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"The pathophysiology arose How experimental science in connection with the need for accurate, natural - scientific study mechanisms of occurrence, development and elimination of pathological processes » ( Kryzhanovsky G.N., 1997 ). Currently, it is one of the fundamental, integrating disciplines in higher medical school. Pathophysiology is the theoretical basis of the doctor’s training system, the formation of the foundations of his clinical thinking.

The term “pathological physiology” was first used in the 17th century by J. Varandes, according to other sources - Galiot, who in 1819 published a textbook entitled “General Pathology and Pathological Physiology”

Founder Russian pathological physiology as a science and academic discipline is Victor Vasilievich Pashutin . He created the first department of pathological physiology in Russia at Kazan University. 1874 .

In modern literature, both scientific and educational , instead of phrases "pathological physiology " accepted apply term "pathophysiology " (from the Greek pathos - suffering; physis - nature, essence; logos - teaching, science).

This term is a priority in Russia and in countries of Eastern Europe. In the West, particularly in French-speaking countries, “physiopathology” is more often used, and in English-speaking countries “general pathology” is used.

What is pathophysiology, what kind of science is it, what does it study? Despite some discrepancies in terminology, the issues that are considered by this science, regardless of the nationality of scientists, are the same . And so, pathophysiology is a science that studies the most general patterns occurrence, development and outcomes of pathological processes, typical pathological processes and diseases. Literally translated, this is the science of the vital functions of a sick organism. But it does not at all follow from this that a healthy organism is beyond the sight of pathophysiologists.

Such important pathophysiological concepts as resistance , constitution, stress, diathesis and a number of others relate to a healthy organism. N.N. Anichkov even said at one time: “...that normal mechanisms can only be understood when they become dependent on abnormal reactions" Under the influence of various pathogenic factors, making maximum use of its adaptive mechanisms, a healthy organism reveals its own, genetically determined capabilities more fully, and functions beyond the relatively narrow ranges inherent in a quiet existence.

The definition of the concept “pathophysiology” can be approached from the other side. Each organism has a unique life program that developed during the process of evolution and is encoded in the genetic apparatus. According to this program, the origin, development and manifestation of various forms of activity of the body occur. Consequently, all the activities of the body, the optimal characteristics of its functioning, are genetically determined. A.M.Ugolev determined physiology as a science about technologies of living systems , meaning by this a way to solve a particular problem by various systems of the body. Thus, the technological task of the external respiration system is the optimal saturation of red blood cells with oxygen with minimal consumption of energy resources; the urinary system is the removal various products metabolism and preservation of substances beneficial to the body, etc. Based on this, you can " define pathophysiology as the science of technological errors and technological defects in the functioning of living systems, a kind of biological defectology" (Zajchik A.Sh., Churilov L.P., 1999).

1.2. Subject, purpose and objectives of pathophysiology.

Science, in contrast to “non-science,” according to J. J. Thomson, must have a subject and method of research. The subject (object) of studying pathophysiology is, sadly, human disease. From here - The main goal of pathophysiology is to establish the most general patterns, the laws according to which the pathological process and disease develop.

According to the purpose, the tasks of our science are:

· study of the general patterns of specific mechanisms (underlying the body’s resistance) of the occurrence, development and completion of pathological processes and diseases;

· study of typical pathological processes (stereotypical combinations of phenomena), different combinations of which determine clinical picture human diseases;

· study of typical forms of disruption and restoration of the functions of individual organs and systems of the body;

· study of transitional states between health and disease (pre-disease);

· systematization and analytical-synthetic processing of factual material;

· creation of new methods for modeling pathological processes and diseases;

· On the basis of theoretical and applied knowledge, contribute to the formation of the doctor’s thinking, i.e. not only to convey modern knowledge to the student, but also to teach him to use this knowledge in order to be able to build a chain of studied phenomena into a logical system.

1.3. Structure (content) of pathophysiology.

Pathophysiology as a science and academic discipline, consists of three main sections with several subsections:

I. General nosology (nosos-disease+logos-teaching)

1 . General doctrine of illness:

a) basic concepts and categories of pathology;

b) classification and nomenclature of diseases;

c) social aspects of pathology.

2 .General etiology(aithia-reason):

A) general properties pathogenic factors;

c) the importance of conditions in the occurrence of diseases;

d) principles of etiotropic prevention and therapy.

3 .General pathogenesis(pathos+genesis – origin):

a) mechanisms of the body’s resistance to the action of pathogens

factors;

b) general mechanisms of disease development;

c) mechanisms of recovery;

d) mechanisms of dying;

e) principles of pathogenetic prevention and therapy.

4. The doctrine of reactivity, resistance and constitution of the body

II. The study of typical pathological processes: pathology of the cell, peripheral circulation and microcirculation, hypoxia, inflammation, tumor growth, allergies, metabolic disorders, etc. i.e. those processes that often occur in various combinations in many diseases

III. The doctrine of typical forms of pathology of organs and systems of the body: blood, circulation, respiration, digestion, excretory, endocrine and nervous system, as well as the liver.

Sections I and II are combined under the title "general pathophysiology" section III is designated as "private pathophysiology".

Particular pathophysiology of all sections of pathophysiology is most similar to clinical disciplines, but:

· a clinician studies the disease in a specific patient, with all the features of its occurrence, development and outcome;

· pathophysiologists study the general patterns of development of pathological processes and diseases that arise in various organs and systems of the body - cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, etc.

IN Lately, thanks to the improvement of non-invasive methods for studying sick people (biophysical, biochemical, electrophysiological, etc.), pathophysiologists were able to observe the pathological process in dynamics in vivo, and this made it possible to develop clinical pathophysiology.

The objectives of clinical pathophysiology are as follows::

· study and analysis of the nature and severity of dysfunctions of the body at each stage of the disease;

· identification of the relationship between pathogenesis and its clinical manifestations (symptoms);

· identifying the degree of influence of the pathological process on the affected organ or tissue, as well as on other organs and systems of the patient’s body;

· ability to use functional laboratory diagnostic methods to assess the degree of dysfunction of organs and systems and select pathogenetically based treatment;

· assess the patient’s specific and nonspecific reactivity, take into account its characteristics when choosing the optimal treatment methods for a particular patient;

Clinical pathophysiology can rightfully be considered one of main sections pathophysiology.

1.4. Relationship between pathophysiology and other medical disciplines.

Pathophysiology, being at the intersection of theoretical and clinical disciplines, is an integrative medical and biological science. First of all, it relies on the sciences that precede it - anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics, histology, biochemistry, physiology, etc.

Pathophysiology has a lot in common with physiology. Both disciplines strive to discover the laws by which the body lives and functions, which has great importance in understanding the essence of the disease. Sometimes our science is even called clinical physiology. However it would be wrong consider that the disease is just another combination of normal physiological processes. Pathological process leads to qualitatively new state of the body. Hence the difference between pathophysiology and physiology - the study of all the diverse forms of the disease, with the aim of revealing the laws by which it develops.

It is especially necessary to dwell on the relationship between pathophysiology and pathological anatomy. These two disciplines are closely related; moreover, until 1874 it was one science. Separation due to the fact that only based on morphological analysis is impossible understand dynamics of the pathological process, dynamics of functional disorders.

Yes, functional changes are interconnected with structural disorders, but strict correspondence and identity are not always observed between them. Why is this happening? The fact is that every organ, system, and the body as a whole has compensatory and adaptive mechanisms. In this regard, when the structure changes, a change in function is not always observed. That is why a number of clinical questions could not be resolved by autopsy of the corpse with subsequent microscopic examination of the sectioned material.

To overcome this, A.I. Polunin in 1869 separated a general experimental section from the course of pathological anatomy, which began to exist independently in the form of the Department of General Pathology at Moscow University. At the same time, such departments appeared in Kyiv, Kharkov, and Kazan. But special merit in the development of pathophysiology as a science belongs V.V. Pashutin, he, as already noted, in 1874 at Kazan University headed the first department of pathophysiology in Russia and formulated the tasks of the new science.

These reorganization measures provided the opportunity to study various pathological processes in dynamics, which is only possible by monitoring its development in a living organism, i.e. in the experiment. So, pathophysiology and implies widespread use of experiment, as distinguishes our discipline from pathological anatomy.

Pathophysiology is closely related to clinical disciplines At least because subject of study both our science and clinical disease, sick person. But research methods are different.

The clinic is observing individual patient man with specific manifestation of a particular pathology. The Clinic of Internal Medicine studies the causes, symptoms, course features, treatment methods and prognosis of diseases such as chronic disease. glomerulonephritis, acute hepatitis, pneumonia, etc. Neurological clinic – encephalomyelitis, stroke, meningitis, etc. All these are different diseases, with different localization, symptoms and prognosis. And at the same time, there is something in common between them - the basis of each disease is a typical pathological process - inflammation, in the development of questions of the causes and mechanisms of its development, a significant role belongs to pathophysiology. As another example, virtually every clinical discipline deals with malignant neoplasms. To make a diagnosis of stomach cancer, brain tumor, skin tumor, you need to know how they differ from each other. Their course and prognosis are different. But for the successful treatment of this pathology and its prevention, a detailed study of the causes and mechanisms of the transformation of a normal cell into a malignant one is necessary, and they are the same for all oncological diseases. Pathophysiology is the study of these general patterns.

Thus, pathophysiology in relation to special clinical disciplines looks like a science that studies issues common to all diseases or a large group of diseases. Without knowledge of the general patterns of the occurrence and development of a particular pathological process or disease, it is almost impossible to understand the whole variety of clinical manifestations of individual diseases. The particular is known through the general. The ability to explore fundamental issues of pathology in this aspect, pathophysiology allows its main research method - method for modeling pathological processes and diseases

1.5. Pathophysiology research method.

Pathophysiologists use the method of modeling pathological processes and diseases in several of its varieties.

I.Method of experiment on living objects. The point of the experiment is to reproduce the pathological process, the disease in various animals (individual organs, tissues, cells, subcellular structures), study the patterns of its development and conduct experimental therapy. This method allows you to observe the development of the pathological process from the moment of its occurrence to completion.

An experimental disease model is always simpler than a human disease. This makes it possible to divide the disease into a number of elements in order to subsequently reconstruct it in relation to humans. It should be borne in mind that not a single animal model of disease, nor its individual elements, can be equivalent to human disease. It is necessary to interpret experimental data on the human body with a certain degree of reliability.

Sometimes you can hear a statement about pathophysiology that this science is based on experiments on animals, and it has nothing to do with human pathology. But not a single pathophysiologist conducts an experiment for the sake of experimenting and mechanically transfers its results to humans. They are always mindful of the limitations imposed by anisomorphism ( species differences in the structure and properties of animal and human organisms, individual organs and tissues).

Anisomorphism, restrictions Related deontological aspects experiments on animals (inflicting physical suffering on them) and significant difficulties in animal reproduction social factors diseases all this limits use of this method. However, more significant discoveries in medicine were obtained in experiments on living objects, and this method is the leading one for pathophysiology.

All experiments are divided into acute and chronic, the use of each of them is determined by the purpose of the experiment. For example, when studying the mechanisms of traumatic shock, acute experience is needed, and the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis requires chronic experience.

To study pathological processes, the following basic techniques are used:

· shutdown method – removal or damage to an organ (surgical, pharmacological, physical, mechanical). This technique has been used for a long time. With its help, for example, it was possible to establish that diabetes mellitus and its development are associated with dysfunction of the islet apparatus of the pancreas. Removal of one of the paired organs (kidney) made it possible to study the compensatory and plastic capabilities of the remaining organ.

· method of irritation - through various influences they change the functions of various organs. Irritation of the vagus nerve causes bradycardia. Irritation of the sympathetic nerves revealed a narrowing of the arteries, which served as the basis for including this link in the pathogenesis of spontaneous gangrene in humans.

· The “inclusion” method is the introduction of various substances into the body (hormones, enzymes, tissue extracts, biologically active substances, etc.). Then, the results obtained are compared with the results of similar effects in certain human diseases. For example, when allergy mediators are administered, symptoms of anaphylactic shock are observed.

· method of comparative pathology – study in the comparative “evolutionary” aspect of various pathological processes (fever, inflammation, hypoxia). Correct scientific analysis of human responses to pathogenic influences requires more full knowledge ways and forms of their formation in the evolution of the animal world. I.I. Mechnikov brilliantly revealed the significance of this method in the study of inflammation and immunity to infectious processes.

There are other experimental methods: the method of isolated or “surviving” organs, the method of tissue cultures, etc.

Each experiment consists of several stages:

1. Formation of a working hypothesis. Any experiment must be preceded by a hypothesis, an idea, after testing which the researcher must obtain an answer to a particular question. You cannot conduct an experiment in the hope that something interesting will suddenly come out, I.P. Pavlov said: “ If you don’t have ideas in your head, you won’t see facts.».

2. Defining the goal and setting the objectives of the experiment. Having decided on a working hypothesis, it is necessary to formulate a goal and objectives with the help of which it can either be proven or rejected.

3. Selection of private methods adequate to the assigned tasks. When performing an experiment, it is important right choice private methodology - adequate selection of animals, form of implementation (acute or chronic experience), use of appropriate devices, tools, etc. A necessary condition is also to ensure appropriate control. It can be an “empty” experiment, when an experimental animal is injected with, for example, histamine, and a control animal is injected with a physiological NaCl solution, or, in one animal, it is removed thyroid, the control animal undergoes a “false” operation, etc.

As for the particular research methods themselves, the following should be noted. The name of our discipline contains the word “physiology,” but this does not mean that pathophysiologists are not interested in biochemical, immunological, biophysical and other mechanisms of disease development, and that they are not allowed to use morphological methods. Pathophysiology, as we have already established, is a science that studies the causes, mechanisms of development and outcomes of the disease, and any technique that allows one to answer these questions to one degree or another can be used. All this determines the omnivorousness of pathophysiology in a methodological sense - it uses physiological, biochemical, genetic, morphological, immunological and other research methods.

4. Conducting an experiment (series of experiments with control). A living object is a complex “open” biological system. It cannot in any way be protected from random environmental influences (temperature, humidity, electromagnetic radiation, etc.), which can distort the results of the experiment. It is also necessary to remember that animals that are identical at first glance differ in hereditary characteristics and individual reactivity. Therefore, the researcher is not immune from an answer distorted by a significant number of additional, random influences. All this must be taken into account and, if possible, eliminated.

Conducting an experiment involves phasing actions:

· physiological phase- any experiment begins with determining the normal indicators of the functioning of a particular system or organ on which the pathological process is supposed to be modeled. This also applies to control. For example, when studying the effect of adrenaline on the activity of the heart, the number of heartbeats is initially calculated not only in the experimental animal, but also in the control animal;

· pathophysiological phase- after determining the normal vital signs of an intact animal, the pathological process is reproduced on it in accordance with the goals and objectives of the experiment;

· experimental therapy phase– often, after the second phase, the researcher, using various treatment methods, seeks to return the condition of the experimental animal to its original state. Positive result confirms the working hypothesis and is the basis for the development of pathogenetic therapy

5. Recording and analysis of experimental data. At the end of the experiment, the research continues: the results of changes in the vital functions of the experimental and control animals are assessed. They are grouped into tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Morphological, biochemical, immunological and other studies are carried out on animals taken during life and (or) after death. Digital material is subjected to statistical processing to establish average values, deviations from them, differences between average values ​​and their reliability.

6. Discussion and conclusions. This is one of the most important and difficult stages of the experiment. The experimenter must explain the mechanism of changes in certain functions of the body according to the experimental data obtained and draw certain conclusions. For example, why does the amount of prostaglandins change when simulating inflammation, what is the mechanism for their increase, why does this group of biologically active substances have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, which is decisive in the formation of these mechanisms, which are diametrically opposed in effect? Does this only have a pathological significance or are there also elements defensive reaction? If yes, then again we need to explain why? As you can see, there are a lot of questions that the pathophysiologist must answer. And this is only one of the many groups of biologically active substances that play an important role in the development of the inflammatory process. Moreover, other disorders are also noted - the permeability of microvessels changes, their patency changes, edema forms at the site of inflammation, etc. And this must be explained! It is possible to represent in the form of abstraction even such an equation (the identity ); pathophysiology = ???…?, that is, science that constantly answers certain questions of human pathology.

II. Clinical research method.

We have already talked about clinical pathophysiology, its significance and objectives. Further development of this section of our science will significantly weaken the limitations that researchers experience when conducting experiments on animals.

Sh. Methods of physical and mathematical modeling using modern computer technology have great prospects. The construction of mathematical models of diseases is carried out when it is possible to connect through mathematical relationships the main parameters of the object being studied and the conditions that determine the possibility of its functioning - a work model of cardio-vascular system, directly the heart, respiratory system, etc. Modern computer technology allows you to simulate various pathological processes, study the mechanism of their development, predict the course and outcome. It should be noted, however, that this method cannot fully replace animal modeling (it is impossible to fully represent a complex biological object in the form of mathematical symbols). Therefore, their confirmation in animals is often required.

IV.Method theoretical analysis research results, formulation of scientific provisions and concepts. Currently accumulated a large number of factual material in various branches of medicine, which determines the paramount importance of theoretical developments methodological aspects pathology. This includes questions of fundamental concepts and categories, system principles in pathology, etc., related to the creation of the provisions of the general theory of medicine, which has not only theoretical, but also practical significance.

TASK FOR SELF-CONTROL OF KNOWLEDGE.

1. Give the most complete definition: pathophysiology is:

1) the science of the life activity of a sick organism; 2) science that studies the most general patterns of occurrence, development and outcomes of pathological processes, typical pathological processes and diseases; 3) science that studies the causes and mechanism of development of pathological processes, typical pathological processes and diseases.

2. The subject (object) of studying pathophysiology is:

1) animal diseases; 2) human diseases; 3) causal factor; 4) the relationship between the causes and conditions for the occurrence of diseases.

3. The tasks of pathophysiology include:

1) study of typical forms of violation and restoration of the functions of individual organs and systems of the body; 2) formation of medical thinking; 3) study of typical pathological processes; 4) study of the etiology and pathogenesis of the disease in a particular patient.

4. Pathophysiology consists of the following main sections:

1) general nosology; 2) the doctrine of etiology; 3) the doctrine of typical pathological processes; 4) the doctrine of the general mechanisms of recovery.

5. General nosology includes the following subsections:

1) general doctrine of illness; 2) the doctrine of typical pathological processes; 3) the doctrine of pathogenesis; 4) the doctrine of etiology; 5) the doctrine of the social aspects of the disease.

6. “General pathogenesis” considers:

1) general mechanisms of disease development; 2) mechanisms of the body’s resistance to the action of pathogenic factors; 3) the basics of pathogenetic prevention and therapy; 4) main categories of damaging agents.

7. The main method of studying pathophysiology is:

1) method of statistical processing of clinical data; 2) a method for modeling pathological processes and diseases; 3) method of mathematical modeling; 4) method of statistical processing of experimental data.

8. The main methods of experimenting on living objects include:

1) shutdown method; 2) irritation technique; 3) method of biochemical research; 4) method of studying functional indicators.

9. The main limitations of the experimental method on living objects are: 1) anisomorphism; 2) deontological aspects; 3) difficulties in reproducing infectious diseases; 4) difficulties in modeling “social” pathology.

10. List the stages of the experiment in strict sequence:

1) determining the purpose and objectives of the experiment; 2) choice of private technique; 3) formation of a working hypothesis; 4) recording and analysis of experimental data; 5) conducting an experiment; 6) discussion and conclusions.

GENERAL TEACHING ABOUT DISEASE.

2.1.Basic concepts and categories of nosology (health, normal, pre-disease, disease).

Disease is a very complex process and it is extremely difficult to define it. It is closely related to such states of the body as health and normality. “Health” and “illness” are the most general categories medicine, its central concepts, qualitatively different, special forms interaction between the body and the external environment. When they try to characterize a disease as a certain biological phenomenon, it is often contrasted with “health” and “norm”. Simply defining them through each other as opposites is not a very successful technique. But still "… illness is inseparable from health, so a correct understanding can only be based on a correct understanding of health"(Glozman O.S., 1936). Hence, in the definitions of “health” and “disease” proposed by various scientists - doctors and philosophers, there are many interrelated concepts that indicate certain essential properties of these modes of vital activity of the body. Therefore, for better understanding essence of the disease, we need, first of all, to characterize “health” and “normal” as general medical categories.

Health. There are a significant number of definitions of the concept of “health”:

· TSB – “Health is the natural state of the body, characterized by its balance with the environment and the absence of any painful phenomena.”

· N.N. Zaiko – “Health is, first of all, the state of the body, in which there is a correspondence between structure and function, as well as the ability of regulatory systems to maintain the constancy of the internal environment (homeostasis).”

· I.R. Petrov – “Health is the life of an able-bodied person, adapted to change environment».

· N.I. Losev – “Health is the normal state of the body.”

· A.D.Ado – ​​“Health is a form of life activity that provides the most perfect activity and adequate living conditions.”

· A.D.Ado - “Health or normality is an existence that allows the most complete participation in various types of social and labor activities.”

· G.I. Tsaregorodtsev – “Human health is the harmonious unity of physical, mental and labor functions, ensuring the possibility of a person’s full, unlimited participation in various types of social and, above all, production and labor life.”

The abundance of definitions of this concept suggests that there is still no consensus on this issue either in medicine or in philosophy. For each of the definitions, a number of critical comments can be made, sometimes quite serious, concerning fundamental theoretical aspects. However, analysis of these concepts allows us to highlight main criteria health:

· balance of the body and the external environment;

· correspondence of structure and function;

· the body's ability to maintain homeostasis;

· full participation in work activities.

To make a health diagnosis, as well as to identify a disease, the doctor conducts a study of the patient and compares the data obtained with the norm. Based on the comparison, a conclusion is made about the state of human health. And in some definitions of “health” this term is fundamental. What is “norm”, how should we understand this state of the body?

IN statistical sense of understanding normal as average, norm - is inherent in the majority of the population, the most typical value of one or another P parameters. In the center of the normal range of the parameter lies the arithmetic mean value of the varying quantity. As normal limits of variation for most widely varying indicators, cut-off lines are taken that leave 95% of the population within the normal corridor, i.e. 5% of the population is not normal, sick?! This is only based on one indicator, and the human body is characterized by a significant number of homeostasis constants.

V.A. Berezovsky (1981) gives the following calculation: let’s say there are only 200 quantitative characteristics of an organism. Let us further assume, based on a statistical approach to the norm, that for each of them only 0.5% of the population is outside the norm. Then none of those examined will meet all 200 standards! This demonstrates the absurdity of the average concept of normality as a criterion of health. " An individual who is normal in all respects presents a phenomenon that is the most unusual of all."(Williams R., 1960). He notes variations of individual indicators from individual to individual of up to 800 percent or more. Average norm Maybe be used by practical doctors to determine the ranges of fluctuations of various body parameters, with primary diagnosis diseases. It is only one of the lowest stages of knowledge.

Clinical medicine, pathophysiology interpreted norm How relative category. What is normal is not what fits into the average statistical parameters (standards), but what is optimal for a person in each specific situation.« Healthy is not the one whose constants are all constant, but the one who is able, in case of situational necessity, to take the constants beyond the corridor and promptly return them to the previous range" (Zaychik A.Sh., Churilov L.P., 1999).

Pathophysiologists consider relativity of norm in three aspects:

1. Historical relativity of the norm and some specific standards. Different generations have their own operating parameters, i.e. constants, characteristic of the majority people may not be the same

in the process of evolutionary development. Classic example– acceleration of parameters of physical development of children in the 60-80s of the 20th century;

2 Geographical relativity of the norm. External conditions in different regions Our planets are not the same, which also implies different parameters for the functioning of the body. For example, the total hemoglobin content in the blood of highlanders is higher than that of lowland residents. As a variant of the geographical norm, we can consider the racial norm - the average content of reticulocytes in African-Americans is higher than in white people.

3. Situational relativity of the norm. This is the most important type of norm from the point of view of pathophysiology and clinical medicine. Let’s imagine this situation: a healthy person, with normal functional indicators, has to do a large amount of physical work. During its implementation, body temperature rises, leukocytosis occurs, the level of glucose in the blood increases and then decreases, the stroke and cardiac output increases, blood pressure changes, shortness of breath is noted, etc. As a rule, these vital signs of the body go beyond the boundaries of the statistical norm. However, we do not say that this person is sick. Moreover, if they did not change, or did not return to the original level after physical activity, one would have to assume that this individual is not doing well with his health. This is observed during pregnancy, stress, fatigue, etc.

All this emphasizes that the medical norm is not a typical, static standard, but a specific, changeable optimum. The concept of norm includes the body’s ability to adapt to certain influences of the external environment and actively change it for its own purposes. This is possible because it has various adaptive mechanisms.

Consequently, the organism must be considered as a dynamic system, continuously adapting to environmental conditions by changing the level of functioning of its individual systems and the tension of regulatory mechanisms. At the same time, the parameters of these systems fluctuate around a certain functional optimum, in the most economical mode (meaning energy costs). " Adaptation is achieved at the cost of functional reserves, due to a certain « biosocial fee"(Baevsky R.M., 2000).

In a normal body " biosocial fee"is minimal. It allows you to provide adequate accommodation of its individual systems to various factors without disturbing homeostasis(i.e. without limiting the characteristics of other systems), without overstraining regulatory mechanisms. Figuratively speaking, adaptation mechanisms are within normal limits as long as they do not rob or limit anyone in the body.

Patophysiology- the main part of general pathology, a fundamental and integrative science, as well as an academic discipline that studies the general patterns of the onset, development and outcome of the disease.

General - an integral part of pathophysiology, studying the causes and mechanisms of development of typical pathological processes. - private - an integral part of pathophysiology, studying the general patterns of dysfunction of organs and systems (for example, kidneys), the compensatory capabilities of the body in a certain pathology.

Pat.physa - section of medicine and biology, cat. studies and describes specific causes, mechanisms and general patterns of the occurrence, development and completion of diseases, Pat. processes and reactions. The subject of study is the most general, basic patterns and mechanisms underlying the body’s resistance, the occurrence, development and outcome of pathological processes and diseases. The main task is to teach students to understand the mechanisms of disease development and recovery, to identify the main and general laws activity of organs and systems in a sick person; develop medical thinking.

Includes 3 parts: General nosology (-nosology, -general etiology, -general pathogenesis) General pathophysiology (The study of typical pathological processes) Particular pathophysiology (The study of typical forms of pathology of tissues, organs and their systems) Pathophysis is intermediate position in the medical education system. Its basis is biology, normal physiology and biological chemistry. Pathological physics is also based on morphological disciplines, because the study of function cannot be separated from the study of the structure of the cell, organ and organism as a whole.

In relation to special clinical disciplines, pathology looks like a science that studies processes common to all diseases and their large groups. The clinic needs to obtain fundamental information about the disease and the laws of its development, cat. she can get it from a pathologist who has a method that the clinic does not and cannot have - the method of pathophysiological experiment on animals.

Clinical pathophysiology has its own fundamental features, since various manifestations of the mediation of biological processes by social ones are the most important link in the life of a healthy and sick person. The main apparatus of mediation is the nervous and other regulatory systems and labor activity, which, along with other factors, distinguishes a person from an animal.

Pathological physiology connects biological disciplines with clinical ones, like a transition bridge: the basis of pathophysiology as a science is biology, normal physiology, and biochemistry. Pathophysiology is associated with morphological disciplines (anatomy, histology, pathological anatomy), because studying function in isolation from cell structure is impossible. Close connection with normal physiology does not mean identity. The variety of disturbances in the vital functions of cells, organs, and the organism as a whole in pathology still does not have a “prototype” of these disturbances in a healthy organism. Depending on the cause of the disease; From the reactivity of the body and the influence of the external environment, a variety of combinations of dysfunction and reactive changes are created in the body itself. In diseases, a number of changes are caused by forms of response of cellular elements, organs, and physiological systems developed in the process of evolution and fixed by heredity under pathological conditions. Pathophysiology as an academic discipline. When preparing a practicing physician, pathophysiology equips him with knowledge of the general laws of disease development, general principles of disease management, and equips the doctor with the correct methodology for analyzing the disease and pathological processes. Teaching pathophysiology aims to teach students to apply science at the bedside, i.e. understand the mechanism of development of diseases and healing processes, based on the general laws of the activity of organs and systems.

Thus, pathological physiology equips the doctor with the correct method of achieving the truth in the shortest way and with simple methods that allow a quick and economical analysis of the pathology under study - i.e. is a methodology. Advantages of pathophysiology - each disease consists of a small number of pathological processes - there are about 20 of them, which have general laws of development. Therefore, a thinking doctor can fully analyze any disease, and private details will no longer cause such difficulties (fever, inflammation develop everywhere according to the same laws, intertwine, form various combinations.

The main stages of development of pathophysiology. The role of domestic and foreign scientists in the development of pathophysiology.

The history of the emergence and development of Russian pathophysiology is inextricably linked with the name of the remarkable Russian scientist, Professor Viktor Vasilyevich PASHUTIN, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of pathophysiology as a science and academic discipline in Russia. Therefore, “pre-Pashutin” and “post-Pashutin” periods are distinguished in the history of Russian general pathology and pathological physiology.

The “pre-Pashutin” period begins in the 30s (1726) of the 18th century, when Russian universities began to open, and lasts until 1874, the year V.V. PASHUTIN opened the first department of general and experimental pathology in Russia at Kazan University. At this stage, pathophysiology (general pathology) as an independent science and academic discipline did not exist. Issues of general pathology and pathological physiology were presented at courses and departments of pathological anatomy, physiology, and therapy. Thus, at Moscow University, general pathology was taught by therapists and pathologists: S.G. Zybelin, I.E. Dyadkovsky, K.V. Lebedev; physiologist A.M. Filomofitsky, pathologist A.I. Polunin, pathologist A.B. Fokht and others.

With the opening of the first department of general and experimental pathology in Russia in 1874 at Kazan University, the second period in the development of domestic pathophysiology began - the “post-Pashutinsky” period. Pathophysiological schools are being created in Russia: St. Petersburg (founder - V.V. PASHUTIN), Moscow (founder - A.B. FOKHT), Kiev (founder - V.V. PODVYSOTSKY), Tomsk (founder - P.M. ALBITSKY, student V.V. Pashutina), Tbilisskaya (founder - V.V. VORONIN), Kharkovskaya (founder - A.V. REPREV) and others.

V.V. PASHUTIN (1845-1901) - one of the founders of pathological physiology in Russia, honorary member of the Royal Society of London, student of I.M. Sechenov and S.P. Botkin. He created the first department of pathophysiology in Russia at Kazan University in 1874, and 5 years later he opened a similar department at the Military Medical Academy, radically reworking the course of general pathology in a new experimental physiological direction. The main works of Viktor Vasilyevich are devoted to the development of fundamental problems of fasting, metabolism, heat exchange and oxygen deficiency. He wrote and published a two-volume book “Lectures on General Pathology (Pathological Physiology)”.

A.B.FOKHT (1848-1930) - domestic pathologist, professor, Honored Scientist of the RSFSR. Alexander Bogdanovich and his school (he created the Moscow School of Pathophysiologists) laid the foundations of domestic experimental cardiology, developed original methods for modeling heart diseases, and conducted fundamental research to study the pathogenesis of pericardial diseases, cardiosclerosis, and coronary circulation pathology. A.B.Focht is the creator of a large clinical experimental school, to which V.V.Voronin, D.D.Pletnev, G.P.Sakharov, G.I.Rossolimo and others belonged. V.V.PODVYSOTSKY (1857- 1913) - a major Russian pathophysiologist, founder of the Kyiv school of pathophysiologists. Vladimir Valeryanovich has published over 90 scientific papers devoted to the study of the process of regeneration of glandular tissue, the problem of tumor development, research in the field of microbiology, immunity and the pathology of infections. V.V. Podvysotsky’s textbook “Fundamentals of General and Experimental Pathology” has gained worldwide fame. His students were A.A. Bogomolets, D.K. Zabolotny, I.G. Savchenko, L.A. Tarasevich and others.

V.V. VORONIN (1870-1960) - domestic pathophysiologist, professor, honorary academician of the Georgian Academy of Sciences. Vladimir Vasilievich made a significant contribution to the study of capillaries, inflammation, as well as to the development of problems of physiology and pathology of blood circulation. He published about 70 works devoted to issues of pathophysiology, morphology, microbiology, epidemiology, the application of statistical methods and cybernetics in medicine. Among his many students were A.A. Bogomolets (Voronin received the prize named after A.A. Bogomolets, his student), P.A. Herzen, V.P. Filatov and others.

A.V.REPREV (1853-1930) - Russian pathologist, one of the founders of Russian endocrinology. Alexander Vasilyevich's scientific works are devoted to metabolism during fever, tumors, pregnancy, and X-ray irradiation. His fundamental guide “Fundamentals of General and Experimental Pathology” (1908) contributed to the separation of pathophysiology into an independent branch of medicine.

A.A.BOGOMOLETS (1881-1946) - domestic pathophysiologist and public figure, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences and Academy of Medical Sciences, Hero of Socialist Labor, laureate of the USSR State Prize, founder of a large school of pathophysiologists. The main direction of Alexander Alexandrovich's research is the study of the body's reactivity in normal and pathological conditions. His doctrine of the trophic function of connective tissue is the basis of modern ideas about collagenosis. He was the organizer and leader of the scientific development of blood preservation.

A.D. SPERANSKY (1888-1961) - Russian pathologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and Academy of Medical Sciences, laureate of the USSR State Prize, Honored Scientist of the RSFSR, student of I.P. Pavlov. Alexey Dmitrievich, developing the ideas of nervism of I.P. Pavlov, created an original direction in pathology, identified general patterns of development of neuro-dystrophic processes and their generalization, put forward the concept of the nervous system as a leading link in the mechanisms of disease, recovery and compensation.

I.R. PETROV (1893-1970) - Russian pathophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, major general of the medical service. Joachim Romanovich successfully developed the problems of oxygen starvation, blood loss, shock and terminal conditions, post-transfusion complications, electrical trauma, and professional pathology. His scientific works on the problem of hypoxia received universal recognition. He developed a plasma replacement liquid (Petrov's liquid), which was widely used during the Great Patriotic War, and the principles of shock therapy.

A.M. CHERNUKH (1916-1982) - academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, laureate of the USSR State Prize. Alexey Mikhailovich’s work in the field of physiology and pathology of microcirculation and inflammation has become world famous. In his works, a large place is occupied by analysis, analysis of the mechanisms of disease and recovery, as well as questions of the methodology of general pathology and the doctrine of disease. He created the Institute of General Pathology and Pathological Physiology of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences.

G.N. KRYZHANOVSKY (born in 1922) - Russian pathophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. The main directions of scientific research conducted by Georgy Nikolaevich are devoted to the problems of pathophysiology of the nervous system, general and infectious pathology. He formulated the theory of generator mechanisms of neuropathological syndromes and the concept of the role of dominant structures in the activity of the nervous system; developed experimental models of a number of neuropathological syndromes.

V.A.NEGOVSKY (born in 1909) - laureate of USSR State Prizes, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences - is known for his developments in the field of pathophysiology and therapy of terminal and post-resuscitation conditions. In 1936, he created the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for the Revitalization of the Body, which was transformed in 1986 into the Institute of General Reanimatology of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. Vladimir Aleksandrovich and his many students studied the basic patterns of dying and reviving the body and created such a young science as resuscitation. With him active participation A resuscitation service has been created in our country. V.A. Negovsky was elected an honorary member of many foreign Academies of Sciences.

A.D.ADO (born in 1909) - Russian pathophysiologist-allergist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, Honored Scientist of the RSFSR. The main direction of his work is the pathophysiology of allergies, inflammation and immunity. He was the first to conduct research on autoallergy, and together with P.K. Bulatov, he proposed a clinical and pathogenetic classification of forms of bronchial asthma. He is the author of the textbook "Pathological Physiology". Andrey Dmitrievich pays a lot of attention to issues of general teaching about the disease, etiology and pathogenesis. On his initiative, an allergological service was created in Russia.

N.N.ZAYKO (1908-1992) - domestic pathophysiologist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, Honored Scientist. His scientific developments are devoted to the problems of permeability of biological barriers and the study of the mechanisms of neurogenic dystrophies. Nikolai Nikiforovich wrote the textbook “Pathological Physiology”, which has already gone through three editions.

N.N. SIROTININ (1896-1977) - domestic pathophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and corresponding member. Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, student of A.A. Bogomolets. The main direction of his research is the study of the body's reactivity in infectious and non-infectious diseases and pathological conditions in a comparative evolutionary aspect. Nikolai Nikolaevich developed practical recommendations on the problem of hypoxia in space medicine.

P.D. GORIZONTOV (1902-1987) - an outstanding Russian pathophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, laureate of the Lenin and State Prizes of the USSR, a major organizer of medical science. Pyotr Dmitrievich graduated from the Omsk Medical Institute and worked as an assistant at the department of pathophysiology of the latter in the 30s. He actively developed the most pressing problems of theoretical pathology (etiology, pathogenesis, the role of the external environment in the occurrence of diseases), studied the pathogenesis of radiation sickness, stress, and developed methodological aspects of experimental medicine.

P.N. VESELKIN (1904-1988) - Russian pathophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. The main direction of his research is the pathology of heat exchange and thermoregulation - the study of fever and its significance in pathology. Pyotr Nikolaevich considered fever as a genetically fixed reaction of the central thermoregulation apparatus developed in the process of evolution, as one of the nonspecific reactions of adaptation in conditions of pathology. He studied in detail pyrogenic substances and the effectiveness of their medicinal use.

V.K.KULAGIN (1923-1982) - Russian pathophysiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, major general of the medical service. The main direction of Viktor Konstantinovich's scientific research is the pathophysiology of extreme conditions: pathogenesis and experimental therapy of traumatic shock, blood loss, radiation sickness, combined lesions. He showed the role of disorders of the central nervous and endocrine systems in the pathogenesis of shock, revealed the mechanisms of these disorders, and developed methods for early shock and blood loss.

The main method of pathophysiology. Stages and phases of a pathophysiological experiment.

The main method of work of pathology is experimental. With assistant This method reproduces individual painful disorders of organs and systems in animals, obtaining models individual species human diseases.

An experiment in pathophysiology is a purposeful activity of a researcher undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective patterns of disease development under the influence of damaging factors on the body of an experimental animal or process.

Research methods: 1. Pathophysiological experiment on animals; 2. Pathophysiological study of a sick person (less typical). The structure of the experiment and its features. The experiment can be acute or chronic.

Phases (1-4) and stages (1-3) of the experiment: 1. Study of the original background. 2. Obtaining a “model” of the disease and studying its pathogenesis, disease mechanisms; 3. Pathogenetic therapy (regulation of pathogenesis mechanisms).

4. Analysis of the results obtained and conclusions

Modeling as the main and specific method of pathophysiology. Possibilities and limitations of pathophysiological experiment.

The main method of pathophysiology, as a science and as an academic discipline, is the method of modeling diseases, painful conditions, pathological processes and reactions, as well as the patient as a whole. In medicine, the modeling method was developed and implemented by pathophysiologists. The birth of pathophysiology itself was caused by the need to identify and describe the essence of what is hidden from the doctor when examining and treating a patient - the mechanisms of occurrence, development and completion of diseases.

These mechanisms, as well as the role of pathogenic factors, the conditions in which they realize their action, had to be reproduced on “artificial copies” of diseases - their models; describe using medical terms, concepts and provisions, i.e. model intelligently.

The modeling method includes modeling on physical objects and formalized modeling.

Modeling on physical objects (material)

Modeling pathological processes in animals, their organs, tissues, cells and individual cell components is currently the most widespread and adequate method. Models of pathological processes reproduced in animals are used to study the etiology and pathogenesis of diseases, develop methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention. When conducting experiments on animals, the principles of humanity and expediency are taken into account, including, among other things, a number of restrictions.

Experiments on animals are carried out only when there is a strictly justified need for it; using the optimal biological species, as well as the number of animals; with the use (where this does not contradict the very purpose of the experiment) of painkillers. At the same time, it is known that modeling pathological processes in animals has disadvantages due to significant species differences in life processes in animals and humans, as well as the very important role of social factors in the occurrence, development and outcomes of human diseases. Modeling of pathology using artificial physical systems (artificial heart, kidney, blood, ventilators, artificial circulation, etc.) is also used to solve certain issues of pathophysiology.

Intangible - formalized modeling of diseases, pathological processes and conditions has become widespread in pathophysiology (logical, mathematical, computer modeling). Formalized modeling is used in logical modeling in the learning process. Logical modeling of diseases and pathological processes, as well as the patient himself, followed by factual confirmation of the assumptions made, is widely used in clinical and scientific practice. Formalized modeling. Methods of clinical research in pathophysiology. The formation of the fundamentals of medical thinking in students is achieved in the process of students conducting a pathophysiological analysis of specific experimental or clinical data, while solving situational problems in the classroom.

This simulates the behavior of a doctor simulating the disease and the patient as a whole, developing methods for diagnosing the disease, as well as treatment regimens for the patient. Pathophysiological analysis of data and formulation of a conclusion based on the results of assessing real information about the pathological process and the diseased organism are a variant of intellectual modeling when a doctor solves his professional problems. Computer modeling (for example, pathological processes or the effects of therapeutic measures) is carried out using modern computers and programs.

The advantages of the experimental method of studying a disease over the clinical one: a) in an experiment there is always the possibility of determining the initial level of indicators, the ability to quantify changes compared to the initial level with the background, but in the clinic the doctor does not have this, b) thanks to obtaining a model in the experiment, there are unlimited possibilities for studying the causes since there is a strict connection between the active causal factor and the developing pathology since modeling is the study of the cause, c) in the experiment there is an opportunity to study the mechanisms of the initial, earliest phases of the development of the disease, hidden from clinical observation, and in fact they are the triggering mechanisms, d) c) The experiment has unlimited possibilities for studying pathogenesis - the deepest, most intimate mechanisms of pathology, because any techniques can be used, e) the experiment provides unlimited possibilities for scientific substantiation of the development of new treatment methods.

The experiment uses various methods: biophysical, physiological, biochemical, morphological, immunological. Various types of acute experiment (vivisection) and chronic (conditioned reflex method, implantation of electrodes into tissue, creation of fistulas) are used.

Difficulties and disadvantages of the experimental method: 1) selection of an animal for experimental research, 2) all diseases are modeled on animals, 3) transfer of experimental data to the clinic is difficult, 4) difficult to create a disease model, 5) ethical problems

Methods for modeling the pathological process. The importance of the comparative evolutionary method in the study of pathological processes and protective-adaptive reactions of humans.

Modeling on physical objects (material). Modeling pathological processes in animals, their organs, tissues, cells and individual cell components is currently the most widespread and adequate method. Models of pathological processes reproduced in animals are used to study the etiology and pathogenesis of diseases, develop methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention. When conducting experiments on animals, the principles of humanity and expediency are taken into account, including, among other things, a number of restrictions.

Experiments on animals are carried out only when there is a strictly justified need for it; using the optimal biological species, as well as the number of animals; with the use (where this does not contradict the very purpose of the experiment) of painkillers.

At the same time, it is known that modeling pathological processes in animals has disadvantages due to significant species differences in life processes in animals and humans, as well as the very important role of social factors in the occurrence, development and outcomes of human diseases.

Modeling of pathology using artificial physical systems (artificial heart, kidney, blood, ventilators, artificial circulation, etc.) is also used to solve certain issues of pathophysiology.

Formalized modeling. Intangible - formalized modeling of diseases, pathological processes and conditions has become widespread in pathophysiology (logical, mathematical, computer modeling). Formalized modeling is used in logical modeling in the learning process.

Logical modeling of diseases and pathological processes, as well as the patient himself, followed by factual confirmation of the assumptions made, is widely used in clinical and scientific practice.

The formation of the fundamentals of medical thinking in students is achieved in the process of students conducting a pathophysiological analysis of specific experimental or clinical data, while solving situational problems in the classroom. This simulates the behavior of a doctor simulating the disease and the patient as a whole, developing methods for diagnosing the disease, as well as treatment regimens for the patient. Pathophysiological analysis of data and formulation of a conclusion based on the results of assessing real information about the pathological process and the diseased organism are a variant of intellectual modeling when a doctor solves his professional problems.

Computer modeling (for example, pathological processes or the effects of therapeutic measures) is carried out using modern computers and programs.

The comparative evolutionary method usually studies typical pathological processes from an evolutionary aspect. The pathological process, as we observe it in humans and animals, is the result of the formation of appropriate reactions in the evolution of the animal world. Pathological processes such as inflammation and fever arose and became more complex in evolution due to the complication and improvement of the protective and adaptive reactions of organisms to changing living conditions. That is why a correct scientific analysis of human reactions to pathogenic influences requires a more complete knowledge of the ways and forms of their formation. This is only possible using the historical method of comparative pathology.

Normal, health, transitional states of the body between health and disease. The concept of pre-disease.

Norm– the average statistical indicator of the vital activity of the organism, during the study of which no complaints were made, i.e. this indicator was studied in relatively healthy people. The norm does not always correspond to the indicators at which there are no complaints.

Health- a state of complete physical, psychological and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease and physical defects (WHO). This is the relationship between structure and function within homeostasis (Zayko).

The transition from health to illness is not sudden. Between these states there are a number of transitional states that do not cause a person to decrease their social and labor activity and subjective need for medical care. Transitional stages can be caused by various factors associated primarily with the modern rhythm of life, prolonged exposure to hypokinesia, psycho-emotional stress, unsatisfactory production, environmental, social and living conditions, etc., which place increased demands on the body's regulatory mechanisms. Along with the qualitative indicators that determine the state of so-called static health - the norm of rest, the concept of "dynamic health" - the norm of stress, which is determined by the quantitative characteristics of the adaptive capabilities of the body, is becoming increasingly important.

Pre-disease is a state of accumulation of maladaptive changes in the body. Pre-disease is an intermediate state between health and disease. At this stage, the body’s defenses are mobilized, aimed at compensating for possible violations, failure of adaptive and compensatory reactions, aggravation of the manifestations of peroxidation syndrome against the background of a persistent decrease in antioxidant status, immunodeficiency states develop, and persistent metabolic disorders may also develop.

Pathological physiology- a science that studies the vital functions of a sick human and animal body, that is, the physiology of a sick organism. The number of human diseases is expressed in thousands of different types, variants, forms. According to the World Health Organization classification, there are about 1000 main groups and XVII classes bigger person. The study of certain types of diseases is the subject of private pathology and clinical disciplines.

Pathological physiology studies the most general patterns of deviations from the normal course of work of cells, organs, systems and the body as a whole during illness. These most general patterns are derived from the study of particular results of research into individual human and animal diseases. The study of general and basic deviations from the norm in the life of cells, organs, and the body as a whole justifies the old name of pathological physiology - “General pathology”. Currently, this direction of presentation of the material constitutes the first and second parts of the pathophysiology course entitled “General Nosology” and “Typical Pathological Processes”. The third part of the course is called “Pathological physiology of organs and systems.”

It examines the most common and characteristic deviations from the norm within a particular organ or system. Accordingly, the pathophysiology of the main functions of the blood system, blood circulation, respiration, urination, etc. is distinguished.

The main task of pathological physiology is to teach students the ability to “apply natural science at the patient’s bedside” (S.P. Botkin), that is, to understand the mechanisms of the development of diseases and recovery, to identify the basic and general laws of the activity of organs and systems in a sick person. It is necessary not only to teach future doctors how to use experiments, but also to develop in them medical thinking, the ability to correctly comprehend observed facts and phenomena based on the philosophy of dialectical materialism. In this sense, pathological physiology is a theoretical science and examines the philosophical aspects of medical science.

Pathological physiology also faces the task of waging an irreconcilable struggle against ideologically alien trends in medicine that are penetrating us from bourgeois countries.

Pathological physiology occupies an intermediate position in the medical education system. Like pathological anatomy, it links biological disciplines with clinical disciplines. The basis of pathological physiology as a science is biology, normal physiology, and biological chemistry. Pathological physiology also relies on morphological disciplines, since the study of function cannot be separated from the study of the structures of the cell, organ and organism as a whole.

The close connection and unity of pathological physiology with biology and normal physiology does not mean, however, that they are identical, as some scientists who take metaphysical positions in understanding the Relationships of these sciences are trying to prove. The infinite variety of possible disorders of the vital functions of cells, organs, and the body as a whole does not allow the existence of a “prototype” of all these disorders in a healthy body. Depending on the pathogenic cause, the type of the diseased animal, its reactivity and the environmental conditions in which the disease occurs, the body creates a variety of combinations of dysfunctions and reactive changes in cells, organs and regulatory systems. In the course of the development of these processes, new “programs” for the life of a sick organism are created, in the language of cybernetics. These “programs” do not pre-exist, are not “given” in advance, but arise again during the development of each disease. In these “programs,” some of the disorders may be the same for different diseases. These are general, nonspecific mechanisms of disease development. All types of diseases have, in addition, their own specific mechanisms, characteristic only for a given group or type of disease (radiation sickness, infections, etc.). However, within a certain group, as the mechanism of development of the disease is studied, new, increasingly specific differences are discovered for each individual disease. The degree of knowledge of specificity determines the degree of disclosure of the essence of each type of disease. Thus, general pathological physiology studies the general nonspecific mechanisms of the development of diseases or “programs” of life created in a sick organism by a pathogenic cause and biological species features reactivity of the diseased organism.

Methods of pathological physiology

The main method of work of pathophysiologists is experimental. Using this method, pathophysiologists have long sought to reproduce in animals certain painful disorders of organs and systems, as well as to obtain models of certain types of human diseases. For example. Brown-Séquard tried to obtain a model of Addison's disease by removing one or two adrenal glands from dogs and other animals. IP Pavlov reproduced the model of disturbances in the secretion of gastric juice during inflammation of the stomach in dogs by damaging the gastric mucosa with lapis, sublimate and other irritants.

Currently, attempts are being made to create models of many human diseases (infectious diseases, atherosclerosis, hypertension, myocardial infarction, pneumonia, nephritis, etc.). It should be emphasized that the human body as a system is many orders of magnitude higher and more complex than the body of the most highly organized animals - great apes. Therefore, it is impossible to fully model human diseases in animals. However, experimental models of individual important links in the pathogenesis of diseases, individual symptoms and syndromes seem to be quite accessible. For example, by modeling hypertension (neurogenic, renal and others), it is possible to obtain only a semblance of one important symptom - a persistent increase in blood pressure (hypertension), but not human hypertension in its entirety.

Some human diseases, due to their particular complexity - mental illness, some types of tumors (stomach cancer), metabolic diseases (gout), allergic diseases (bronchial asthma), etc. - have not yet been obtained in animals.

When experimentally reproducing disease models, pathophysiologists use any methods used in medicine: physical, physiological, chemical, morphological. Recently, immunological research methods have been widely used. With their help, for example, various damage to the heart, lungs, kidneys and other organs is reproduced.

The experimental method is used by pathophysiologists in the form of acute (vivisection) or chronic (conditioned reflex method, method of creating fistulas, organ transplantation, implantation of electrodes into the brain, transparent materials for observing internal cavities and organs, etc.) experiments.

If necessary, methods for studying isolated organs, culturing tissues, individual cells outside the body, etc. are also used. An important technique is the comparative and evolutionary research method developed by I. I. Mechnikov.

In pathological physiology, methods of clinical observation and research of a sick person are also widely used, since experiments on animals cannot provide sufficient information about human diseases.

When assessing research results, modern mathematical methods statistical processing of experimental data and observations.

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Exactly 17 years ago the first book about a small but great wizard was published.

This fairy tale has become a source and example for true friendship, kindness and love.

The magical world of Harry Potter is fraught with many mysteries and secrets. website I re-read all the books, watched all the films and made for you a selection of facts that you may not even have known about.

Book secrets

• The war in the wizarding world happened around the same time that World War II was going on in the Muggle world. In 1945, the same time that Hitler fell.
• In the Harry Potter novels, colors play a very important role. For example, shades of red symbolize kindness and generosity. These shades represent the scarlet robes of Gryffindor, the red ink of Harry, and the crimson express train to Hogwarts. Green is associated with negative events.

• Expecto Patronum is Latin for “I await a protector.” Hermione's patronus is an otter, Ron's is a terrier, and Harry's is a stag.
• The numbers used in the book series are also symbolic, especially 3 and 7. For example, the trio represented by Harry, Ron and Hermione signifies the power and spiritual unity of the three. Harry mortally wounds the Basilisk with the third blow, and Hagrid knocks on the Hogwarts door with three blows. Students have been studying at Hogwarts for seven years, each Quidditch team has seven people.

• The day when Harry and Ron saved Hermione from a huge troll and became friends is 10 years since the death of Potter's parents.
• The first Harry Potter book was published the same year as the Battle of Hogwarts.

• George was unable to cast a Patronus after Fred's death.
• The four houses of Hogwarts correspond to the four elements: Gryffindor - fire, Ravenclaw - air, Hufflepuff - earth, Slytherin - water.

• The inscription on the magic mirror of Erised reads: “I will not show your face, but the desire of your heart.”
• Since most of the plot events of the novels take place at night, Joan decided to make Hogwarts a closed educational institution.

About the heroes

• The name Voldemort comes from French words meaning "escape from death." In the second Harry Potter novel, Rowling shows us that the phrase "I am Lord Voldemort" is an anagram of "Tom Marvolo Riddle", which is his real name.
• Sirius Black gets his name from the brightest star in the night sky, also called the Dog Star. Very wise, since Sirius, an animagus, transforms into a large black dog.

• Dumbledore is the old English word for bumblebee. When the headmaster of Hogwarts died, he was 150 years old.
• Prankster twins Fred and George celebrate their birthday on April 1st.

• The surname Malfoy comes from the Latin word maleficus, meaning "villain". Draco means "dragon".
• Harry Potter, who always dreamed of becoming an Auror, will head the corresponding department in the Ministry of Magic. He will be appointed to this position by Kingsley Shacklebot, the new minister. Harry will no longer be able to speak the snake language - the piece of Voldemort's soul that allowed him to understand snakes has died.

• Voldemort could not love because he was conceived under a love potion.
• Harry's middle name is James, Hermione's is Jane, Ginny's is Molly (after her mother), and poor old Ron's middle name is Bilius.

• Bellatrix can be translated from Latin as “warrior.”
• Almost headless Nick was beheaded, but not completely - the executioner raised his ax 45 times, but could not completely cut off Nick's head.

About the film

• During the filming of all the films, Daniel Radcliffe wore 160 pairs of glasses and used 70 magic wands.
• Richard Harris, who played Albus Dumbledore in the film Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, turned down the offer for this role three times because he was already seriously ill. His 11-year-old granddaughter found out about the offer and said she would never speak to her grandfather again if he turned down the role.

• The actress who played Moaning Myrtle in the second part of the film was 37 years old, and she was the oldest actress to play Hogwarts students.

• 900 Memory Bottles were created for Dumbledore's office, and 250 paintings were painted to decorate the Marble Staircase.

About the publication

• When the third Harry Potter book was published in the UK, the publisher asked not to sell it until the end of the school day - he was afraid that schoolchildren would skip classes.
• When the first Harry Potter book was published, the publisher insisted on writing JK Rowling's name on the cover only with her initials - such a trick should not scare away boys, who mostly do not like books by female authors, from buying them. And since the writer did not have a middle name from birth, she chose the name of her grandmother Kathleen for her initials, and since then she has been known in the West as J. K. Rowling.

And a bit more

• Every 30 seconds, someone in the world starts reading Harry Potter.
• Many Harry Potter fans have tried to adapt the rules of Quidditch for Muggles. Exist various options rules of “Quidditch-without-brooms”, but in Russia rules representing a variation on the theme of handball gained local popularity. The beaters use tennis rackets, and the snitch is a tennis ball.

• London's King's Cross station actually has a "platform 9 3⁄4" sign - it was attached to the wall between tracks 9 and 10 as a memorial, along with half of a luggage trolley.
• In the American state of Florida, there lives a man named Harry Potter. The owner of the wizard's name is already over 70 years old. Children call the pensioner, and representatives of TV channels ask for an interview

Magic world

The publishing house Rosman owns the exclusive rights to publish Harry Potter in Russian.

Harry Potter films

The first 6 books were filmed, the seventh is filmed in two parts. Income from books, films, and computer games brought the writer to 620th place in the list of the richest people in the world. In particular, Rowling is richer than Queen Elizabeth II of England.

Official Harry Potter Games

For the premiere of each film, games of the same name are released (with the exception of the game "Harry Potter: Quidditch Cup") on all major platforms, including PS2, XBox 360, PS3, and, more recently, Wii.

In 2001, to coincide with the premiere of the first film, Wizards of the Coast began publishing the Harry Potter Trading Card Game. At one time the game was the second best-selling toy in the United States, but the game was discontinued at the end of 2002.

Story

There is a common belief that the book became popular thanks to extremely active advertising. In reality, a small publishing house had no reason to organize an advertising campaign for a children's book to no one. famous author, no money for such a campaign. Moreover, JK Rowling herself, at that time a poor single mother, did not have money for advertising campaigns. The book became popular due to positive reviews and also because readers recommended it to each other. Unexpectedly for the publishers (and, perhaps, for Rowling herself), the book gained enormous popularity and became a bestseller. Rowling began writing sequels, and next books became even more popular than the first.

The books have been translated into many languages ​​(about 64 to date). The translation into Russian was made by the ROSMEN publishing house. In the translation, the names of some of the characters in the book were changed (that is, adapted into Russian). The name Mad-Eye is worth noting. In the original he was named Alastor Moody, but due to the similarity with the Russian euphemism for genitalia, Moody was renamed Moody. However, when the Soft Club company flatly refused to include the surname “Moody” in the translation of a series of games of the same name, the publishing house Rosman had to pay $15,000 for the Soft Club company to agree to use the surname Moody. However, in pirated (unofficial) translations of the games, the Moody surname was retained.

Description of the world

The action takes place in our world, in England, in the 1990s. Unlike the real world, among ordinary people there live wizards, or magicians, who have magical abilities, the main of which is the ability to use magic wands, the main thing in the life of a magician. They don't know about their existence ordinary people- Muggles. There are much fewer wizards than Muggles; for example, there are about 3 thousand wizards living in England. However, wizards have their own governments (in the UK - the Ministry of Magic), schools ( English School- Hogwarts), newspapers, “radio”, money, banks, etc. There are even their own games - sport game Quidditch, gobstones, wizard chess and others. The community of magicians is closed and self-sufficient, living among Muggles, but does not depend on them and tries not to come into contact. Wizards use their own shops, restaurants, and have their own interests. The children of two magicians, as well as the children of a Muggle and a magician, can be born as wizards (but such connections are very rare; most often wizards create connections within their world). Also, in very rare cases, a child may be born a wizard to Muggle parents. The government of the wizarding world finds out about this, and it explains everything to the parents with a request to keep their world a secret and send the child to a school for wizards.

In addition to wizards and Muggles, there are also squibs - children of wizards who do not have magical abilities. They know about the world of wizards, but find it difficult to live in it. There are very few Squibs in the world. In addition, there are many varieties of magical creatures that wizards also hide from Muggles, for example: giants (giant creatures similar to humans and possessing intelligence, albeit small, live in the mountains), centaurs (half-human, half-horse, wise and proud creatures, live mainly in forests), goblins (work closely with wizards, although they often underestimate these small humanoid creatures), house elves (usually the household servants of wizards), trolls, phoenixes, dragons and others.

Wizards

Two of its features are decisive for the society of magicians.

Firstly, its members can use magic. The ability to perform magic is innate and morally neutral, and the ability to cast magic is purposefully and effectively acquired through long-term training. It is impossible to teach a person deprived of the ability to magic to conjure. Magic permeates the entire life of wizards, both in the form of an almost universal tool and in the form of enchanted objects. With the help of magic you can do a lot, from finding missing objects to murder.

Secondly, the magicians are confident that Muggles will not be able to coexist peacefully with them. Muggles are unaware of the existence of wizards, and this situation did not arise spontaneously, but is a consequence of a number of measures taken by wizards (in particular, the Statute of Secrecy). In particular, underage wizards are only allowed to use magic in school; It is forbidden to enchant objects belonging to Muggles; any deliberate discovery of magical abilities is punishable. If, however, Muggles discover something that makes them suspect magic, a special unit of the Ministry of Magic will begin erasing the relevant memories.

Muggles who are allowed to know about magic are the spouses and immediate relatives of wizards and the highest echelons of power (in England, most likely, only the prime minister; the books practically do not mention other countries).

Magic abilities

A wizard whose ancestors were Muggles is called Muggleborns. If only one of the ancestors was a Muggle, a wizard is called half-breed. An insulting name for Muggle-borns and half-bloods - mudbloods. If all ancestors at least up to the second generation were wizards, it is called purebred.

Among purebred wizards There is a kind of racism - prejudice against non-purebreds. Such wizards especially hate their brothers who have married Muggles - they are called “blood traitors.” Almost all such racists mentioned in the book are negative or repulsive characters. Many of them deceive themselves into believing that all their ancestors were magicians for hundreds of years. Sometimes they believe that magical power is determined by the purity of the blood, but this is not true. In fact, some of the most powerful wizards were half-bloods or Muggle-borns.

Some magicians have abilities that are rare even in their world. So, Harry Potter, like Tom Riddle, is parselmouth, that is, understands the language of snakes, and another Rowling hero - Nymphadora Tonks - is Metamorphinea, that is, it can partially change its appearance. Also in the magical world there is werewolves- people who, under the light of the full moon, involuntarily turn into a ferocious wolf (for example, Remus Lupin or Fenrir Greyback). Any person (even a Muggle) can become a werewolf if he is bitten by another werewolf in the guise of a wolf. The government of magicians carefully monitors werewolves and other magical creatures. Also a wizard can be animagus, that is, he is able to transform into a certain animal at will. This can be learned. However, this ability must be officially registered with the Ministry of Magic (of all the animagus active in the books, only Minerva McConnagal is a recognized animagus).

Wizard places

Wizards have created their own secret world in different places and keep it secret from Muggles. The books mention some places owned by wizards (most of them cannot be detected by Muggles thanks to protective magic): schools of wizardry (Hogwarts in the north of England, Beauxbatons in France, Durmstrang in Bulgaria and others), several wizard streets in London (Diagon Alley , Knockturn Alley and others), a village belonging only to magicians - Hogsmeade (the only such village in all of England, next to the Hogwarts school), a special platform at London's King's Cross station, the Forest where the Quidditch World Cup final was held, the Ministry of Magic of England near London, St. Mungo's Hospital in London and many other places.

Translations

The series of books has been translated into several dozen languages ​​(see Harry Potter in translation). At the same time, many names were also converted.

There are several famous translations series into Russian.

Historically, the first translation was created by Igor Oransky (only “The Philosopher’s Stone”), published in 2000 by the publishing house “Rosman” (http://www.rosman.ru) - the official publisher of books about Harry Potter in Russian.

The translation of Marina Litvinova (also “Rosman”, 2nd and 3rd books; “adjustment” of the 1st book for translations) did not suit everyone and was criticized. In particular, they were awarded the “Paragraph” anti-prize (2002).

Fans of the series have undertaken network projects such as “people's translation” (http://harrypotter.internetmagazin.ru), where teams of fan translators translated books about Harry as they were published. Most of the translations turned out to be close to the first official translation of Oransky.

There has also been discussion on the Internet about the feasibility of " People's translations" For example, the publication “ Benjamin's Serum", responding to an article by one of the "critics" who took a pseudonym Benjamin Tolstoy.

Well, if you take into account how many publishing houses have lost a tasty morsel in the form of rights to a “world-famous bestseller”, how many translators have not received the coveted honor of seeing their name on title page sensational book, the reason for the indignation is clear. If “Potter” had been translated by M. L. Lozinsky or N. M. Lyubimov, they would have been anathematized with no less fervor.

Wikipedia articles use translations from Rosman Publishing House unless otherwise noted. Below is a table of correspondence translations of some names:

Mentions of Harry Potter in other works

“I want to look at the lid of the box,” Jake said as they joined her. Suzanne moved, Jake lifted the lid and stared at it with admiration. On the lid they painted the face of a smiling boy with a scar on his forehead that looked like a stylized image of lightning, wearing round glasses. He waved what seemed like a magic wand at the approaching Snitch. Under the picture they read:

PROPERTY OF 449 SQUADRON 24 "SNITCH" MODEL "HARRY POTTER" SERIAL NO. 465-11-AA HPJKR Don't mess with the 449th! We'll blow your brains out!"

- But since so many books have been written about this, why then have only a few heard about your theory? “It’s just that these books are not able to influence the generally accepted opinion that has developed over centuries. Especially when you consider that the formation of this opinion was influenced by the bestseller of all times. Faukman widened his eyes: “Don’t tell me what’s in Harry Potter.” we're talking about about the Holy Grail! - I'm talking about the Bible. Faukman shuddered. - I got what you mean.

Also mentioned in the series is the J.D. Clinic. Elliot Reed says about his brother: He’s not some Harry Potter who lives in a closet under the stairs.

During the trial to save people in the Triwizard Tournament, Harry Potter rescues her at the same time as Ron.

Orion Black

Augusta Longbottom

A very powerful and proud woman. He has his own opinion about everything, which he does not hesitate to express very straightforwardly. In some ways, she and McGonagall are similar: both are strict, but fair, both do not like lies and intrigue, both are excellent witches. Although Neville's grandmother is many years old, she has not lost either her dexterity or magical power. It is customary to say about people like her that they are “the guard of the old school.”

Augusta loves and is proud of her son, treats her daughter-in-law condescendingly and loves her grandson in her own way. True, Mrs. Longbottom seems to consider all feelings other than pride to be a sign of weakness and tries not to advertise them.

Ollivander

At the time of the story, Mr. Ollivander is already very old. Distinctive feature his is that he remembers all (!) the sticks that he has ever produced, and remembers which stick went to whom. Moreover, careful measurements of the client’s parameters (height, arm span, distance between various parts of the body, etc.) are required by the master only when selecting first sticks. Subsequently, Mr. Ollivander is able to create a new wand for an old client without resorting to fittings. Ollivander creates a wand for Tail without any special fittings, and Luna actually sent her a new wand by mail. He is an excellent specialist in his field, but he is also interested in the relationship between the wand and the owner. In addition, he knows everything or almost everything about the Elder Wand, but has no idea about the rest of the Deathly Hallows.

In the summer of 1996, unexpectedly for many, Ollivander disappears from Diagon Alley, no one can say where. Just as unexpectedly, he is “found” in the basement of the Malfoy estate, where first Luna Lovegood and then Harry Potter and friends end up. It turns out that Voldemort needed the old man. First, the Dark Lord tried to figure out how to get around the relationship of his wand with Harry's wand, and then extracted information from him about the Elder Wand. The half-dead Ollivander is rescued from captivity.

It must be assumed that after the victory over Voldemort, the old master returned to his activities. Moreover, he is deservedly considered the best manufacturer wands all over the UK.

Gellert Grindelwald

Gellert Grindelwald(English) Gellert Grindelwald) is a character in the Harry Potter book series. First mentioned in the first book (Harry Potter read his name on a card from a chocolate frog with a picture of Dumbledore), described in more detail in book seven. Grindelwald was the most powerful dark wizard in the world, second only to Voldemort. The only known evil wizard who did not study in Slytherin or even Hogwarts.

Gellert Grindelwald spent the beginning of his life in Durmstrang, conducting various experiments there. For this he was kicked out of school, and he went to his aunt in Godric's Hollow. There he met Albus Dumbledore. Gellert told him about the Deathly Hallows. They indulged in dreams of wizard domination over Muggles. Then they thought about how to find the Deathly Hallows. However, later a terrible quarrel took place between Gellert, Albus and Aberforth (Dumbledore's brother), in the heat of which Ariana, the younger sister of the Dumbledores, died. Immediately after the tragedy, Grindelwald fled.

Grindelwald then established a terrorist regime in Europe (a hidden comparison to fascism), killing many wizards there, including Viktor Krum's grandfather. His motto was “For the common good.” For those who disagreed with him he founded the Nurmengard prison.

Grindelwald's battle with Albus Dumbledore in Harry Potter is barely described. It is known that the Hogwarts headmaster avoided meeting his old friend for a long time, largely because he was afraid to find out which of the three participants in the terrible quarrel (Dumbledore himself, his brother Aberforth or Grindelwald) killed Ariana. However, the number of victims of Gellert Grindelwald's terror grew inexorably, and it was impossible to continue to remain on the sidelines, although for some reason he did not use infernals. In the battle of 1945, after the end of World War II, Dumbledore turned out to be stronger. The Elder Wand was taken from Grindelwald in battle. Elder wand), and he was imprisoned for life in a prison that he himself built. In the seventh book, he was killed in his solitary confinement by Voldemort, who was looking for the Elder Wand.

Bathilda Bagshot

Andromeda Tonks

Magical creatures

Fawkes

First appearance in the first book, where Griphook accompanies Hagrid and Harry to the money safe. In the seventh book, Griphook goes on the run due to the fact that he might be killed by Death Eaters. On the run, he is accompanied by another goblin Krovnyak and the Muggle-born wizard Dirk Cresswell, then they were joined by Ted Tonks and Dean Thomas. During a conversation that Harry and his friends overhear, Griphook reveals that the sword of Gryffindor, which he was entrusted with taking to the Death Eaters safe, is not real. Together with Dean, Harry, Ron and Hermione, the goblin is captured by the “jaegers” and then to the Malfoy mansion. From there he is rescued by Harry Potter. The goblin is amazed that the wizard saved the goblin and buried the house elf. For some time he lives in Shell Cottage with Bill and Fleur. When Potter asks him to help them break into the bank, he agrees, but on the condition that they give him the sword, because the sword belongs to the goblins. Harry gives him his word that he will give up the sword. Griphook doesn't fully believe him. Having thought over the plan, the heroes enter the Lestrange safe, but when the guards come running, Griphook, in the confusion, takes the sword into his paws and runs away.

Krownjak

Florenc

Time heals almost all mental wounds. A couple of years later, Harry asks Dobby about Winky, and finds out that the elf still works in the Hogwarts kitchen, and has started drinking much less...

Pets

Scabbers

Imagine the boy’s surprise when it turned out that under the guise of a rat, the animagus wizard Peter Pettigrew lived in the Weasley family for all twelve years! When Pettigrew’s long-standing crime, because of which he was actually hiding from everyone, became known to Ron, Hermione and, most importantly, Harry Potter (it was his parents that Peter betrayed), the cowardly “rat” chose to sneak away.

The rat named Scabbers ceased to exist. Even if Peter became a rat again, no one called him by that name anymore.

Crookshanks

And in the wolfhound that later appeared near Hogwarts, he immediately recognized the wizard, Sirius Black. True, with Sirius they quickly found mutual language and became friends. Now Crookshanks was hunting for Scabbers not because of ancient cat instincts, but to bring Peter Pettigrew into the arms of an old friend who dreamed of getting even with the traitor. But then not only Ron, but also Harry Potter, who were completely unaware of the human component of Ron’s pet, stood up to guard the safety of the old rat. Peter, in the image of Scabbers, understood perfectly well who needed him there, outside the castle walls, and why. He fakes his own death, allegedly from the teeth and claws of Crookshanks, and escapes... Hermione's confidence in her cat's innocence in the disappearance of Scabbers became the cause of a serious quarrel between her and Ron.

Only after finding Scabbers, alive and well, in Hagrid's cottage, does Ron apologize. And after the guys found out, Who hiding under the guise of Ron's pet, his attitude towards Crookshanks changes dramatically. And the boy first of all brings his new pet, the owlet Sychik, to the cat’s face. For check. Yes, just in case. So as not to get burned a second time...

Hedwig

Hogwarts students

Gryffindor students

Romilda Vane

Romilda Vane(English) Romilda Vane) - a student two years younger than Harry Potter. Known as the girl who fell in love with Harry and tried unsuccessfully to attract his attention. Purebred. Hair is dark, eyes are brown.

First described on the Hogwarts Express train on the way to school. Romilda invites Harry to leave Neville and Luna traveling with him and sit in another compartment, but he refuses, saying, much to the girl’s surprise, that these are his friends. When Harry makes the faculty Quidditch team, he tries out to be a hunter, but doesn’t even try to fly during the tests. Then, during the school year, he tries to trick Harry by giving him a box of chocolates laced with a love potion. Harry took the sweets, but did not eat them, as he was warned by Hermione about Romilda's plans. A few months later, Ron Weasley accidentally ate this chocolate during his birthday and literally went crazy, starting out of the blue to talk about his love for Romilda. Realizing what had happened, Harry took Ron to Potions Professor Horace Slughorn, who gave them the antidote. But Ron poisoned himself and ended up in the hospital wing.

After Gryffindor's victorious Quidditch match, Romilda was outraged to see Harry kissing Ginny Weasley. Ginny later said that Romilda asked her if Harry really had a picture of a hippogriff on his chest. To this, Ginny jokingly replied that there was a picture of a Hungarian Horntail, since such a legend made Harry “a real macho” in Romilda’s eyes.

Oliver Wood

Oliver Wood(English) Oliver Wood) - a student four years older than Harry. Captain and goalkeeper of the Gryffindor Quidditch team, an excellent strategist. Everyone knows his long and lengthy explanations of Quidditch tactics. He is passionate about this sport. I dreamed of winning the Hogwarts Quidditch Cup. After a match lost to Hufflepuff because the team's catcher, Harry Potter, fell off his broom after seeing Dementors, Oliver was very depressed, but did not insist on a replay. I was incredibly happy when Gryffindor took the school cup.

In June of this year, Oliver Wood graduates from Hogwarts and continues his sports career. He is included in the second team of Paddlemere United. He tells his former classmates about this when they all gather together at the Quidditch World Cup.

Later, on May 2 of the year, together with the others, he participated in the Battle of Hogwarts. It is mentioned that Oliver fights side by side with Neville Longbottom, and during an hour-long respite helps him carry the bodies of the dead, in particular, from the battlefield.

Thoroughbred. Hair is dark, eyes are brown. In the films, the role of Oliver Wood is played by Sean Biggerstaff.

Richie Coote

Richie Coote(English) Ritchie Coote) - the beater of the Gryffindor Quidditch team, selected by Harry for the team in the sixth book. Described as "rather frail-looking", but a very accurate player. Hair is dark brown.

Cormac McLaggen

Cormac McLaggen(English) Cormac McLaggen) - student at Hogwarts, studying in the Gryffindor house. One year older than Harry Potter. In the book "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince" he took part in the selection of the Gryffindor Quidditch team for the role of goalkeeper. However, thanks to Hermione Granger, who stunned him with the Confundus spell, McLaggen was surpassed by Ron Weasley, and he was taken to the team. Went to the "Slug Club Party" with Hermione Granger. Hermione spent the entire evening trying to get rid of him and later told Harry that he didn't ask her a single question about herself, but kept talking about the balls he caught. Before the second Gryffindor game, when the poisoned Ron was out of action, Harry Potter had to take Cormac to the team. McLaggen turned out to be arrogant. He began to give advice to other players, while playing worse. And when Harry reprimanded him, Cormac knocked Harry off his broom with a Bludger, after which he was expelled from the team.

Jimmy Peaks

Jimmy Peaks(English) Jimmy Peakes) - a student three years younger than Harry, in the sixth book - a beater for the Gryffindor Quidditch team. Short, stocky, strong and quite aggressive player. During the selection tests, he hit the Bludger with such force that it left an impressive bump on the back of Harry's head; After this, the impressed captain immediately took him into the team.

Before the Battle of Hogwarts, he tried to stay in the castle and join the fighters, but was stopped by Professor McGonagall.