Foreign literature of the 1st half of the 20th century, writers. Foreign literature

The first texts were written down by man almost 5 thousand years ago. But the beginning of the existence of foreign literature is considered to be Antiquity, with the works of Greek and Roman philosophers, poets, playwrights and generals. At this time, written literature becomes not just a way of preserving information, but a means of conveying thoughts and entertainment. It was from this period that literature acquired its main types: epic, lyricism and drama.

This is followed by the Middle Ages, when creators focused on theology and scholasticism. In XIV the Renaissance begins, which returns to the aesthetics of antiquity and humanism. The next period of postmodernism is characterized by genre expansion. Literature is becoming widespread, genres are intertwined in the most unexpected ways.

For a long time, literary works were accessible only to a select few. In the Middle Ages, the main theme was theology; in the Renaissance, the ideas of humanism flourished. This is followed by the period of postmodernism, in which written creativity moves closer to the masses, acquiring more in common with reality.

Foreign literary classics

(VIII century BC). The biography of the great ancient poet is unknown. But his epic poems “Odyssey” and “Iliad” formed the basis of the entire school of ancient education, left an indelible mark on the culture of the Renaissance and to this day remain not just classics of the epic, but its starting point.

Selected work:

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra

M. Cervantes(29.09.1547 - 22.04.1616 ) Spanish writer, author of the novel “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha,” recognized as a world literary treasure. It wittily and, at times, unsightly depicts the opposition and unity of romanticism and practicality.

Selected work:

W. Shakespeare (26.04.1564 - 23.04.1616) . Author of many dramatic and comedy plays, poems and sonnets, is recognized as the best English-language writer in the world. “Romeo and Juliet”, “Hamlet” and “Macbeth” are other works that are rightfully considered the property of world culture.

Selected works:

J. Moliere (15.01.1622 - 17.02.1673 ) . The founder of the genre of classical comedy, Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (Molière is a theatrical name) created “The Bourgeois in the Nobility” and many other comedies that continue to live to this day. His contribution to literature is invaluable.

Selected work:

D. Defoe (≈1660 - 24.04.1731) . The English writer, publicist and head of intelligence did a lot to popularize the novel. His legendary “Robinson Crusoe” made a significant contribution to this matter. In total, more than 500 works came from his pen.

Selected work:

Johann Wolfgang Goethe

I. Goethe (28.08.1749 - 22.03.1832) . The German poet and philosopher left the world one of the most significant mystical works. The tragedy “Faust” is the fruit of his entire life and the author’s most famous creation. It reflected the formation of the writer himself and the 60-year evolution of all of Germany.

Selected work:

Robert Burns

(25.01.1759 - 21.07.1796) . Scotland's leading poet once composed the verse "Honest Poverty", which became an anthem for the equality of all people. All his creations are imbued with patriotism, and one gave birth to the poetic form “standard gabby” (Burns stanza). It is still used in Scotland today.

Selected work:

Victor Marie Hugo

Victor Marie Hugo (26.02.1802 — 22.05.1885) . A world-famous writer from France, Victor Hugo is the main theorist and practitioner of romanticism. First French historical novel and, concurrently, the playwright’s first full-fledged literary work - “Notre Dame Cathedral” - was called upon to save the majestic building from demolition.

Selected work:

O.Henry

(William Sidney Porter 09/11/1862 - 06/05/1910). The classic American story, along with Dickens and London, gave the world many wonderful works. His “Gifts of the Magi” is an immortal story about those who know what true happiness is.

Selected work:

(Samuel Langhorne Clemens 11/30/1871 - 04/21/1910). Writer, journalist and public figure from America, Mark Twain created many worthy works in the genres of humor and satire, journalism and science fiction. But all over the world he is known for “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” and “The Adventures of Hucklebury Finn”, which radiate the warmth of a summer day.

Selected works:

(Charles Latwidge Dodgson 01/27/1832 - 02/14/1898). The multifaceted talent of Lewis Carroll, mathematics professor, deacon, photographer and writer, immerses readers in phantasmagoria, full of hints and allegories. Magical adventures of "Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass." His bibliography alternates between mathematical works and poetic works.

Selected works:

(John Griffith Cheney 01/12/1876 - 11/22/1916). American writer and social activist - master of the adventure genre. His novels and stories occupy an important place in the world literary fund. In particular, the story “Love of Life”, the novels “ White Fang"and the debut "Daughter of the Snows".

Selected work:

(29.06.1900 - 31.07.1944 ). Publicist, writer and professional military pilot Antoine de Saint-Exupéry wrote several novels and short stories. They are permeated with sky and reflection. A little sad, but meaningful" A little prince", the nostalgic collection "Planet of People" received recognition throughout the world.

Selected work:

Gianni Rodari

Gianni Rodari (23.10.1920 - 14.04.1980 ). The Italian storyteller of modern times has become a classic of children's literature. “The Adventures of Chipolino” together with “The Blue Arrow” and “Gelsomino in the Land of Liars” are well known to readers in the post-Soviet space, and the writer became famous worldwide thanks to the Hans Christian Andersen Prize.

Selected work:

Modern literature, having absorbed the experience of past literary periods and synthesized it with modern realities, gives birth to more and more worthy works.

The spiritual era began in the tens. World War is an external symptom of the break of eras.

The pathos of renewal and radical change, no matter how it is assessed, turns out to be the pathos of art: art turns out to be revolutionary, counter-classical, with the pathos of renewal. New circumstances = new art.

Hence the self-definitions: modern (“modern”), futurism, avant-garde.

The beginning of the 20th century is experienced as a deepest spiritual crisis; the entire previous way of life turns out to be exhausted (which in the 19th century was assessed as the last one, established forever: Modern times). Some other era has come, which has not received a special name. With the passing of the New Time, its values ​​also pass away, i.e. humanistic values:

1) faith in man (the world is structured in a human way and for man) - the world is structured differently, man is a random figure, the world does not need him;

2) faith in reason (the rational era of the development of science as the main tool of humanity) - reason is powerless, the world is structured unreasonably, science is inhuman;

3) faith in progress and a bright future (humanity is developing for the better) - there is no development, history is either cyclical (heyday-decline), or absurd and irrational, no bright future.

Disintegration of the triad truth-good-beauty. Art based on beauty without goodness and truth (impressionism) becomes possible; on the ethical without beauty and truth (expressionism); destruction of the entire triad (avant-garde: anti-ethical, anti-aesthetic, absurd).

This is shown through the disintegration of man as an integral personality: there is no internal unity. And right down to the lack of formality of a person’s physical appearance. The text falls apart. Montage dominates in architectonics: subjective arbitrary connection of fragments. And right up to the collapse of the word: poetry without words.

The literary process is devoid of unity: it is multi-vector, motley. For some, such a breakdown is a deep tragedy that personally affects the writer (Eliot, Hesse) and undermines his existence. Someone accepts the crisis: avant-garde artists - their program involves the destruction of the past and history “helps” them with this. Someone perceives the crisis as the problems of a specific generation that went through the world war (the lost generation). For some it seems national. catastrophe (G. Lorca). Or we're talking about about the crisis of an entire civilization, the decline of Europe, the end of an entire historical era.

Along with the crisis post-war years There were also golden years: painful flowering and celebration: jazz (in Russia - NEP).

An era of timelessness after the death of old enemies and before the birth of new ones. The new “Middle Ages” (self-name), the arrival of new barbarians. The mind is again disoriented, the rehabilitation of the irrational, the myth, arises. Interest in various theories of the unconscious (Nietzsche, Berkson, Freud, Hume), close attention to Eastern mysticism, mythological archaism, etc.

European culture is learning to comprehend the Other.

The New Time was characterized by naivety: all other eras, depending on their proximity to the New Time, were considered underdeveloped (no prospects in icon painting - that means underdeveloped artists; this is how the Oriental, medieval, Gothic, Baroque arts were perceived). Now - a rethinking: the art of others. paradigms simply set other goals and comply with them. It's complete, just different.

The key concept of the era in terms of art. process - modern. It's not just lit. school, but a new look at reality: a new vision of the world. “The world is not at all the way the respectable bourgeois of the 19th century was used to seeing it.” The world does not exist according to human laws, it is not the home of man, man himself does not exist according to human laws. The world is a mystery, a problem, something mysterious and incomprehensible. The world is irrational and absurd. Nietzsche: “God is dead.” Man has no transcendental foundation: foundations in some higher spheres, no roots in heaven. We exist in the world for no reason, we are not needed here, we are accidental here.

Modernists take this absurdity of the world seriously, tragically, with horror: the world is a monster that threatens man. Postmodernists perceive this absurdity of the world differently: this is a reason for play and frivolity: nothing is sacred, the game is total. Loss of the meaning of existence.

The people cease to exist as a spiritual unity. The people and folk culture no longer exist. No traditional values. This is a crowd, a mass. There is no basis for meaningful existence.

Modernity is characterized by pathos to comprehend this reality, albeit not by means of reason, but by means of intuition, mystical means. Claim to discover new knowledge about the world. A claim to comprehend reality anew. Accordingly, a new vision, new methods of comprehension, as opposed to realistic ones. Intuition, myth.

Modernity is emphatically mythological. The greatest writers of this time write in the form of a mythical novel. Rethinking myth: not plots, but a form of thinking and describing reality. If for the New Age it was typical to believe that the roots of myth were in the illiteracy of the ancients, then modernity recognizes in myth a new reality capable of comprehending something. This means of understanding is irrational. Myth is more competent in the unconscious, etc. Here it arises scientific study myth as such

Foreign literature

Was the legendary blind singer from Asia Minor the author of these epic tales or just a celebrated performer? There are different points of view on this matter. The poems were probably composed by many folk singers over several generations. Homer may have combined the disparate songs into a single cycle, doing the work of an editor. It is possible that individual fragments are the fruit of his individual creativity. The “Homeric question” has been debated for over two hundred years, but none of the scientists denies that Homer owes exceptional credit for the dissemination of the ancient epic.

« Iliad"The poem is named because the second name of Troy was Ilion, located on the coast of Asia Minor. For a long time it was believed that the city was just a poetic fiction. However, Heinrich Schliemann's excavations showed that the siege of the city of Troy by the Greeks could well be a historical fact. Today some of the finds of the German archaeologist can be seen in the exhibition State Museum Fine Arts named after A.S. Pushkin. The twenty-four songs of the Iliad recount the events that occurred during the forty-nine days of the last, tenth, year of the war.

In the poem "Iliad" there are two grandiose stages: the besieged Troy and the camp of the besieging Greeks. The epic tale embodies the struggle of equals, while the heroes are positioned symmetrically. The eldest son of the Trojan king Priam, Hector, is not inferior in courage to Achilles, from whom he is destined to die. He is equally skilled in all military techniques. Note that the battle narrative includes a whole series of fights. In single combat with Achilles' friend Patroclus, Hector struck him death blow and took away from him the armor that belonged to Achilles. Achilles must avenge the death of his friend. Hephaestus forges him a shield, which depicts land and seas, cities and villages, vineyards and pastures, everyday life and festivals. The image on the shield is symbolic, because it includes everything that the valiant Greek knight protects.

Events " Odyssey» assigned to the tenth year after graduation Trojan War. All the victors returned to their cities, others, like Agamemnon, had already died. Only Odysseus cannot return to his island of Ithaca. This is prevented by Poseidon, who was angry with Odysseus for blinding his son the Cyclops Polyphemus.

Odysseus must return to Ithaca at all costs, where his parents, wife Penelope and son Telemachus are waiting for him. The Greeks were patriots; isolation from their homeland for Odysseus was tantamount to death.

On the way to the hero's home, trials await (episodes in the cave of Polyphemus, sailing past the island of Sirens and the monsters Scylla and Charybdis) and temptations - the love of the nymph Calypso and princess Nausicaa. Odysseus, thanks to his cunning and courage, emerges victorious in all dramatic conflicts.

The second plot motif of the Odyssey is associated with the image of the faithful Penelope, who waits for her husband for twenty years, by subterfuge rejecting the advances of those who want to share her bed and the royal throne.

Third story line dedicated to their son Telemacus, who goes in search of his father.

At the end of the poem, all the characters are united. The unrecognized Odysseus, together with Telemachus, expels uninvited guests - the suitors of his wife, who joyfully greets him.

Classical period Greek art and literature dates back to the 5th century. and coincides with the highest flowering of slave-owning democracy. Having won the Greco-Persian Wars (500-449), the city-states, united in an alliance led by Athens, defended their independence from Persian rule. This contributed to the development of trade and crafts, as well as the rise of morale and patriotism.

Most Grand Theatre was located in Megapol, it accommodated 44 thousand people.

The participation of the choir in the tragedy allows us to identify the genesis of the tragedy. The word "tragedy" itself means goat song and also indicates the origin dramatic genre. The tragedy arose from the choral performance of dithyrambs in honor of the god Dionysus, who was also called Bacchus. In the fall, the Greeks, having harvested grapes, made new wine and tasted it (diluted with water!), organized games in honor of the patron saint of winemaking. The satyrs and bacchantes who accompanied Dionysus dressed themselves in goat skins and stained their faces with grape marc. The one who was entrusted with the role of Dionysus took the lead, entering into dialogue with the choir. The procession was accompanied by riotous dancing and singing. Dialogue could obviously take place between individual actors, in any case, a dramatic performance - a tragedy - was born from the dialogue.

In tragedy, the hero entered into a duel with superpersonal forces. He invariably found himself defeated, but in the duel with fate his dignity and strength of resistance to the will of the gods were revealed.

Aeschylus (525-456) - father ancient Greek tragedy. An aristocrat and warrior, he took part in the battles with the Persians at Marathon and Salamis. He was the author of about 90 works, of which 7 have come down to us. In the tragedy “Oresteia”, which consisted of three parts “Agamemnon”, “Choephora”, “Eumenides”, he spoke about the sinister crimes of the Atrides family, about the murder of the leader of the Achaean army of his wife Clytemnestra, the cruel reprisal of children against their mother and the revenge of the gods on Orestes for his crime. The main conflict of the tragedy is not family, but historical.

In tragedy "Prometheus Bound" For the first time in world culture, Aeschylus recreated the image of a tyrant fighter, bringing people the light of truth. Aeschylus interprets everything that human civilization had achieved by that time as the gift of Prometheus. In the central monologue tragic hero speaks about himself and about people:

Sophocles (496-4 06) wrote 120 works, 7 tragedies have reached us. The son of a wealthy gunsmith from the Athens suburb of Colon, He received an excellent education and took an active part in political life Athens, was a friend of Pericles. He won 24 victories in playwriting competitions. The most famous dramatic works of Sophocles are associated with Theban cycle myths. In tragedy "Oedipus the King" the hero, unknowingly, became the killer of his father and the husband of his mother. The gods send a terrible pestilence to the city of Thebes, because a regicide lives here. Oedipus, who became the ruler of Thebes, promises to punish the criminal, but soon becomes convinced of his own guilt. The action of the tragedy develops retrospectively: from the present to the past. People close to Oedipus, when suspicion of his own guilt crept in, convince him that he could not have committed the crime. But the more evidence they provide that it is impossible for him to commit crimes, the stronger his confidence: he himself is guilty. The tragedy of Oedipus consists of unconsciously crime committed and deliberately accepting punishment. Oedipus was sighted, but did not know what he was doing. Punishing himself, he gouges out his eyes and leaves Thebes, then settles in Colon. The land that has given shelter to a repentant sinner is under the protection of the gods. This is the main idea of ​​the tragedy “Oedipus at Colonus”.

In tragedy "Antigone" a conflict arises between the heirs of Oedipus. Two sons of Oedipus, Eteocles and Polyneices, died in the fratricidal war. The new ruler of Thebes, Creon, prohibits, on pain of death, the burial of Polyneices, who went to war against his hometown. Creon issues this law with the best intentions, wanting to stop chaos and anarchy. Oedipus' daughter Antigone, risking her life, disobeyed the ruler and buried her brother's body. Sophocles in the tragedy “Antigone” not only glorifies the heroine’s courage and loyalty to duty, but also confronts the eternal moral laws that humanity has developed throughout history with the willfulness of rulers who violate the world order.

The greatness of Sophocles' heroes lies in the fact that, broken by omnipotent fate, they remain faithful to their human duty.

Euripides (480-406) - the youngest of the tragic poets, the author of 92 works, of which 17 tragedies have come down to us. Best translations belong to In. Annensky.

Euripides was a follower of the philosophy of the Sophists, who argued that objective truth does not exist, since only man is the measure of all things. The playwright demonstrates human rights to actions that horrify others, but they follow from his internal logic. To his contemporaries, his heroes seemed too pampered, and his heroines too cruel. Really , Medea V tragedy of the same name mercilessly takes revenge on the one whom Jason called his bride. Medea kills her own children because she wants her suffering to become the tragedy of the father of her children. She defends her dignity, just as in the tragedy “Hippolytus” Phaedra takes revenge on her stepson only because he does not consider love a sacred feeling that unites people. Heroines of Euripides literally femme fatales, fate dominates them and draws them to death. In this sense, he agrees with Sophocles, but compared to the author of Oedipus the King, Euripides pays much more attention to psychological nuances, masterfully conveying the dialectic of feelings. So, for example, in the tragedy "Iphigenia in Aulis" The goddess Artemis demands that Agamemnon sacrifice his daughter, otherwise the Greek ships that have accumulated near the port city of Aulis will never reach the walls of Troy. Iphigenia, along with her mother Clytemnestra, is summoned to Aulis, allegedly to marry Achilles. She is happy. But having learned that it is not a wedding that awaits her, but the gloomy Hades, she desperately begs her father to take pity on her. Time passes, and Iphigenia perceives the lot that has fallen to her differently.

Iphigenia perceives fate as a duty; she is ready to die with dignity for the honor of her homeland. However, in the finale salvation comes: Artemis had mercy and replaced the girl’s body with a doe. Euripides uses a new technique discovered by him in the denouement: Deus ex machina - God from the machine. When the heroes are threatened with death, the gods save them at the last moment. There were special theatrical devices that lifted characters to heaven. Even in the most tragic situations, everything ends happily in a number of works by Euripides.

Aristophanes (c. 445 - c. 386) - father of ancient Greek comedy. The origin of comedy is associated with Bacchic songs. The term itself originally meant “the song of a riotous crowd.” A dialogue emerged from the humorous squabbles. Parody played a significant role in comedy. Aristophanes, in the monologues of his characters, parodied the speeches of politicians, military leaders and sophists. He was the author of about 40 comedies, of which 11 came to us.

The peculiarity of Roman literature during the reign of Octavian Augustus was that brilliant poets deliberately went to serve the ruler. This is equally characteristic of Virgil (70-19) and Horace (65-8).

About the life of the greatest poet ancient Rome known from the biographical notes of Suetonius, author of the famous books “The Lives of the Twelve Caesars” and “On famous people" Although Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was a contemporary of Virgil.

Virgil became famous for his “Bucolics” - pastoral idylls in which villagers indulge in love lamentations and joys, and also talk on philosophical topics. In one of the poems in this cycle the following line was heard:

In 30 Virgil turns to the creation of a poem "Aeneid", which immortalized his name. He presented the events first in prose and then in hexameter, following the traditions of Homer and continuing his plots.

The poem talks about the fate of the Trojan Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Aphrodite. His mother commands him to leave burning Troy and go with his closest relatives to the Italian shores, for he is destined to become the founder of a new powerful state.

Horace- a poet of the golden mean, writing for a select few. In his poems he called for moderation, taught to be content with little, and in his satires he exposed the luxury and vices of the noble rich. In his odes, he glorified the wisdom of statesmen and their deeds done for the benefit of the people. Horace was the first in world literature to create a monument to poetry, proclaimed immortality and power poetic word. His ode “Monument” served as a model for poets of subsequent generations. Let us recall that A.S. Pushkin to his poem “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...” took the epigraph from Horace: Exegi monument.

The merit of Virgil and Horace was that, largely thanks to their poetry, Latin was preserved, since in the Middle Ages their works were read and studied by students.

Middle Ages: Romanesque and Gothic, heroic epic and chivalric romance, Dante and Giotto

Middle Ages - a long period world history, extending from the end of the 5th century. to the 15th century, connecting antiquity with the Renaissance. The beginning medieval history Conventionally, it is considered to be 476, when the final fall of the Roman Empire took place as a result of numerous uprisings of slaves and uprisings of the plebs, as well as under the onslaught of barbarian tribes that invaded the Apennine Peninsula from the north. The end of the Middle Ages was the Renaissance ancient culture, which began in Italy from the middle of the 14th century, and in France - from the beginning of the 16th century, in Spain and England - from the end of the same century. The Middle Ages were characterized by the dominance of the Christian religion, asceticism, the destruction of ancient monuments, and the oblivion of humanistic ideas in the name of religious dogma. From the end of the 4th century. Christianity became the state religion, first in Rome, and then in the emerging barbarian states, for the leaders of the Germans, Franks, and Celts soon realized that the ideas of monotheism contributed to the elevation of their authority among their fellow tribesmen. Having mastered and processed Latin, they accepted baptism and the dogmas of the church.

Finally, it was in the Middle Ages that arose literary genres, existing to this day: novel, sonnet, ballad, madrigal, canzone and others.

At the end of the Middle Ages, great geographical discoveries occurred and printing was invented, cities were revived and universities were opened.

Until recently, the Middle Ages in the historical process were interpreted as a decline in art and literature; now this view seems outdated. In the Middle Ages, verbal and plastic arts had their own specific feature- anonymity. In most cases, it is impossible to name the author of the works. They were created by a collective folk genius, as a rule, over a long period of time, often over several centuries, through the talent and dedication of many generations. Another characteristic feature medieval literary monuments the presence of so-called “wandering stories” appeared; due to the fact that epic songs were spread orally, they gained recognition among different nations, inhabited Europe, but each people introduced original details into the stories about the exploits of heroes, and interpreted the heroic and moral ideal in their own way.

The leading genre of medieval literature were epic poems, which arose at the final stage of the formation of nations and their unification into states under the auspices of the king.

In the epic tales of the Middle Ages, the loyal vassal of his overlord always plays a very important role. Such is the hero of the French "Songs of Roland" who did not spare his life to serve King Charlemagne. He, at the head of a small detachment of Franks in the Roncesvalles Gorge, repels the attack of thousands of Saracen troops. Dying on the battlefield, the hero covers his body with his military armor, lies down facing the enemies, “so that Karl would tell his glorious squad that Count Roland died, but won.”

The Song of Roland took shape over almost four centuries. The real details were partly forgotten, but its patriotic pathos intensified, the king was idealized as a symbol of the nation and state, and the feat in the name of faith and people was glorified.

Ruy Diaz de Bivar, nicknamed Sid, the hero of the Spanish folk epic, also faithfully serves his king Alfonso VI "Song of Sid" liberated Valencia and other Spanish lands from the Arab tribes that captured them.

The image of Sid captivates with its realistic versatility. He is not only a brave commander, but also a subtle diplomat. When he needed money, he did not disdain deception; he cleverly deceived gullible moneylenders, leaving them chests with sand and stones as collateral. Sid is having a hard time with the forced separation from his wife and daughters, and when the king betrothed them to noble swindlers, he suffers from the insult and calls out for justice to the king and the Cortes. Having restored the honor of the family and gained royal favor, Sid is satisfied and marries his daughters a second time, now to worthy grooms.

The epic hero of the Spanish epic is close to reality, this is explained by the fact that “The Song of Cid” arose just a hundred years after Rodrigo accomplished his exploits. In subsequent centuries, the Romansero cycle arose, telling about the youth of the epic hero.

Germanic heroic epic "Song of the Nibelungs" was recorded around 1200, but its plot dates back to the era of the “great migration of peoples” and reflects the real historical event: the death of the Burgundian kingdom, destroyed by the Huns in 437.

“The Song of the Nibelungs” is one of the most tragic creations of world literature. Cunning and intrigue lead the Nibelungs to death. The tragedy of all the Nibelungs begins with the death of an epic hero, which is Siegfried - the ideal hero of the “Song of the Nibelungs”. The prince from the Lower Rhine, the son of the Dutch king Siegmund and Queen Sieglinde, the conqueror of the Nibelungs, who took possession of their treasure - the gold of the Rhine, is endowed with all the virtues of knighthood. He is noble, brave, courteous. Duty and honor are above all for him.

The image of Siegfried combines the archaic features of the hero of myths and fairy tales with the behavior of a feudal knight, ambitious and cocky. He soon resigns himself, remembering the purpose of his visit. It is characteristic that the prince unquestioningly serves King Gunther, not ashamed to become his vassal. This reflects not only the desire to get Kriemhild as a wife, but also the pathos of faithful service to the overlord, invariably inherent in the medieval heroic epic.

belongs to Siegfried vital role in Gunther's matchmaking with Brunhild. He not only helps him defeat a mighty hero in a duel, but also gathers a squad of thousands of Nibelungs, who must accompany the bride and groom returning to Worms. The powerful Burgundian ruler sends Siegfried to capital city with the good news that he had mastered the warrior maiden, so that his relatives would prepare a solemn meeting for them. This causes the heartfelt joy of Krimhilda, who hopes that the messenger can now count on marrying her. A magnificent double wedding took place.

After ten years of separation, Siegfried and Kriemhild receive an invitation from Gunther and Brunhild to visit Worms. The Nibelungs go to visit, not knowing what trouble awaits them there.

The quarrel between the two queens turned into disaster for Siegfried. Having learned from Kriemhild that Siegfried, having bathed in the blood of a dragon, had become invulnerable to arrows, their faithful vassal Hagen realized that the hero had his own “Achilles heel”: a fallen linden leaf covered the body between the shoulder blades, this is what poses a danger to the brave knight . The traitor kills Siegfried while hunting, throwing a spear at the unarmed hero leaning over a stream, aiming between the shoulder blades. The blow turned out to be fatal.

With the death of Siegfried, the narrators' attention is focused on the fate of his widow, who takes bloody revenge on her relatives for the death of her husband.

Kriemhild uses Etzel's matchmaking and then marriage with the king of the Huns exclusively to carry out her bloody plans. The compositional structure of “The Nibelungenlied” is symmetrical, and the characters repeat each other’s actions. So, Kriemhild persuades Etzel, as Brunhild had previously begged Gunther, to invite his brothers to visit him in order to inflict reprisals on them.

“The Song of the Nibelungs” is a story about the vicissitudes of human destinies, about the fratricidal wars that tore apart the feudal world. Etzel, the most powerful ruler of the early Middle Ages, acquired the features of an ideal ruler who paid for his nobility and gullibility, becoming a victim of those whom he revered as his closest people.

The heroic epic of the early Middle Ages was replaced in the twelfth century by a new genre - the novel, which was destined to have a long life in art - right up to the present day. In the medieval novel, the main character remained the knight, but his appearance and inner world underwent significant changes. Being epic hero, the knight conquered with his dashing prowess, which he tirelessly demonstrated while fighting with foreign infidels. Such was Roland - the nephew and faithful vassal of his king, Charlemagne. The dying speeches of the brave warrior Roland are addressed to God and the King. But here’s what’s surprising: the dying knight never remembered his bride Alda, the sister of his comrade-in-arms and friend Olivier. Having learned about the death of her lover, Alda died of grief, which, however, is reported without much detail by the storyteller who called himself Turold, although little is known about him either. It is unlikely that he was the author of the “Song of Roland”; rather, he became famous as a talented juggler who could afford to leave his name in the text. But in general, the heroic epic - let us emphasize once again - is the result of the creation of a collective folk genius.

"Tristan and Isolde"

The relationship between the knight and the king also changed somewhat. A noble paladin of his king, while remaining a vassal, often acquires a slightly different status: a friend and confidant of the monarch. Sometimes a knight, on the orders of the king, accomplishes a feat, but is bound heroic deed not with politics, but with personal life. For example, Tristan goes to conquer Isolde. The overseas beauty is to become the wife of King Mark, who is his uncle. The distance between the vassal and the king is reduced, and the knight becomes one of those close to him. The conflict in the novel about Tristan and Isolde is based on the fact that the vassal becomes a rival of the king himself, which heroic epic it would be absolutely impossible. The love experiences of the characters are revealed with great psychological persuasiveness, their feelings are devoid of static, the pursuit of lovers only stimulates their passion.

The chivalric romance spread throughout the territories of future Germany and France, easily overcoming the language barrier. Many novels appeared about the adventures of knights round table at the court of King Arthur. The source was Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (c. 1137), which became widely popular in France.

Tungsten- the largest poet of the German Middle Ages, the author of many lyrical works, the unfinished novel “Villehalm” (c. 1198-1210), valued primarily as the creator of the monumental novel “Parzival” (c. 1200-1210), numbering 28,840 verses. But it's not a matter of scale. Wolfram von Eschenbach revolutionized the genre of the novel itself, shifting the focus from external events (adventures, unexpected meetings, fights) to the inner world of the hero, who gradually, in the process of painful searches, disappointments and delusions, finds harmony with the world and peace of mind.

"Parzival"is a kind of family chronicle, since Wolfram von Eschenbach tells in great detail three stories - three biographies: Parzival's father Gamuret, Parzival himself and his son Lohengrin.

Gamuret is the ideal hero of a German chivalric romance. He longs to serve God alone and dreams of the only reward - the love of a beautiful lady, whose name is Herzloyda, which means yearning at heart. Herzloyd had to choose her spouse at a knight's tournament. The brave Gamuret defeats all his rivals, but he cannot live without the lists. Taking advantage of the freedom that the generous Herzloyda provided him, he went to fight and died in battle.

Parzival's story ends with the triumph of justice and universal joy. His beloved wife Condviramur, whom the wandering knight had been yearning for for so long, also arrives at the castle. Happy Parzival immediately saw his wonderful sons Cardeis and Lohengrin.

The ending of the story is idyllic: the Holy Grail feeds everyone with food and quenches thirst with wine. Parzival rules his country wisely and fairly.

Lohengrin is the son of Parzival and Condwiramur. Born, like his father, after the knight left for war. Their first meeting and mutual recognition occurs when Parzival has already mastered the Holy Grail. The further history of Lohengrin is outlined by Wolfram in a dotted manner. They talk about Lohengrin's courage, about his victories in many battles. Lohengrin fell in love with the beautiful princess of Brabant, Elsa, who rejected all those who sought her hand. He arrives in Antwerp on a boat drawn by a swan. The slender, blond, handsome man Lohengrin instantly won the princess's heart. He married her on one condition: Elsa should not ask where he came from. Obviously, Lohengrin had no right to reveal to anyone the secret of the Munsalves castle, in which the Holy Grail was kept. Lohengrin's wife for a long time complied with the condition, but as soon as she tried to find out her husband’s secret, Lohengrin disappeared without a trace, drawn by a beautiful swan.

Foreign literature. 1917-1945. – M., 1980 History foreignliterature. ... use magazine publications “Foreign literature". Foreignliterature second half of the 20th century a/ ...

Domestic and foreign literature in Russian school mid-19th-early 20th centuries

In the methodology of teaching literature, since the middle of the 19th century, there has been a noticeable desire to develop a certain system of familiarizing students with works foreign writers. Without at all pretending to have any kind of complete overview of the activities of methodologists in this direction, it is nevertheless impossible not to mention the names of F.I. Buslaeva, V.Ya. Stoyunina, V.P. Ostrogorsky, who devoted significant space in their manuals and program requirements to the principles of studying foreign classics.

F.I. Buslaev in his work “On Teaching” Russian language” (1848) pointed out that the most important factor in the education of the younger generation is “the study of languages ​​and literature, which most briefly and friendlyly brings students closer to the spiritual world, elevating them from the concrete to the abstract and opening up to them a vast field for the activity of all their moral powers.” Studying a literary text and reading “is the basis for theoretical and practical skills.” However, being in science a consistent supporter of the comparative-historical method of studying the phenomena of art (which should interest us primarily), Buslaev in his methodological premises advocates for “domestic” literature and proposes to limit ourselves to a “detailed study of the classics” and ancient literature. In his opinion, students should become acquainted with foreign literature in small doses: “If it is necessary for a gymnasium teacher to introduce students to foreign writers, then let him limit himself from the very beginning to the nomenclature of proper names and tables of contents and writers with the briefest characteristics.” In the work “On Teaching the Russian Language”, realizing the possibilities of the educational plan in the study of language and literature, the methodologist assumes passive perception by students of the material presented, an appeal to their memory, and not to creative imagination and awareness.

Among the first to advocate the inclusion of works of foreign classics in literature courses were the leaders of closed educational institutions in Russia: military gymnasiums, cadet corps, and cadet schools. Already in 1835, the Chief of Staff of military educational institutions of Russia Ya.I. Rostovtsev sharply raised the question of the need for a broad literary education for future officers. It was with exposure to the examples of world art classics that he connected the mental development and moral formation of students of military schools, their development artistic taste and habits of independent reading, a tendency to think deeply and the need to express their own judgments.

In the 50s of the 19th century, the “Summary of Russian language and literature for leadership in military educational institutions,” compiled by A. Galakhov and F. Buslaev, enjoyed deserved popularity. Here, the historical-literary method is recommended as the main method of studying literature. Hence, greater attention to the works of Western European classics is inevitable. The “Synopsis” offered a detailed study of the evolution of various types of poetry, which also required turning to foreign poetic material. This is how the names of Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Virgil, Dante, Cervantes, Goethe, Lessing, Schiller, the Brothers Grimm, Byron, Walter Scott, Dickens are fixed in the program. Elements of academicism and the Socratic method of teaching indicate the seriousness of this new step in the development of methods of teaching literature, although one cannot fail to note the declarative nature of the “Note”, which often ignores the real capabilities of the educational institution. As for the connections between domestic and foreign literatures, we can only talk about the coexistence of two parallels in their study.

The content of the “Program on Russian language and literature for cadet corps” (1915) indicates that the closest attention was paid to the artistic and aesthetic education of officers in Russia. With joining the world artistic classics contacted spiritual development not only of an individual, but also of the nation as a whole, because reading fiction contributes to the development creative imagination, logical thinking, observation, refinement of students’ feelings - qualities that were considered necessary for a future officer: “Literary erudition, subject to a reasonable choice of material, always develops the highest spiritual needs in a person and strengthens his thinking abilities.”

The literature course included complex material on literary theory. As an illustration of theoretical and literary concepts, it was proposed to use the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Shakespeare, and Moliere. To expand knowledge in the field of aesthetics, art criticism articles by Lessing and Schiller were recommended. The concept of the epic was consolidated during the study of the Iliad, Odyssey, Aeneid, Shahnameh, Song of Roland, and Song of the Nibelungs. In high school studying world literature Approximately half the time allocated for literature lessons was spent. To the lists for extracurricular reading included a small number of works foreign authors: most of works of foreign classics were studied directly in the classroom.

To help teachers of military schools, the magazine “Pedagogical Collection” was established, which also published guidelines to conduct literature lessons based on the works of both domestic and foreign writers. The materials of the magazine indicate that students of Russian military schools were trained in the most thorough stylistic analysis works of art, gave deep knowledge of the theory of genres.

The selection of works for reading in military schools in Russia was carried out in such a way as to divert from acute social problems, not to affect the foundations of religion (is this why Goethe’s Faust is given only in lists for independent reading?) and to reveal mainly questions of the theory of genres.

Unlike military educational institutions, the gymnasium course in literature in general, including episodic foreign literature, was often more modest in practice. And the official methodological guidelines were in many ways inferior to Buslaev’s “Consect”. This becomes obvious when referring to the “Plan for the distribution of teaching science in higher public schools, gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums, which are part of the department of the Ministry of Public Education,” which recommended: “The study of the history of foreign literature of ancient and living peoples, due to its vastness, cannot and should not enter the gymnasium course. It is enough to limit ourselves in this regard to a few data derived from reading those few writers who are listed above and who are translated into Russian. It is better to limit yourself to a little in order to achieve success, rather than to set yourself a complex task, the solution of which is inconceivable.”

Everything seemed reasonable. But the point, however, is for the purpose of studying foreign language literature. And it turns out that the limitation of the “foreign literature” material used for study is a direct consequence of the narrowness of the tasks that the program formulates. Further we read: “And this little is enough to develop in students the natural gift of speech to the ability to speak it freely and develop in them a taste for the elegant, which is the task of gymnasium teaching of the Russian language and literature.”

This understanding of the task covers only part of the general educational aspirations. From this point of view, the authors of the program define an extremely minimal set of works of foreign classics. These are “Antigone” by Sophocles, “King Lear” by Shakespeare, “The Maid of Orleans” by Schiller. In addition, Calderon and Camoes, Racine and Corneille are mentioned in the program.

Thoroughness and fundamentality of addressing a little is indeed, as a rule, preferable to review reports and diverse information of a literary nature gleaned from a textbook. And in principle, “remains the only true and reliable way in the study of literature - reading first-class writers with analysis...”. But at the same time, the program limits the main task only to “the development of the natural gift of speech and the formation of aesthetic taste in students.”

This program combined a course in language and literature (Part 1 – “Russian Language”, Part 2 – “Theory and History of Literature”). The mentioned foreign authors were involved in the study of the “theory of literature” to illustrate the concept of “dramatic poetry” - “ancient classical” and “tragedy of modern times”.

In the 60s, the program (due to the partial democratization of general education as a consequence of the abolition of serfdom) included many names of foreign writers: Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, Horace, Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Corneille, Moliere, Andre Chénier, Beranger, Walter Scott, Byron, Schiller, Goethe, Mickiewicz. It is characteristic that Belinsky’s articles, which have since been included in school literature, are recommended for study. All these provisions were enshrined in the book by V.Ya. Stoyunin “On teaching Russian literature” (1864).

Teaching itself is increasingly recognized by advanced teachers as an area of ​​intellectual, moral and aesthetic education of students. “Every truly aesthetic work reflects life, reality, with which many moral, social and other issues are associated. When analyzing such a work, we must discuss its content in detail, without which even one aesthetic assessment is impossible... A thorough review of the content, indicating the ideal and actual side, makes it possible to make a correct aesthetic assessment regarding the form, which in a true poetic work always depends on the content. Thus, mental, moral, and aesthetic development are combined here.” Stoyunin professed “universal” ideals, his guiding star was “gradualism” historical process leading to general prosperity, his book contributed to the democratization of literary education and served to realize the commonality of the world historical literary process.

The 70-90s of the 19th century were characterized in the field of education by the onset of reaction. This could not but affect the works outstanding teacher V.P. Ostrogorsky, whose “Conversations on the Teaching of Literature” (1885) became the most important workbook of the century in this field. Asserting the need for a historical-comparative approach to the study of literature, Ostrogorsky also advocated turning to foreign classics in teaching, but in general he emphasized the abstract “ethical-aesthetic,” sometimes simply non-social, study of world literature.

During the 90s - early 900s, teachers' congresses were held, draft programs for teaching literature in secondary schools were developed, and finally a program was proposed (1905), quite moderate in content and principles of study, which, however, was not approved. Of the optional ones, the program compiled by K.P. was widely used at that time. Petrov, who also became the author of a textbook and an anthology on the literature of the gymnasium course. His “Program of Literature (with Appendices)” (St. Petersburg, 1905), in comparison with the program of 1860, amazes with the abundance of names and works of foreign literature: about forty writers and the titles of major works! But the entire program consists of two sections: A. Theory of literature, built on the material of foreign and domestic literature; B. History of Russian literature, from (“Russian Literature” to “Literature of the 40s” inclusive).

Without characterizing the program as a whole, we note that the foreign literature included in the “Theory of Literature” section, in fact, ceased to be an object of study. The approach by genres (“Lyrical poetry”, “Works written in prose”, “Works written in verse”, “Literary lyricism”, “Dramatic poetry”) distorted and made it impossible to imagine the world literary process, at least in its historical and chronological understanding . Social essence, the social orientation of classical foreign literature turned out to be reduced to zero, and the analysis of interaction and correspondence in the development of Russian and foreign literature (works are mentioned side by side on the basis of genre similarity) was excluded. The 1905 program conclusively illustrated that the point was not to offer students greatest number names and works of foreign classics.

In the early 900s, for some time, “at the request of the curricula of the Ministry of Public Education, the history of Russian literature in gymnasiums and secondary schools is not studied systematically, not from a textbook, and its teaching consists of reading samples with historical explanations.” Based on these requirements, K.P. Petrov defined the purpose of the “Course on the History of Russian Literature” (1905) as follows: “to help those students who would like to group and preserve in some system the inevitably fragmentary explanations of the teacher and, in addition, fill in occasional gaps in their knowledge.”

The “Course on the History of Russian Literature” included a special section devoted to translated literature “ last decade"(1894–1904), most reminiscent of a journal critical and bibliographic review. Along with the third-rate names of writers in the history of literature, the author names the works and names of those whose place in artistic development humanity is truly great. The section gives brief retelling content and characteristics of the main ideas of the book, and the quality of the translation is assessed. The student thus becomes reacquainted with the work of writers who have firmly taken their place in the art of literary expression. It is characteristic that this review has been supplemented with new names and facts compared to the previous (1904) edition. However, the section does not contain any serious attempt to characterize the social and aesthetic significance of the world classic masterpieces; the author’s position in selecting names is eclectic (Octave Mirbeau and his stories, Goethe’s Faust translated by P. I. Weinberg, Hauptmann’s dramas, Selma Lagerlöf, Heinrich Ibsen and Herbert Wells).

“Russian Historical Reader with the Appendix of Published Examples of Foreign Literature” by the same author (St. Petersburg, 1904) introduces examples of foreign literature very broadly (it does not dwell on the characteristics of translations and cuts in the text). There are three large sections: “Poetry of the Ancient East”, “Poetry classical world", "Poetry of new peoples". In the first two, in addition to extracts from Indian and Persian poetry, poetic examples from Greece and Rome are very fully presented. The epic, lyric, and drama of Hellas almost correspond (in terms of names and works) to today's university courses. The third section, “Poetry of New Nations,” contains samples of literature from France, Italy, Spain, England, Germany, and Scandinavia. Material about the work of each writer is preceded a little information about his works. Characteristics of national literatures of modern times are generally lacking. In total, the section examines 50 names of foreign writers.

The last pre-revolutionary program in literature was the program of 1915, which included “an episodic course in the history of general literature in connection with and along with a course in the history of Russian literature.” This “episodic course” coincided with VI–VII, last classes gymnasium. Educational objectives This course includes the process of enriching the language of students, developing the skills of free, figurative speech. Despite the huge time gaps and the most important “national” omissions, this was, perhaps, the first attempt in a Russian secondary school to give a concise, visual and understandable students a picture of the development of universal literature. This idea is also visible in the recommended reading lists: Grade III: “The Song of Roland”; IV class: Byron “The Prisoner of Chillon”, Homer “Iliad” and “Odyssey” (excerpts); V class: Schiller “The Maid of Orleans”; VI grade: Horace Odes and Satires; Sophocles “Oedipus the King”, “Antigone”, “Electra” (one tragedy of your choice); Corneille "Sid"; Moliere "The Miser", "The Misanthrope"; Goethe. “Werther”, “Faust” (in connection with the passage of Zhukovsky’s work); VII class: Byron “Childe Harold” (excerpt), “Cain”; Mickiewicz “Pan Tadeusz” (in connection with the study of Pushkin’s work).

It should be noted that if the 1915 program made a certain step forward in the selection and principle of “correspondence” of foreign and domestic literature, then the focus on an exclusively “aesthetic” analysis of the recommended works, a “timeless”, “eternal” and, therefore, non-social approach to the phenomena of literature clearly reflected the positions of pre-revolutionary official pedagogy.

The program also provided “Sample lists literary works for extracurricular reading”, which also included books by foreign writers: IV grade: Cervantes “Don Quixote”; Walter Scott (one of the novels); V grade: Dickens “David Copperfield”, “Little Dorrit”, “Dombey and Son” (one of the novels); VI grade: Victor Hugo “93rd year”, “Cathedral” Notre Dame of Paris", "Toilers of the Sea" (one of three novels); Beaumarchais "The Marriage of Figaro"; VII grade: Dickens "Notes" Pickwick Club"; Euripides "Alcestes"; Lessing "Laocoon".

Omitting the “recommendations for studying”, we will quote lines that indicate the desire to form a holistic picture of the literary process: “It is desirable both to clarify the artistic value of the works being studied, and to indicate the relationships that connect the phenomena of world literature with monuments of Russian literature.” As a result, two goals were to be achieved: “to appreciate and respect the creations of universal human geniuses”; “to understand... the growth of national literature and show how the work of Russian writers... precisely in the 19th century... began to influence the literature of Western Europe.”

In general, characterizing school curricula on literature of the pre-October period in Russia, we should note that the “aesthetic” and “philological” approaches in real educational process divided and fragmented literature into separate phenomena, reduced the diversity of living, effective words exclusively to the evolution and “accumulation” of genres. Reliance on understanding the historical and theoretical-literary nature of “comparisons” of elements of foreign and Russian literary classics didn't exist. And yet the idea of ​​​​the need to study domestic and foreign literature in a certain ratio and in mutual connection does not go completely unnoticed in the theory and practice of school literary education of that period.