright presenting his works based on classical drama to the audience. The most famous playwrights in Ancient Greece were Aeschylus and Sophocles. They created many tragedies, but not many of these creations have survived to this day.

Theatrical performances were always accompanied by music. Musical art was widespread among the Greeks and was glorified in legends and myths. The melodic sounds of the musician-gods were credited with incredible power and influence on people, animals and the forces of nature. The word “music” itself comes from the Greek language.

Musical education was compulsory for free citizens of Greece. Almost all public events were accompanied by music. The Greeks organized competitions between singers and musicians. The Spartans adapted music to their military needs.

Singing to music was an integral part of ritual actions in honor of the gods. The songs had their own purpose and were divided into genres. But the Greeks did not know musical notation, so the ancient melodies were not preserved. However song folklore passed between composers and performers. This is how wedding songs, laudatory and everyday ones, arose. The most common musical instruments were the lyre, flute and cithara. The musicians did not receive vocational education, so art was built on improvisation.

Greek painting also developed. Samples of wall painting have not survived to the present day, but are known only from literary sources. They indicate that the masters knew how to convey chiaroscuro and create images of objects in volume.

Samples of images on ceramics have survived in large quantities. They can be used to judge the artistic level ancient times. Early painting is characterized by simple ornaments and geometric motifs. Scenes from myths and legendary feats from ancient epics were depicted.

Later, artists mastered the skill of depicting the human body and small parts clothes. arise art schools, whose masters work in different genres - portrait, still life, landscape and others.

Antique sculpture became one of the most revered forms of art in Greece. The authors tried to glorify the beauty of the human body, its harmony and perfection. Statues of gods decorated temples and were installed in squares.

Antique architecture

There are several periods in the history of the development of architecture in Ancient Greece. Ancient period, which came after the war with the Persians, is characterized by the development and active construction of city-states. Gradually, the architectural forms from massive and rough became lighter and more beautiful. A personal style begins to form, freed from the influence of other cultures. Characteristic Features there was a square in the city center and a temple building.

The Classical period was a flourishing period for the Greeks and was distinguished by its diversity and mixture of cultures. More expensive materials and luxurious shapes are used. The style takes on more harmonious features. The late period was characterized by pomp and luxury architectural forms, especially during the construction of temples. The buildings were erected with particularly impressive architectural elements.

The primary task for Greek architects was the construction of temples. The buildings amazed with their grace and beauty, but were made in the style of ordinary Greek dwellings. Humanoid gods lived in stone temples, usually rectangular in shape with a stepped porch and columns. The pediments were decorated with sculptures. The roof was gable. The room was light and spacious, the external decoration strived for harmony. Greek temples were not feared by the gods, but, on the contrary, welcoming, similar to the dwellings of mortals.

Three types of columns were created - orders, which determined their shape, proportions and method of finishing. There are Dorian, Ionic and Corinthian orders, which were widely used in the construction of ancient buildings.

Along with temples, theaters, stadiums and residential buildings were also built. The forms of Greek buildings have always been distinguished by the simplicity and nobility of their elements. The Greeks carefully studied the natural conditions and landscape, selecting the style of architecture that most successfully fit into the surrounding landscapes.

Drawing ideas from the treasury of Greek literature, one can create a completely clear picture of the origins of our world. Historians, however, believe that all these legends were not even invented by the Greeks themselves, but were only passed down to them from now completely forgotten Middle Eastern religions, and therefore Greek authors often, in their harmonious system of the origin of the world, encounter rather radical contradictions, which they, however, did not seem to pay any attention. But nonetheless…

According to one version, which has reached our time only in fragments, the goddess of all things Eurynome copulated with the world serpent Ophion and gave birth to the world. According to another version, told by Homer, the world originated from the union of Ocean and Tethys, who personified the primeval waters.

The main Greek version says that in the beginning there was only eternal, boundless and dark Chaos, from which both the world and the immortal gods arose. In particular, the goddess of Earth is Gaia. Very far below her, the gloomy Tartarus appeared - a terrible abyss, darkness. Also, out of Chaos, reviving Love was born - Eros, and the world began to be created. Chaos gave birth to the eternal Darkness - Erebus and the dark Night - Nyukta, from which came the eternal Light - Ether and the joyful bright Day - Hemera.

The Earth gave birth to Sky - Uranus, Mountains and Sea. She gave birth to them herself, without any participation from her father. Uranus (her son) took Earth as his wife, and they had titan children: six sons and six daughters. The son Ocean, surrounding the earth, and the goddess Thetis gave birth to rivers and oceanic sea goddesses. Titan Hipperion and Theia produced the Sun - Helios, the Moon - Selene and Dawn - the pink-fingered Eos (Aurora). From Astraeus and Eos came all the stars and all the winds: northern Boreas, eastern Eurus, southern Not and western Zephyr.

The earth also gave birth to three giant Cyclops with one eye in the forehead and three huge fifty-headed and hundred-armed giant Hecatoncheires. Even Uranus was horrified by the strength of his children and imprisoned them in the bowels of the Earth goddess, forbidding them to come into the light. She, unable to bear such a burden, convinced the children to rebel against their father, but they were afraid. Only the younger, insidious Cronus (chronos - all-consuming time) overthrew Uranus by cunning. The Goddess Night gave birth to terrible creatures as punishment for Krona: Tanata - death, Eris - discord, Apata - deception, Kera - destruction, Hypnos - a heavy nightmare and Nemesis - vengeance. These creatures brought discord, deception, struggle and misfortune into the world, which was once like paradise.

Cronus, who himself had once overthrown his father, was afraid of his children. He ordered his wife Rhea to bring the born descendants to him and mercilessly swallowed them. This fate befell five: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades and Poseidon. But Rhea, driven by maternal love, on the advice of her parents, Uranus and Gaia, retired to the island of Crete and there, in a cave, having given birth to Zeus, she hid him from her cruel father, allowing him to swallow a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes instead of his son.

Zeus grew up in Crete, and the nymphs Adrastea and Idea fed him with the milk of the divine goat Amalthea, the bees brought him honey from the slopes of Mount Dikta, and the young demigods-curetes guarding the entrance to the cave struck their shields with swords every time the baby cried so that Cronus would not heard the baby and did not suffer the fate of his brothers and sisters.

Zeus grew up, rebelled against his father and forced him to return the children he had swallowed to the world. They began to fight with Kron and the Titans for power over the world. After a long struggle they managed to establish themselves on high Olympus. Some of the titans took their side, and the first were Ocean, his daughter Styx and their children: Zeal, Power and Victory.

The Cyclopes also came to the aid of Zeus, forging thunder and lightning, which Zeus threw at the titans. After ten years of equal struggle, Zeus decided to free the hundred-armed giants Hecatoncheires from the bowels of the earth, and they rushed at the Titans, tearing off entire rocks from the mountains and throwing them at the enemy. The Titans, dodging giant stones flying at them, could not even approach Olympus. The earth groaned, the air filled with roar, and even Tartarus shook. Zeus threw lightning one after another, the whole earth was engulfed in fire, and it was so hot that even the seas boiled.

Modern man will see in this description not so much a battle as a geological catastrophe: either a volcanic eruption, or the fall of a huge meteorite. And perhaps a war between two powerful civilizations. However, we will discuss this topic a little later. For now, let's continue the story about ancient Greek legends.

The Titans were defeated. The Olympians cast them into Tartarus, and placed the Hecatoncheires at its gates. Thus ended the power of the titans on earth.

But Gaia-Earth was offended that Zeus treated her children so cruelly, and married Tartarus, giving birth to the monster Typhon, owner of hundreds of dragon heads. Rising from the ground, he howled, and in this terrible cry the barking of dogs, human crying, the roar of a lion and other equally terrible or unpleasant sounds were mixed. Flames blazed around him, and the ground beneath him trembled.

Well, another geographical catastrophe...

The gods were frightened, but Zeus began to throw lightning, and the battle began. The earth caught fire again, the seas began to boil, and even the vault of heaven began to tremble. Zeus managed to burn all one hundred heads of Typhon with lightning, and he collapsed to the ground. Even from his exhausted body such heat emanated that everything around him was burning. Zeus took Typhon's body and threw it into Tartarus. But even from there, Typhon caused trouble for the gods and all living things. He caused storms, earthquakes and eruptions, and together with Echidna, a half-woman, half-snake, he gave birth to two-headed dog Orff, the hellhound Kerberus, the Lernaean Hydra and the Chimera. But nothing threatened the power of the gods: Zeus took the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underground kingdom of the dead. The gods left the earth in common possession. Zeus became the first among equals among the gods.

The entrance to Olympus was guarded by three beautiful oras, raising and lowering (when the gods descend to earth or return to their abode) a thick cloud covering the gates of the abode of the gods.

In the abode of the gods there is no rain or snow and eternal summer reigns. From here Zeus rules the world, and good and evil are in his hands. The goddess Themis helps him maintain order and ensure that the laws are followed. The daughter of Zeus, the goddess Dike, also oversees justice.

But the destinies of people are determined by the goddesses of fate - the Moiras, guided by the commands of Rock, which only they know. Moira Clotho determines a person's lifespan by spinning the thread of their destiny. Moira Lachesis determines, without looking, the lot that befalls a person in life. And the third moira, Atropos, writes down in a long scroll everything that is assigned to a person.

Zeus's brother Hades rules underground. The sacred river Styx flows there, even the gods swear by its waters. Here are the souls of the dead, who endlessly complain to each other about their joyless life without sun and without desires.

Hades, who rules the kingdom of the dead along with his wife Persephone, is served by the goddess of vengeance Erinyes. With whips and snakes they pursue the criminal, not leaving him alone for a minute, and tormenting him with remorse. At the throne of Hades stand the judges of the kingdom of the dead - Minos and Rhadamanthus, as well as the god of death Tanat with a sword in his hands. In a black cloak, with huge black wings, he flies to the dying man's bed and cuts off a strand of hair from his head with his sword, and plucks out the soul. Along with him stand the Kers, who on the battlefield press their lips to the wounds of warriors, greedily drink hot blood and tear out souls from their bodies. Also sitting at the throne of Hades is the beautiful young god of sleep, Hypnos.

The Greek gods, like many other early gods of humanity, which I will talk about later, did not separate themselves from people with an impregnable wall, but, on an equal basis with them, as far as such equality is naturally possible, took part in earthly affairs.

God or gods became something unattainable, an exalted object of prayer, much later, with the beginning of the era of Christianity or Islam. Even in the biblical Old Testament, God often descends from heaven to give orders to his chosen ones. Such dramatic changes in divine behavior, or rather, a change in the role of gods in myths, can be explained by many factors, but some researchers come to the conclusion that our ancestors considered gods to be some more developed civilization that colonized the Earth for some purpose. A little lower in the book we will discuss this version in more detail, but for now we will return to the ancient Greek mythology.

The gods took part in human affairs, not only by “leading from Olympus.” For example, in Delphi there was a sanctuary of Apollo, where the Pythia priestess gave predictions. Predictions that, according to contemporaries, very often came true. The extent to which it is possible to talk about paranormal abilities is unknown, but it is perhaps worth talking about the wisdom of the priestess: the prediction given to King Croesus of Lydia during his war with Persia sounded like: “If you cross the River Halys, you will destroy the great kingdom.” Croesus, rejoicing, set out to destroy the kingdom. But the kingdom that perished as a result of the war turned out to be by no means Persian (Croesus was defeated, and his country was ruined). Nevertheless, the prediction came true.

But, in addition to the advice given through the priests, there were more specific interventions: just remember Prometheus, who stole fire for people. The image of a supreme being who favored people is found in the myths of many nations. A certain god not only steals fire for people, but warns the doomed human race about the global flood planned by the other gods.

But let's return to Apollo. Initially, he was considered a god protecting the herds. He soon became the god of light, and later the patron saint of immigrants, Greek colonies, and also a patron of the arts. According to legend, he was born on the island of Delos. His mother Latona, pursued by the dragon Python sent by Hera and pregnant by Zeus, wandered around the world until she came to Delos.

The son of Apollo, Asclepius, the god of doctors and medical art, became famous for bringing even the dead back to life. Here is another divine intervention in human affairs. Or simply miracles of highly developed medicine unknown to the ancient Greeks?

It is worth saying that the gods interested the ancient Greeks much more than people and nature, and therefore many stories from their lives have come down to us. It is possible, perhaps, endlessly to draw various, sometimes very interesting, parallels, but let’s stop. We will tell you only a couple of things that, as it seems to us, are directly related to the topic of our book. One of them is the legend of Phaeton.

The son of the Sun-Helios from Klymene, the daughter of the sea goddess Thetis, Phaeton once talked with the son of the thunderer Zeus Epaphus. He mocked him and remarked:

“You are the son of a mere mortal.” Your mother is deceiving you! I don't believe that you are the son of God!

Phaeton first went to his mother, and then to his father, Helios, and asked him to dispel doubts. Helios embraced Phaeton and, swearing by the waters of the Styx, confirmed his origin and promised, seeing that he was upset, to fulfill any of his wishes. Phaeton asked to be allowed to ride across the sky instead of Helios himself in his golden chariot. No matter how he tried to dissuade the foolish young man, explaining that even Zeus himself could not cope with the horses harnessed to this chariot, but in the end, not daring to break his oath, he retreated.

“Don’t rise too high,” Helios said to his son, “so as not to burn the sky, but don’t fall too low, otherwise you’ll burn the earth.”

And again he asked him to change his desire, which could bring him death. But Phaeton had already jumped onto the chariot, grabbed the reins and set off. Soon he got lost, the horses bolted, and when he looked at the ground, he was frightened, and his eyes darkened. The flames from the approaching chariot engulfed the earth, and large, rich cities began to perish one after another. The rivers boiled and the seas dried up.

Gaia turned to Zeus, urging him not to let her die, and he smashed the chariot with lightning. The horses ran in different directions, and Phaeton, with curls burning on his head, fell into the waves of the Eridanus River. Today, unfortunately, it is difficult to establish where this is. Rivers in Attica and the north had similar names, perhaps the Western Dvina and the Po River. Helios was so upset by the death of his son that he did not appear in the sky, and the earth was illuminated only by the light of fires.

Modern people immediately understand that the legend speaks of the fall of a large celestial body, which caused such strong fires that, apparently, the rising smoke and dust created such a curtain that sunlight could not penetrate to the earth for some time.

To complete this beautiful story, it is worth saying that Phaethon’s mother, Clymene, found not her son’s body, but his tomb on the banks of Eridanus. Supporters of the theory of a highly developed civilization will immediately say that it was not a tomb, but a spaceship, which the young man could not control. But still, we must leave room for legends, especially since they are very beautiful: together with their mother they mourned the deceased young man and her daughter, the Heliades. Their grief was so boundless that the gods turned them into poplars. And their resin tears falling into the water immediately turned into amber.

Like other religions of the world, the ancient Greeks believed that humanity began to exist in paradise. Or rather, here it was called the golden age. But gradually life on earth worsened, and, for example, Hesiod believed that he was living in the worst period of history.

The human race was created by Cronus, according to Greek myths, happy.

People knew neither worries, nor sadness, nor the need to work. People had neither illnesses nor old age. And even death itself did not contain anything terrible, but was just like a deep sleep. Gardens and fields provided them with food in abundance, and huge herds grazed in the meadows. Even the gods came to people for advice. But the golden age, like all good things, ended, and all the people of the first generation died, turning into spirits, patrons and protectors of people of new generations (angels?). This reward was given to them by Zeus: shrouded in fog, they fly throughout the earth, defending the truth and punishing evil.

The second human race, who lived in the Silver Age, was no longer so happy: neither in strength nor in mind these people could compare with previous generation. For a hundred years they grew up foolish in the houses of their mothers and only when they matured did they leave them, managing to live in mature age very little. Since they were unreasonable most of their lives, they saw a lot of grief and misfortune. They did not listen to the gods and refused to make sacrifices to them, and Zeus destroyed their family, settling them in the underworld, where there is neither joy nor sorrow.

After this, Zeus created the third generation, and the third age began - the copper age. The people of this age, created from the shaft of a spear, were terrible and powerful. In addition to their enormous height, they had indestructible strength and a fearless heart. Most of all they loved war and battles. They did not sow anything, did not eat the fruits that the gardens bore in abundance, but only fought. Both their weapons and their houses were forged from copper, and they also worked with copper tools.

How can one not recall official science and its copper age? Greek storytellers also note that iron was learned only by later generations. Soon the people of the Copper Age destroyed each other, and Zeus created the fourth age and a new human race. These people were noble, fair and practically equal to the gods. But they all died in various wars and battles: some at the seven-gate Thebes, some at Troy, where they came for Helen, etc.

After death, Zeus settled these people at the ends of the earth, on islands in the ocean, far from the living, so that they could enjoy a happy and carefree life. The land there bears fruit three times a year, and its fruit is as sweet as honey.

After this, the Thunderer created the last, fifth century - the Iron Age, and the human race, which lives to this day. People of this generation are haunted by sorrows and exhausting work. The gods send them heavy worries, not forgetting, however, to give them good, but still they suffer more evil and bad weather. Children do not respect their parents, friends betray each other, there is no love between brothers, and hospitality has become rare. Oaths are broken, and good is repaid with evil. There is violence all around, and the goddesses Conscience and Justice left people, flying up to Olympus, and people have no protection from evil.

One of the popular theories of the origin of humanity claims that before our civilization emerged on Earth, there were several more, and, according to some assumptions, more highly developed ones. Ancient Greek myths, as we see, confirm this.

We all know, at least in general terms, the legend about the Flood. It turns out that this legend already existed in ancient Babylon. Well, we know better the story from the Bible about Noah who built the ark. The Greeks told the story this way...

The people of the Copper Age not only disobeyed the Olympian gods, but also became famous for their wickedness. Once Zeus decided to visit the king of the city of Lycosura in Arcadia in human form. Entering the palace, Zeus gave a sign, and everyone realized who it was and fell on their faces. But King Lycaon did not want to honor Zeus and began to mock those who greeted him. And he even decided to test whether Zeus was a god. He killed the hostage, boiled part of his body, fried part of it and offered it to the Thunderer. He, terribly angry, destroyed Lycaon's palace with a lightning strike, and turned him into a wolf.

But even after this, people did not become more pious, and Zeus decided to destroy the entire human race. He decided to arrange global flood, and for this purpose he sent a heavy downpour to the earth, forbade all winds to blow, and only the wet South wind Noth drove dark rain clouds across the sky. At first, the rivers simply overflowed their banks, but soon the stormy waters covered the houses, then the fortress walls, and only the double-headed peak of Parnassus remained above the water.

Of the entire human race, only two were saved: Deucalion, the son of Prometheus, and his wife Pyrrha. Deucalion, on the advice of his father, built a huge box, put enough food supplies in it, and the box was carried on the waters for nine days and nights until it washed up at Parnassus. The rain stopped, Deucalion and Pyrrha came out of the box and made a thanksgiving sacrifice to Zeus. The water began to recede, and the land was exposed, completely devastated. The water washed away not only all the buildings, but also the gardens and fields. Zeus sent Hermes to Deucalion and promised to fulfill his every desire.

He also asked that the land be populated again by people. Zeus ordered Deucalion and Pyrrha to pick up stones and throw them over their heads without turning around. Those stones that Deucalion threw turned into men, and those that Pyrrha threw turned into women. A new kind of people came from stone (although the next century, as you remember, was called iron).

But not all Greeks traced their ancestry to stones. Some tribes considered themselves autochthonous, that is, arising from the earth. The Thebans, for example, thought that they came from the teeth of the dragon killed by the Phoenician Cadmus, which he sowed into the ground.

Religious ideas and religious life of the ancient Greeks were in close connection with all their historical life. Already in ancient monuments Greek creativity clearly shows the anthropomorphic nature of Greek polytheism, which is explained by the national characteristics of the entire cultural development in this area; concrete representations, generally speaking, prevail over abstract ones, just as in quantitative terms humanoid gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines prevail over deities of abstract meaning (who, in turn, receive anthropomorphic features). In this or that cult, this or that writer or artist, one or another general or mythological (and mythographic) ideas are connected with this or that deity.

We know, further, different combinations, hierarchies of the genealogy of divine beings - “Olympus”, various systems“twelve gods” (for example, in Athens - Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, Hestia). Such connections are explained not only from the creative moment, but also from the conditions of the historical life of the Hellenes; in Greek polytheism one can also trace later layers (eastern elements; deification - even during life). In the general religious consciousness of the Hellenes, there apparently did not exist any specific generally accepted dogma. The diversity of religious ideas was also expressed in the diversity of cults, the external environment of which is now becoming increasingly clear thanks to archaeological excavations and finds. We find out which gods or heroes were worshiped where, and which one was worshiped where or where which one was worshiped predominantly (for example, Zeus - in Dodona and Olympia, Apollo - in Delphi and Delos, Athena - in Athens, Hera in Samos, Asclepius - in Epidaurus) ; we know shrines revered by all (or many) Hellenes, like the Delphic or Dodonian oracle or the Delian shrine; We know large and small amphictyony (cult communities).

One can further distinguish between public and private cults. The all-consuming importance of the state also affected the religious sphere. Ancient world, generally speaking, did not know either the internal church as a kingdom not of this world, nor the church as a state within a state: “church” and “state” were concepts in him that absorbed or conditioned each other, and, for example, the priest was the same state magistrate.

This rule could not, however, be carried out with unconditional consistency everywhere; practice caused particular deviations and created certain combinations. Further, if a well-known deity was considered the main deity of a certain state, then the state sometimes recognized (as in Athens) some other cults; Along with these national cults, there were also individual cults of state divisions (for example, the Athenian demes), and cults of private significance (for example, household or family), as well as cults of private societies or individuals.

Since the state principle prevailed (which did not triumph everywhere at the same time and equally), every citizen was obliged, in addition to his private deities, to honor the gods of his “civil community” (changes were brought by the Hellenistic era, which generally contributed to the process of leveling). This veneration was expressed in a purely external way - through feasible participation in certain rituals and celebrations performed on behalf of the state (or state division) - participation to which in other cases the non-civilian population of the community was invited; then, both citizens and non-citizens were left to seek satisfaction of their religious needs, as they could, wanted and were able. One must think that in general the veneration of the gods was external; the internal religious consciousness was, from our point of view, naive, and among the masses superstition did not decrease, but grew (especially at a later time, when it found food for itself coming from the East); But in an educated society, an educational movement began early, timid at first, then more and more energetic, with one end (negative) touching the masses; religiosity weakened little in general (and sometimes even - albeit painfully - rose), but religion, that is, old ideas and cults, gradually - especially as Christianity spread - lost both its meaning and its content. Approximately this is, in general, the internal and external history of the Greek religion during the time available for closer study.

In the foggy area of ​​the original, primordial Greek religion, scientific work has outlined only a few general points, although they are usually posed with excessive harshness and extremes. Already ancient philosophy bequeathed a threefold allegorical explanation of myths: psychological (or ethical), historical-political (not entirely correctly called euhemerical) and physical; She explained the emergence of religion from the individual moment. A narrow theological point of view also joined here, and in essence, on the same basis, Kreutzer’s “Symbolik” (“Symbolik und Mythologie der alt. Völker, bes. der Griechen”, German Kreuzer, 1836) was built, as were many other systems and theories who ignored the moment of evolution.

Gradually, however, they came to the realization that the ancient Greek religion had its own complex historical origins, that the meaning of myths should be sought not behind them, but in themselves. Initially, ancient Greek religion was considered only in itself, for fear of going beyond Homer and generally beyond the boundaries of purely Hellenic culture (this principle is still adhered to by the “Königsberg” school): hence the localistic interpretation of myths - from the physical (for example, Forkhammer, German Forchhammer) or only from a historical point of view (for example, Müller, German K. O. Müller).

Some paid their main attention to the ideal content of Greek mythology, reducing it to phenomena of local nature, others - to the real, seeing traces of local (tribal, etc.) characteristics in the complexity of ancient Greek polytheism. Over time, I had to admit one way or another original meaning oriental elements in Greek religion. Comparative linguistics gave rise to "comparative Indo-European mythology". This hitherto predominant direction in science was fruitful in the sense that it clearly showed the need comparative study ancient Greek religion and collated extensive material for this study; but - not to mention extreme straightforwardness methodological techniques and extreme haste of judgment - it was engaged not so much in the study of Greek religion using the comparative method, but in the search for its main points, dating back to the time of all-Apian unity (moreover, the linguistic concept of the Indo-European peoples was too sharply identified with the ethnic one). As for the main content of myths (“disease of the tongue”, according to M. Müller), it was too exclusively reduced to natural phenomena - mainly to the sun, or the moon, or thunderstorms.

Younger school comparative mythology considers heavenly deities to be the result of further, artificial development of the original “folk” mythology, which knew only demons (folklorism, animism). Recently, the reaction against Indo-European mythology has intensified. An excellent exposition and criticism of this comparative Indo-Germanic mythology, as well as other explanations of the origin of cult and myth, can be found in the first chapter of O. Gruppe's work "D. griech. Kulte und Mythen in ihr. Bez. zu den orient. Religionen" (German O. Gruppe, vol. 1, 1887).

In Greek mythology, one cannot help but recognize later layers, especially in the entire external form of myths (as they have come down to us), although they cannot always be determined historically, just as it is not always possible to distinguish the purely religious part of myths. Beneath this shell lie general Aryan elements, but they are often just as difficult to distinguish from specifically Greek elements as it is to generally determine the beginning of a purely Greek culture. It is no less difficult to determine with any accuracy the basic content of various Hellenic myths, which is undoubtedly extremely complex. Nature with its properties and phenomena played a big role here, but perhaps mainly a service one; Along with these natural historical moments, historical and ethical moments should also be recognized (since the gods generally lived no differently and no better than people).

The local and cultural division of the Hellenic world remained not without influence; The presence of oriental elements in Greek religion is also undeniable. It would be too complex and too difficult a task to explain historically, even in the most general terms, how all these moments gradually coexisted with each other; but some knowledge in this area can be achieved, based especially on experiences preserved both in the internal content and in the external environment of cults, and, moreover, taking into account, if possible, the entire ancient historical life of the Hellenes (the path in this direction was especially pointed out by Curtins in his "Studien z. Gesch. d. griech. Olymps", in "Sitzb. d. Berl. Akad.", German E. Curtins, 1890). It is significant, for example, the relation in the Greek religion of the great gods to the small, folk deities, and of the supermundane world of gods to the underground; Characteristic is the veneration of the dead, expressed in the cult of heroes; The mystical content of Greek religion is curious.

Before presenting this side of the culture of the Greek people, it is worth remembering very famous myth. It tells about a couple in love: Eurydice and Orpheus. The girl died from a cobra bite, and her boyfriend could not come to terms with the cruel loss. He went for his beloved to the underworld of the dead to King Hades himself in order to persuade him to return his beloved to him.

In addition, Orpheus was famous for his the highest skill playing various musical instruments, in particular the kephar. With his art, he enchanted the god Charon, and he transported him along the river of the dead to the underground ruler. But there was one condition: Orpheus could not turn back, because Eurydice was following him through the afterlife, led by Hermes. According to the condition, the lovers could return to earth only if Orpheus passed this test. But Orpheus could not resist and looked at Eurydice. From that second she disappeared, sinking into the kingdom of the dead forever.

Orpheus returned to earth. He did not live long. A couple of years later, the man met his beloved, because during one of the Greek holidays he was brutally killed. His soul came to Hades and was reunited with Eurydice.

We can conclude that since ancient times the Greeks believed that a person has a soul, that it is eternal and capable of living both on earth and in the afterlife.

Legends of the kingdom of the dead

In almost all myths concerning the life of the gods and associated with the kingdom of the dead, Hermes accompanied the deceased to the world of Hades. He led souls through holes in the earth's crust and brought them to the shores of the Styx. According to legend, this river encircled the kingdom of the dead as many as 7 times.

The Greeks placed a coin in the mouth of the deceased. It was believed that he would need to pay off Horon, who was transporting across the Acheron. This is a tributary of the Styx. Exit from underground kingdom guarded by the giant dog Cerberus (according to other sources, Kerberus). The dog did not let the living into the kingdom of the dead, just as he did not let the dead out of Hades.

2. Minos.

3. Rhadamantha.

These judges interrogated the deceased who came to their kingdom. Should a person live in the kingdom of the dead in goodness, be in fear or without joy? Everything depended on what kind of life a person spent on earth. The ancient Greeks believed that only a few ever experienced mercy. By the way, even today some basic burial customs have been preserved. The Greeks still place coins in the mouths of the deceased.

Disfavor awaited insidious, evil and envious people in the afterlife. None sunlight, joy, fulfillment of desires. Such souls were thrown into tartarus - the underworld itself. However, most of the people ended up in the meadow of Asphodel. It was a foggy area in which there were fields of tulips, very pale and wild. It was through these fields that restless souls wandered, finding their last abode here. It was a little easier for such souls if relatives on earth remembered them and performed various ceremonies in their honor. That is why in the modern world, remembering deceased relatives is considered a good deed.

Harsh Dwelling of Shadows

This is exactly how the kingdom of the dead seemed to the ancient Greeks. This is how people of different nations “see” him even now. But it was in ancient Greece that ideas about this unknown, dark and terrible world were laid down.

There is eternal night, the waters of the black Ocean are constantly rustling. The world of the dead is mournful, gloomy rivers flow in it, almost dead black trees grow, vile, terrible monsters live. Titan criminals are executed there. It is impossible to find consolation in the kingdom of the dead, like peace and quiet. According to legend, even the gods are afraid to go there.

However, this idea of ​​​​the kingdom of Hades did not last long among the Greeks. Over time, views changed and people found a different explanation for the afterlife. After all, all people are different, live different lives, do different things. Therefore, the outcome cannot be identical.

Of course, some residents of the policies did not even think about the kingdom of the dead and what was beyond the “line.” Scientists explain this by the lack of ideas about good and evil among other tribes. In another case, a more advantageous position in the afterlife could be occupied by a person who lived honestly, committed heroic deeds, was decisive, had a strong character, was valiant, and courageous. Over time, the doctrine of the bright Elysium became very popular among the ancient Greeks. According to beliefs, a person who lived his life honestly went to heaven.

By the way, many residents of the policies knew and believed that retribution for evil would definitely come. Underground spirits are able to see everything that happens on earth and if injustice is happening somewhere, they will definitely punish for this act.

According to other versions of the ancient Greeks, the souls of the dead remain in their graves or hide in underground caves. At the same time, they are able to turn into snakes, lizards, insects, mice, including bats. But at the same time they will never have a human appearance.

There is also a legend. According to it, souls “live” in visible form, living on the islands of the dead. At the same time, they can again turn into the image of a person. To do this, they need to “settle” in nuts, beans, fish and other foods that their future mothers eat.

According to another legend, the souls or shadows of the dead fly to the northern part of the globe. There is no sun and light. But they can return to Greece in the form of rain.

There is also this version: souls are carried away to the west. Far, far away. Where the sun sets. That's where it exists world of the dead. It is very similar to our white light.

It is especially worth noting that the ancients, and modern Greeks, believed in receiving retribution for sins and bad deeds. The dead receive punishment depending on how they lived their lives on earth. In turn, there were beliefs regarding the transmigration of souls. By the way, this process could be controlled. To do this it was necessary to use magical formulas. And the science of applying these formulas was called “metempsychosis.”

The ancient Greeks hated death and were afraid of it. In life we ​​tried to have more fun and not indulge in grief.

Rituals

The burial ceremony was necessary and has been done since ancient times. The deceased thereby received the opportunity to cross river of the dead and go to Hades. This was the only way his soul could achieve peace. The worst thing for the ancient Greeks was the absence of a burial ceremony for any of the relatives.

A relative who was not buried in the earth, who died in the war, terrible sin for his family. Such people could even be punished with death.

Views on the existence of souls after death and afterworld changed, but the rituals of the ancient Greeks remained unchanged, like traditions and rituals. In order to prevent the wrath of the gods on the day of the death of a relative or friend, one had to look mournful.

The deceased were buried in places specially prepared for this. These were either the basements of their own houses, or crypts. To prevent epidemics from breaking out, burial sites gradually began to be moved to islands that were uninhabited. City residents found another way out. They buried the dead behind the walls of the policies.

The Greeks chose one of the forms of funeral rites. The first involved burning the body of the deceased at the stake, the other - burying him in the ground. After cremation, the ashes were placed in a special urn, and it was buried in the ground or stored in a tomb. Both methods were welcomed and did not cause any complaints. It was believed that if you bury it in one of these ways, you can save the soul from torment and restlessness. Even in those days, graves were decorated with flowers and wreaths. If the body was interred without being cremated, all the values ​​that the person treasured during life were put into the grave with it. It was customary for men to put down weapons, and for ladies - precious jewelry and expensive dishes.

Changing priorities

Over time, the Greeks came to the conclusion that the human body is something very complex, and the soul has a higher world beginning. After death, she must be reunited with this whole.

The old views about Hades slowly began to collapse in the minds of the Greeks, becoming meaningless. Only ordinary citizens living in villages were still afraid of the formidable punishment of Hades. By the way, some views about the kingdom of the dead got along well with the dogmas of Christianity.

If we look at Homer's poems, his heroes are quite individual people. All this affected the nature of death. For example, Achilles was sure that only after being put to sleep he would gain eternal glory and always openly and fearlessly walked towards his destiny. But in the face of the true face of death, Homer's hero gave up. Achilles begged for mercy and mercy from fate. So Homer made it clear to his contemporaries and descendants that man is just a weak part of this world.

In more late times The ancient Greeks developed ideas of secondary and even multiple births. Allegedly human soul comes to earth in different periods and eras in the form different people. But in all ideas it was the same: man is powerless before fate, the will of fate and death.

Pythagoras' unusual attitude towards women

We perceive Pythagoras as a great mathematician, but few people know that he devoted part of his time to spiritual discussions with women. His task was to instill in them a love of beauty. Remembering that a woman is the keeper of the home. It may seem strange that such a famous person paid attention to family issues.

Thessaloniki in Greece. History, sights (part one).

In the north-eastern part of the amazing and mysterious country called Greece, in a strategically safe place, at the base of Mount Chortiatis in the depths of the Thermaikos Gulf, the oldest city in the world, “the most Balkan city of Hellas” - Thessaloniki - the capital of Greek Macedonia, stretches stepwise. After the capital (Athens) in size and national significance The city of Thessaloniki is in second place. It is called the largest political and business center of the country with an economically developed commercial and industrial infrastructure, the main transport hub of the entire south-eastern Europe, an important trading port, a metropolis with an extremely heterogeneous population, rich in its centuries-old history and cultural heritage, which are still reverently and carefully kept by the current residents.

Word artists in Ancient Greece

In this article I will briefly introduce the Greeks who sang life and beauty in their works. First of all, these are poets: Homer and Hesiod - largest representatives epic poetry, the subjects of which are mainly great wars, the joys and sorrows of an entire people; Sappho, Archilochus, Alcaeus, Alcman, Pindar and Bacchylides are representatives of lyric poetry who recited their poems accompanied by the lyre and music in general;

About the island of Crete. Historical development

The historical development of Crete determined the geographical location of the island. Crete is located at the crossroads of three parts of the world - Europe, Asia and Africa. According to archaeological excavations, the first appearance of man on the island dates back to the Paleolithic period.

Epidaurus - ancient city

is located 8 km northeast of the Sanctuary of Asclepius, on the territory of the modern Municipality of ancient Epidaurus, on the shores of the Saronic Gulf. Traces of habitation on the territory of the port, where the city of Epidaurus later developed, lead us to the 2-3 millennium BC. Shaft tombs from the Mycenaean period have been discovered on Katarahi Hill.

LESSON 6. RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS

The lesson summarizes students' ideas about the religion of the ancient Greeks. Students meet again general pattern: Religious beliefs arose as a result of people's dependence on the forces of nature. The religion of the Greeks reflected the nature of Greece, the occupations of its population, social relations (in particular, the life of the tribal nobility) ( The religion of the ancient Greeks lacks a clearly expressed sanctification of inequality and the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution after death).

Options for starting a lesson: I. A; B 2. II. B 2. III. B 1. Questions and tasks:

A. Write a story about the life of noble people in Greece three thousand years ago. The teacher can specify the task - “Describe a day in the life of a tribal leader” - and offer a plan for the answer: “In the morning, the leader examined his possessions (What were they like?), monitored the work in the house and in the fields (What kind of work was this? Who did it? ?), hired a day laborer (For what purpose? For what payment?), did some work himself (for example, which ones?), participated in a sports competition (which one?). In the evening he feasted (How was the feast? Who entertained the guests?).”

It is advisable to write on the board before the lesson for students reference words: house, possessions, work, day laborer, leader works, competition, feast.

B. 1. Remember the material from the previous lesson: a) tell us about the development of agriculture and crafts in Greece in the 11th-9th centuries. BC e.; b) what do you know about Greek navigation? c) tell us about the life of the Greek tribes; d) describe the economy of noble people; e) who owned the power in the Greek tribes? f) what order of life existed in Greece three thousand years ago?

2. Remember the reasons for the emergence of religion. Do you know that for hundreds of thousands of years primitive people did not have religious beliefs. Why do these beliefs arise? Students remember that religious beliefs are based on the inability to explain natural phenomena. But what often escapes the attention of schoolchildren is that ancient people were highly dependent on the forces of nature; they explained with the help of religion, first of all, those phenomena that influenced their lives. This last point needs re-examination.

Remember what natural phenomena the Egyptians explained with the help of religion. (Students are able to retell myths that reflect the sunrise, floods of the Nile, dry winds, and seasonal changes in Egypt.) Think about why, of the many natural phenomena that the Egyptians observed, they tried to explain these particular phenomena. What do they have in common? (“They were either useful or harmful to the Egyptians,” say the students.) Do general conclusion: what natural phenomena are explained in religion? (Those who played a big role in people's lives.)

Study plan: 1. Reflection of the nature and activities of the Greeks in religion. 2. Reflection of social relations in it.

1. The religion of the Greeks reflected those natural phenomena on which people’s lives depended. This idea is concretized with examples.

1) The main god of the Greeks was Zeus (the teacher either suggests looking at Fig. 3, p. 115, or starts working with applications by F.P. Korovkin). He was the god of rain, thunder and lightning. He was portrayed as a powerful middle-aged man. Zeus will wave his hand - thunderclaps will roll across the sky, lightning will flash - and streams of rain will pour onto the earth. Why did this particular god play such an important role in the religion of the Greeks? (What do you know about rains and thunderstorms in Greece? What harm and what benefits did they bring to the Greeks?) Students need to remember how drought destroyed crops, rain streams washed away the soil in the mountains, and lightning could strike people and livestock and cause a fire. Developing the thoughts expressed by the students, the teacher recreates a picture typical of Greece.

Imagine a hot summer morning. Farmers look with hope at the tops of the mountains: are they covered with clouds? But no, the sky has been cloudless for many days, drought is burning the fields, foreshadowing famine. The Greeks begin to pray to Zeus: “O you, Cloudrunner! The fields need rain, the withered clods of earth cry out for thirst. Each of us brought you gifts: one - a ram, another - a goat, the third - a wild boar, and the poor - a flatbread. Give us rain!

The main temple of Zeus was located at Olympia, in southern Greece (not to be confused with Mount Olympus in the north of the country). Once every four years, famous events were held here. sport games, which were established in honor of Zeus. According to legend, it was in Olympia that Zeus won a great victory over his father Cronus.

In ancient times, the myth says, the world was ruled by the god Kron. Cronus was predicted that his children would take away his power. Therefore, as soon as Cronus’s wife, the goddess Rhea, had a child, Cronus swallowed him. When Zeus was born, Rhea decided to deceive Cronus and gave him a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes. Not noticing the deception, Cronus swallowed the stone... Zeus grew up and matured. He rebelled against his father and defeated him in a fierce struggle on the land of Olympia. Therefore, the temple of Zeus was built here.

The magnificent temple, decorated with columns, produced strong impression(see figure on page 116). They decided to create a statue of Zeus for him, which had no equal in Greece. Invited to Olympia famous sculptor Fidia. He depicted Zeus sitting on a throne, the upper part of his body naked, the lower part wrapped in a cloak. In his left hand the god holds a staff with the image of an eagle - a sacred bird; on the right is a figurine of winged Nike, the goddess of victory. The clothing and wreath on the head of Zeus are made of sparkling gold. The upper body and legs are covered with ivory plates. Its warm yellowish-pink color gave vitality to the figure of Zeus.

The Greeks were delighted with the work of the sculptor Phidias. The statue was declared one of the seven wonders of the world ( The ruins of Phidias's workshop and the temple itself have been preserved. The statue of Zeus did not survive; only its descriptions and images on ancient coins survived. See: Neihardt A. A., Shishova I. A. Seven Wonders of the World).

2) The god of the sea, Poseidon, was depicted as a powerful naked man with a proud and stately posture (either see Fig. 3 on page 115, or an applique is attached to the board). Poseidon waves his formidable trident - sea waves rise like mountains, a fierce storm rages on the sea. Remember which of the heroes of myths and how they quarreled with Poseidon. Why did the Greeks especially reverence Poseidon along with Zeus? After listening to the students (they recall the development of navigation in Greece), the teacher draws a picture of a shipwreck.

Imagine: Greek sailors are sailing on a ship. A strong wind rises, the sea, previously calm, becomes unrecognizable. The small wooden ship is tossed like a piece of wood, the wind knocked down the mast, and several oarsmen were washed away by the water. The ship sprang a leak... People are terrified: how did they anger the formidable god who sent this storm?! To whom do the Greeks pray to save the ship?

Why doesn't anyone believe in sea gods now? (In ancient times, people were much more ignorant than they are now; the ships of our days are incomparably more advanced than Greek ships; modern sailors have accurate maps and instruments.)

To check your understanding of the reasons for the emergence of religion, you can ask questions: “Why was there no god of thunder and lightning or a god of the sea in the religion of the Egyptians? How do you explain these facts? (Students will answer the questions if they remember that there is almost no rain in the Nile Valley, and the sea did not play such a role in the life of the Egyptians big role, as in the life of the population of Greece.) Conclude what natural phenomena ancient people explained with the help of religion.”

3) God Hades - brother of Zeus and Poseidon - ruler of the gloomy underground kingdom of the dead. Terrible cold rivers flow there, the rays of the sun do not penetrate there and it is always a bleak night. As if driven by the wind, the souls of the dead rush there, complaining about their fate. There is no return for anyone from this kingdom of sadness. What natural phenomenon is reflected in the legend of Hades?

4) Work with the myth of Hades, Demeter and Persephone (p. 116) is carried out if time is available. It is advisable to show during the lesson fragments from the color filmstrip “Myths of the Ancient Greeks”, illustrating this myth, as well as the myth of Dionysus.

Continuing with Fig. 3 on page 115 (or appliques), “the teacher shows with two or three examples (§ 27, paragraph 2) that the religion of the Greeks also reflected their activities.

It is advisable to say more about Dionysus, the patron saint of viticulture and winemaking. The teacher reminds us that grains grew poorly on the soils of Greece, but the vineyards produced large harvests: Greek farmers produced a lot of wine both for themselves and for sale. Therefore, Dionysus was especially revered by farmers. He was depicted wearing a wreath of grape leaves, with bunches of grapes in his hands. The Greeks thought that Dionysus wandered the earth surrounded by a crowd of forest gods - tailed, goat-footed and goat-horned satyrs. It is advisable to mention the spring and winter festivals in honor of Dionysus, since theatrical performances arose from these celebrations.

The sculptors of ancient Greece knew how to carve human figures from marble or cast bronze. The gods were depicted as strong and wonderful men and women. Considering Fig. 1, p. 114: the eternally young handsome Apollo is the god of art. He was also the god of light; Apollo threatens with golden arrows all evil generated by darkness. The Greek sculptor depicted Apollo with a bow drawn in his left hand (the bow on the statue was not preserved).

Throughout Greece, Athena was revered - the goddess of wisdom, a warrior who guarded cities, and the patroness of weaving. The sculptor presented Athena as a majestic maiden in a long robe and helmet. On her outstretched hand is a winged Nike (victory can fly away from those who fail to hold it). At Athena's feet is a large round shield, inside of which a sacred snake wriggles.

2. The teacher notes that the religion of the Greeks reflected the order of life of people in ancient times. It is explained that the Greeks represented the main gods as a noble family that seized power over the other gods and people. This idea is reflected in Fig. 3 (p. 115): Zeus is the highest in his position; other Olympian gods and lower deities - satyrs and nymphs - are subordinate to him.

Like noble people, the Olympian gods are indifferent and indifferent to sorrows and suffering. ordinary people. The gods are envious, cruel and treacherous. “Give examples of the deceit and vengefulness of the gods from the Iliad and Odyssey,” the teacher suggests (Athena deceived Hector during a duel with Achilles. Poseidon mercilessly pursued Odysseus).

Like the nobility, the "Olympians" spend most of their time lounging and feasting, with the exception of Hephaestus, who is busy with blacksmithing. The gods quarrel with each other, use foul language, and sometimes they steal and fight. One myth tells that Hermes stole cows from Apollo; in another, that Zeus, angry with his wife the goddess Hera, suspended her between heaven and earth and lashed her with lightning for three days. When the blacksmith god Hephaestus tried to intercede for his mother, Zeus pushed him so hard that he fell from Olympus to the ground and remained lame forever.

It must be emphasized that the religion of the Greeks, like the religion of the peoples ancient East, teaches that the gods punish those who want to change the order of life established by them. The last thought is revealed with the help of the myth of Prometheus (§ 27, paragraph 4).

The generalization is made according to the textbook (p. 114, bold).

Homework: § 27. Task (4 or 5) for § 27,