Superfluous people in 19th century literature table. The problem of the “superfluous man” in Russian literature of the 19th century
Head: Maltseva Galina Sergeevna.
MAOU "Secondary School No. 109" Perm.
The expression “superfluous person” came into general use after the “Diary extra person" So who is he? Head: Maltseva Galina Sergeevna.
Maintaining.
The expression “superfluous man” came into general use after “The Diary of an Extra Man” (1850) by I.S. Turgenev. This is what it says in the “Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary” (1987).
But the first epithet “superfluous” was applied by Pushkin to Onegin, the hero of the novel “Eugene Onegin,” in one of his rough sketches. Almost simultaneously with Pushkin in 1831, Lermontov in the drama “ A strange man” puts the same definition into the mouth of Vladimir Arbenin: “Now I’m free! Nobody...nobody...exactly, positively no one values me on earth...I’m superfluous!..” These are the words of V. Manuylov in the book “Novel by M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time.” Commentary” (1975).
IN " Literary Dictionary“It is said that the “extra person” is a socio-psychological type imprinted in Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. Why did it happen that smart and thirsty people were doomed to forced inaction and became victims of their time?
The outstanding historian V.O. Klyuchevsky has an article on this topic, it is called “Eugene Onegin and his ancestors,” in which he explains the reasons that made people who received European education, “superfluous in one’s own country.” The “cultural and psychological curiosity” is that, giving their children a European education, their ancestors offered a country frozen in slavery, therefore “in Europe they saw him as a Tatar dressed in European style, but in their eyes he seemed like a Frenchman born in Russia.”
Although Klyuchevsky’s words were spoken about Onegin, they apply no less to Chatsky. Chatsky’s drama lies precisely in the fact that he is torn apart by the contract between civilization and slavery, the underdevelopment of social life in Russia.
Chatsky could not admit that Sophia, in their enlightened age, was still at that low stage of moral development at which Famusov and his entourage were. Her idea of valor and honor is no different from the views of those around her: “Compliant, modest, quiet in her face, not a shadow of concern...”
And now Famusov is presenting a whole program successful life in society this " to the prodigal son", but the essence of success is very simple:
When do you need to help yourself?
And he bent over...
This “moral” position has been verified by practice, is convenient, and reliable. The educated and intelligent Chatsky states with surprise the bitter truth: “Silent people are blissful in the world.” But there is no place for him here: “I’ll go look around the world where there is a corner for an offended feeling.” Chatsky is alone before us. And that says a lot. There were many Decembrist and pro-Decembrist-minded people, but the feeling of social loneliness was quite familiar to almost every leading person of that time.
The social and literary development of Russia was so rapid that the image of Chatsky did not satisfy either Pushkin or Belinsky.
Pushkin is not happy with Chatsky traditional approach to the image of the hero, in which the main thing is actor turns into a mouthpiece for the author's ideas. Pushkin begins work on the novel “Eugene Onegin”, creating a new hero. Belinsky notes: “First of all, in Onegin we see a poetically reproduced picture of Russian society, taken in one of most interesting moments its development." As a result of the reform of Peter the Great, a society was to be formed in Russia, completely separated from the mass of the people in its way of life.
Nevertheless, Pushkin sets the most main question: “But was my Eugene happy?” It turns out that many people of the world are not satisfied with him. Onegin does not immediately come to terms with his bitter disappointment, with the feeling of his uselessness:
Onegin locked himself at home,
Yawning, I took up my pen,
I wanted to write, but it’s hard work
He was sick...
In Onegin, his mind, conscience, and dreams are alive, but he does not have the ability to act. Onegin does not need anything, he has no goal, no ideal - this is his tragedy.
If Chatsky and Onegin were given the historical opportunity to go out onto Senate Square in 1825 together with the most educated representatives of their class, who hoped with one impetuous onslaught to move the rock that stood in the way of civilization, then Pechorin, the hero of Lermontov’s novel, did not have such an opportunity . He appeared later and this was enough for a certain psychological and moral barrier to form between them. Critics, comparing Pechorin with Onegin, said: “If Onegin is bored, then Pechorin suffers deeply.” This is explained by the fact that the “hero of our time” lives during the brutal persecution of everything progressive that began after the defeat of the Decembrists. Lermontov in the preface directly said that he gives “a portrait made up of the vices of our generation in their full development.” Pechorin withdrew into himself, just as all of the most educated Russia withdrew after the terrible upheavals associated with the suppression of the Decembrist uprising.
In his tragic life, Lermontov found a task for himself - to understand and explain to his contemporaries themselves, without hiding or embellishing anything. The novel “A Hero of Our Time”, when published, caused conflicting opinions among readers. The novel contains tendencies towards condemnation of both society and the hero. Recognizing the guilt of society for giving birth to Pechorin, the author, however, does not believe that the hero is right. The central task of the novel is to reveal the depth of Pechorin’s image. The central task of the novel is to reveal the depth of Pechorin’s image. Already from the very composition of the novel, we can see the aimlessness of his life, the pettiness and inconsistency of his actions. By placing the hero in different conditions, in different surroundings, Lermontov wants to show that they are alien to Pechorin, that he has no place in life, no matter what situation he finds himself in.
The theme of the “superfluous man” is characteristic of Lermontov’s work. For example, the same “superfluous person” is the hero of the drama “Strange Man” - Vladimir Arbenin. His whole life is a challenge to society.
In 1856, Turgenev’s novel “Rudin” was published in the Sovremennik magazine. In the character of Rudin, Turgenev shows that advanced people The 40s, who received the bitter, but in their own way fair name, “extra people,” tried to save them from discord with social conditions life through immersion in philosophy and art. In the personality of Rudin, Turgenev collected both positive and negative features of this generation. Having gone through a difficult path of spiritual quest, he himself cannot bring together the whole meaning human life to efficiency, not inspired by a higher idea. And from the point of view historical progress Rudin, according to Turgenev, - true heroes era, as they are admirers of ideals, guardians of culture, and serve the progress of society.
Conclusion.
In our literature a type of people has emerged whose existence is purely internal character. They do not strive to achieve wealth, fame, or position in society; they do not set themselves political, social, or everyday goals.
"Extra People" Russian literature They look for happiness not outside, but inside themselves. Initially, they are “laid” with that high ideal, which dooms them to eternal dissatisfaction with reality, to eternal searches. life goal. Their souls, like Lermontov’s sail, are rebellious, “looking for storms.”
Bibliography.
1. V.O. Klyuchevsky “Eugene Onegin and his ancestors” (in the book “ Literary portraits" 1991)
2. V.Yu. Proskurina “Dialogues with Chatsky” (in the book “Centuries will not be erased...” Russian classics and their readers, 1988)
3. N.G. Valley “Let’s honor Onegin together”
4. N.G. Valley "Pechorin and our time"
5. P. G. Paustovsky “I. Turgenev - artist of words”
6. I.K. Kuzmichev “Literature and moral education of the individual.”
7. L. Urban " Secret Platonov" Article “Rereading again.”
“Superfluous people” in literature are images characteristic of Russian prose of the mid-nineteenth century. Examples of such characters in works of fiction are the topic of the article.
Who coined this term?
“Extra people” in literature are characters that appeared at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It is unknown who exactly introduced this term. Perhaps Herzen. According to some information - Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. After all, the great Russian poet once said that his Onegin is “an extra man.” One way or another, this image was firmly established in the works of other writers.
Every schoolchild, even if he has not read Goncharov’s novel, knows about someone like Oblomov. This character is a representative of the obsolete landowner's world, and therefore cannot adapt to the new.
General signs
“Superfluous people” are found in the works of such classics as I. S. Turgenev, M. Yu. Lermontov. Before considering each of the characters that can be classified in this category, it is worth highlighting common features. “Extra people” in literature are contradictory heroes who are in conflict with the society to which they belong. As a rule, they are deprived of both fame and wealth.
Examples
“Extra people” in literature are characters introduced by the author into an environment alien to them. They are moderately educated, but their knowledge is unsystematic. The “superfluous man” cannot be a deep thinker or scientist, but he has the “ability of judgment”, the gift of eloquence. And the main characteristic of this literary character is his disdainful attitude towards others. As an example, we can recall Pushkin’s Onegin, who avoids communication with his neighbors.
“Superfluous people” in Russian literature of the 19th century were heroes who were able to see the evils of modern society, but did not know how to resist them. They are aware of the problems of the world around them. But, alas, they are too passive to change anything.
Causes
The characters discussed in this article began to appear on the pages of the works of Russian writers in the Nicholas era. In 1825 there was a Decembrist uprising. For the next decades, the government was in fear, but it was at this time that a spirit of freedom and a desire for change emerged in society. The policy of Nicholas I was quite contradictory.
The tsar introduced reforms designed to make life easier for the peasants, but at the same time did everything to strengthen the autocracy. Various circles began to appear, whose participants discussed and criticized the current government. The landowner lifestyle was despised by many educated people. But the trouble is that the participants in various political associations belonged to the society towards which they suddenly became inflamed with hatred.
The reasons for the appearance of “extra people” in Russian literature lie in the emergence in society of a new type of person who was not accepted by society and did not accept it. Such a person stands out from the crowd, and therefore causes bewilderment and irritation.
As already mentioned, the concept of “superfluous person” was first introduced into literature by Pushkin. However, this term is somewhat vague. Characters in conflict with the social environment have been encountered in literature before. The main character of Griboyedov's comedy has the traits inherent in this type of character. Can we say that Chatsky is an example of a “superfluous person”? In order to answer this question, a brief analysis of comedy should be done.
Chatsky
Griboyedov's hero rejects the inert foundations Famusov society. He denounces veneration for rank and blind imitation. This does not go unnoticed by representatives of Famus society - the Khlestovs, the Khryumins, the Zagoretskys. As a result, Chatsky is considered strange, if not crazy.
Griboyedov's hero is a representative of an advanced society, which includes people who do not want to put up with reactionary orders and remnants of the past. Thus, we can say that the theme of the “superfluous person” was first raised by the author of “Woe from Wit.”
Eugene Onegin
But most literary scholars believe that this particular hero is the first “extra person” in the prose and poetry of Russian authors. Onegin is a nobleman, “heir to all his relatives.” He received a very passable education, but does not have any deep knowledge. Writing and speaking French, behaving at ease in society, reciting a few quotes from the works of ancient authors - this is enough to create a favorable impression in the world.
Onegin is a typical representative of aristocratic society. He is not able to “work hard”, but he knows how to shine in society. He leads an aimless, idle existence, but this is not his fault. Evgeniy became like his father, who gave three balls every year. He lives the way most representatives of the Russian nobility exist. However, unlike them, at a certain moment he begins to feel tired and disappointed.
Loneliness
Onegin is an “extra person.” He is languishing from idleness, trying to occupy himself with useful work. In the society to which he belongs, idleness is the main component of life. Hardly anyone from Onegin’s circle is familiar with his experiences.
Evgeniy tries to compose at first. But he is not a writer. Then he begins to read enthusiastically. However, Onegin does not find moral satisfaction in books either. Then he retires to the house of his deceased uncle, who bequeathed his village to him. Here the young nobleman seemingly finds something to do. He makes life easier for the peasants: he replaces the yoke with a light quitrent. However, even these good initiatives lead nowhere.
The type of “superfluous person” appeared in Russian literature in the first third of the nineteenth century. But by the middle of the century this character acquired new features. Pushkin's Onegin is rather passive. He treats others with contempt, is depressed and cannot get rid of conventions and prejudices, which he himself criticizes. Let's look at other examples of the “extra person” in literature.
Pechorin
Lermontov’s work “Hero of Our Time” is dedicated to the problems of a rejected person, spiritually not accepted by society. Pechorin, like Pushkin’s character, belongs to high society. But he is tired of the mores of aristocratic society. Pechorin does not enjoy attending balls, dinners, or festive evenings. He is depressed by the tedious and meaningless conversations that are customary to have at such events.
Using the examples of Onegin and Pechorin, we can complement the concept of “superfluous person” in Russian literature. This is a character who, due to some alienation from society, acquires such traits as isolation, selfishness, cynicism and even cruelty.
"Notes of an Extra Person"
And yet, most likely, the author of the concept of “extra people” is I. S. Turgenev. Many literary scholars believe that it was he who introduced this term. According to their opinion, Onegin and Pechorin were subsequently classified as “superfluous people,” although they have little in common with the image created by Turgenev. The writer has a story called “Notes of an Extra Man.” The hero of this work feels alien in society. This character calls himself such.
Whether the hero of the novel “Fathers and Sons” is a “superfluous person” is a controversial issue.
Bazarov
Fathers and Sons depicts society in the mid-nineteenth century. Violent political disputes had reached their climax by this time. In these disputes, on one side stood the liberal democrats, and on the other, the revolutionary commoner democrats. Both of them understood that changes were needed. Revolutionary-minded democrats, unlike their opponents, were committed to rather radical measures.
Political disputes have penetrated into all spheres of life. And, of course, they became the theme of artistic and journalistic works. But there was another phenomenon at that time that interested the writer Turgenev. Namely, nihilism. Adherents of this movement rejected everything related to the spiritual.
Bazarov, like Onegin, is a deeply lonely person. This trait is also characteristic of all characters whom literary scholars classify as “superfluous people.” But, unlike Pushkin’s hero, Bazarov does not spend his time in idleness: he is engaged in the natural sciences.
The hero of the novel “Fathers and Sons” has successors. He is not considered crazy. On the contrary, some heroes try to adopt Bazarov’s oddities and skepticism. Nevertheless, Bazarov is lonely, despite the fact that his parents love and idolize him. He dies, and only at the end of his life does he realize that his ideas were false. Is in life simple joys. There is love and romantic feelings. And all this has a right to exist.
Rudin
It’s not uncommon to encounter “extra people.” The action of the novel "Rudin" takes place in the forties. Daria Lasunskaya, one of the heroines of the novel, lives in Moscow, but in the summer she travels out of town, where she organizes musical evenings. Her guests are exclusively educated people.
One day, a certain Rudin appears at Lasunskaya’s house. This person is prone to polemics, extremely passionate, and captivates listeners with his wit. The guests and the hostess of the house are enchanted by Rudin’s amazing eloquence. Lasunskaya invites him to live in her house.
In order to give a clear description of Rudin, Turgenev talks about facts from his life. This man was born into a poor family, but never had the desire to earn money or get out of poverty. At first he lived on the pennies his mother sent him. Then he lived at the expense of rich friends. Even in his youth, Rudin was distinguished by his extraordinary oratory skills. He was a fairly educated man, because he spent all his leisure time reading books. But the trouble is that nothing followed his words. By the time he met Lasunskaya, he had already become a rather shabby man life's adversities. In addition, he became painfully proud and even vain.
Rudin is an “extra person.” Many years of immersion in the philosophical sphere have led to the fact that ordinary soul feelings as if they had died. This Turgenev hero is a born orator, and the only thing he strived for was to conquer people. But he was too weak and spineless to become a political leader.
Oblomov
So, the “extra person” in Russian prose is a disillusioned nobleman. The hero of Goncharov's novel is sometimes classified as this type of literary hero. But can Oblomov be called a “superfluous person”? After all, he misses, yearns for his father’s house and everything that made up the landowner’s life. And he is in no way disappointed in the way of life and traditions characteristic of representatives of his society.
Who is Oblomov? This is a descendant of a landowner family who is bored with working in an office, and therefore does not leave his sofa for days. This is a generally accepted opinion, but it is not entirely correct. Oblomov could not get used to life in St. Petersburg, because the people around him were entirely calculating, heartless individuals. The main character of the novel, unlike them, is smart, educated and, most importantly, has high spiritual qualities. But why doesn’t he want to work then?
The fact is that Oblomov, like Onegin and Rudin, does not see the point in such work, such life. These people cannot work only for material well-being. Each of them requires a high spiritual goal. But it doesn’t exist or it turned out to be insolvent. And Onegin, and Rudin, and Oblomov become “superfluous”.
Goncharov contrasted Stolz, his childhood friend, with the main character of his novel. This character initially creates a positive impression on the reader. Stolz is a hardworking, purposeful person. It was not by chance that the writer endowed this hero with German origin. Goncharov seems to be hinting that only Russian people can suffer from Oblomovism. And in last chapters it becomes clear that there is nothing behind Stolz’s hard work. This person has neither dreams nor high ideas. He acquires sufficient means of subsistence and stops, not continuing his development.
The influence of the “extra person” on others
It is also worth saying a few words about the heroes who surround the “extra person”. mentioned in this article are lonely and unhappy. Some of them end their lives too early. In addition, “extra people” cause grief to others. Especially women who had the imprudence to love them.
Pierre Bezukhov is sometimes counted among the “superfluous people.” In the first part of the novel, he is in continuous melancholy, searching for something. He spends a lot of time at parties, buys paintings, and reads a lot. Unlike the above-mentioned heroes, Bezukhov finds himself; he does not die either physically or morally.
An extra person... Who is this - the one who no one needs? The one who does not find a place for himself in his country, in his time? Someone who can't achieve anything?
These images are somehow similar friend on each other and at the same time different, appeared in the texts of writers at the beginning of the 19th century. Onegin from the novel in verse by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, Pechorin from the novel by Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov, Chatsky from the comedy by Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov... Isn’t it true, there is something in common in these three images?
The first of them - in chronological order - is Chatsky. Let us remember: he returns to Famusov’s house after a long, many-year absence. Even before he appears on stage, we already know about sharp mind and the evil language of this hero (Sophia speaks about this). And, appearing on stage, he justifies her words. During his absence, Chatsky changed and became wiser, but society did not change and did not become wiser! And a conflict is brewing: society and Chatsky do not accept each other. And seeing that he does not have the slightest opportunity to express (and find those who understand!) his thoughts, his feelings and ideals here, Chatsky breaks with society. He is declared crazy and, indeed, blinkered secular people should have perceived the trends of the new worldview in exactly this way. The true conflict of the play is not in betrayed love, but in the clash of two different worldviews, where the power is obviously on the side of the more inert and older.
The next character is Evgeny Onegin. Since childhood, he has been poisoned by the hypocrisy of high society; he denies everything he can see. Unlike Chatsky, Onegin has neither aspirations nor lofty ideals. The ideal - love - comes to him only later, when everything has already been lost. But Onegin is an active person at his core. And if we sympathize with Chatsky, then Onegin at the end of the novel is capable of moral regeneration, the “late” Onegin is in some ways close to Griboyedov’s hero, it is no coincidence that Pushkin mentions this, comparing them as if in passing: “... and he ended up like Chatsky from the ship to the ball...,” he writes about Onegin. The last character from the gallery of “extra” people is Pechorin.
This image, in my opinion, is the most tragic. After all, if Chatsky initially strives for some ideals and believes in something, if Onegin comes to spiritual rebirth through suffering, then in Pechorin’s soul there is only emptiness and pain from unused potential. Pechorin sows evil, often deliberately (as in the case of the seduction of Princess Mary). In love he is incompetent (remember Vera), in creativity he is incapable of anything, although in his diaries he gives an unusually poetic description of nature...
So, the image of an extra person undergoes certain changes over time. If Chatsky is somewhere cheerful and cheerful, if Some kind of future can await Onegin, then Pechorin has no future...
The inability to use their powers is not the heroes' fault. It's the fault of time, the fault historical course events... These images inevitably had to appear in Russian literature early XIX century.
Extra person
"The Extra Man", a socio-psychological type embodied in Russian literature of the 1st half of the 19th century; its main features: alienation from official Russia, from their native environment (usually noble), a feeling of intellectual and moral superiority over it and at the same time ≈ mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed. Name "L. h." came into general use after “The Diary of an Extra Man” (1850) by I. S. Turgenev; the type itself was formed earlier: the first completed incarnation was Onegin (“Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin), then Pechorin (“Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov), Beltov (“Who is to Blame?” by A. I. Herzen ), Turgenev characters: Rudin (“Rudin”), Lavretsky (“The Noble Nest”), etc. Traits of the spiritual appearance of “L. h." (sometimes in a complicated and modified form) can be traced in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. (in the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, up to A. I. Kuprin, V. V. Veresaev, M. Gorky). Typology "L. h." was reflected in the lyrics (Lermontov, N.P. Ogarev). In Western European literature “L. h." to a certain extent, close to the hero brought to life by a “long hangover” (see K. Marx, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd edition, volume 8, p. 122) after the bourgeois revolution of the 18th century. , disappointment in social progress (“Adolphe” by B. Constant, “Confession of a son of the century” by A. de Musset). However, the contradictions of Russian reality, the contrast between “civilization and slavery” (see A.I. Herzen, Collected Works, vol. 7, 1956, p. 205), the underdevelopment of social life brought forward “L. h." to a more prominent place, led to increased drama and intensity of his experiences. At the turn of the 50s-60s. revolutionary democrats N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov sharply criticized “L. h.”, his indecision and passivity, at the same time unlawfully reducing the content of the problem “L. h." to the topic of liberalism. With revaluation of “L. h." F. M. Dostoevsky also spoke out, condemning his individualism and isolation from the people’s soil. Literary image"L. h.”, which arose as a rethinking of the romantic hero (J. Byron, Pushkin), took shape under the sign of realistic portraiture, identifying the difference between the character and the author. Essential in the topic “L. h." there was a rejection of educational principles in the name of an impartial analysis of the “history of the human soul” (Lermontov), which created the basis for deep psychologism and the subsequent gains of realism.
Lit.: Chernyshevsky N. G., Russian man on rendez-vous, Complete. collection soch., vol. 5, M., 1950; Goncharov I. A., “A million torments.” Collection soch., vol. 8, M., 1952.
Yu. V. Mann.
Wikipedia
Extra person
Extra person- a literary hero typical of the works of Russian writers of the 1840s and 1850s. Usually this is a person of significant abilities who cannot realize his talents in the official field of Nikolaev Russia.
Belonging to the upper classes of society, the superfluous person is alienated from noble class, despises bureaucracy, but, having no prospect of other self-realization, mostly spends his time in idle entertainment. This lifestyle fails to relieve his boredom, leading to dueling, gambling, and other self-destructive behavior. Typical traits of a superfluous person include “mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed, and, as a rule, social passivity.”
The name "superfluous man" was assigned to the type of disillusioned Russian nobleman after the publication of Turgenev's story "The Diary of a Superfluous Man" in 1850. The earliest and classic examples- Eugene Onegin by A.S. Pushkin, Chatsky from “Woe from Wit”, Pechorin by M. Lermontov - go back to the Byronic hero of the era of romanticism, to Rene Chateaubriand and Adolphe Constant. The further evolution of the type is represented by Herzen’s Beltov (“Who is to blame?”) and the heroes of Turgenev’s early works (Rudin, Lavretsky, Chulkaturin).
Extra people often bring trouble not only to themselves, but also to the female characters who have the misfortune of loving them. The negative side of superfluous people, associated with their displacement outside the social and functional structure of society, comes to the fore in the works of literary officials A.F. Pisemsky and I.A. Goncharov. The latter contrasts the idlers “hovering in the skies” with practical businessmen: Aduev Jr. with Aduev Sr., and Oblomov with Stolz. In “War and Peace” Pierre Bezukhov remains for a long time in the position of an extra person at the beginning of the century:
Pierre experienced the unfortunate ability of many, especially Russian people - the ability to see and believe in the possibility of good and truth, and to see too clearly the evil and lies of life in order to be able to take a serious part in it. Every area of labor in his eyes was associated with evil and deception. Whatever he tried to be, whatever he undertook, evil and lies repelled him and blocked all paths of activity for him. Meanwhile, I had to live, I had to be busy. It was too scary to be under the yoke of these insoluble questions of life, and he gave himself up to his first hobbies just to forget them. He traveled to all sorts of societies, drank a lot, bought paintings and built, and most importantly read.
Extra person- a literary type characteristic of the works of Russian writers of the 1840s and 1850s. Usually this is a person of significant abilities who cannot realize his talents in the official field of Nikolaev Russia.
Belonging to the upper classes of society, the superfluous person is alienated from the noble class, despises the bureaucracy, but, having no prospect of other self-realization, mainly spends his time in idle entertainment. This lifestyle fails to relieve his boredom, leading to dueling, gambling, and other self-destructive behavior. Typical traits of a superfluous person include “mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed, and, as a rule, social passivity.”
The name “superfluous man” was assigned to the type of disappointed Russian nobleman after the publication of Turgenev’s story “The Diary of an Extra Man” in 1850. The earliest and classic examples are Eugene Onegin A. S. Pushkin, Chatsky from “Woe from Wit”, Pechorin M. Lermontov - go back to the Byronic hero of the era of romanticism, to Rene Chateaubriand and Adolphe Constant. Further evolution of the type is represented by Herzen’s Beltov (“Who is to blame?”) and the heroes of Turgenev’s early works (Rudin, Lavretsky, Chulkaturin).
Extra people often bring trouble not only to themselves, but also female characters who have the misfortune of loving them. The negative side of extra people, associated with their displacement outside the socio-functional structure of society, comes to the fore in the works of literary officials A.F. Pisemsky and I.A. Goncharov. The latter contrasts the idlers “hovering in the skies” with practical businessmen: Aduev Jr. with Aduev Sr., and Oblomov with Stolz.
Who is the “extra person”? This is a well-educated, intelligent, talented and extremely gifted hero (man), who, for various reasons (both external and internal), was unable to realize himself and his capabilities. The “superfluous person” is looking for the meaning of life, a goal, but does not find it. Therefore, he wastes himself on the little things in life, on entertainment, on passions, but does not feel satisfaction from this. Often the life of an “extra person” ends tragically: he dies or dies in the prime of his life.
Examples of “extra people”:
The ancestor of the type of “extra people” in Russian literature is considered Evgeny Onegin from novel of the same name A.S. Pushkin. In terms of his potential, Onegin is one of the best people of his time. He has a sharp and insightful mind, broad erudition (he was interested in philosophy, astronomy, medicine, history, etc.) Onegin argues with Lensky about religion, science, morality. This hero even strives to do something real. For example, he tried to make the lot of his peasants easier (“He replaced the ancient corvée with an easy rent”). But all this was wasted for a long time. Onegin was just wasting his life, but he very soon got bored with it. The bad influence of secular Petersburg, where the hero was born and raised, did not allow Onegin to open up. He did nothing useful not only for society, but also for himself. The hero was unhappy: he did not know how to love and, by and large, nothing could interest him. But throughout the novel Onegin changes. It seems to me that this is the only case when the author leaves hope to the “extra person”. Like everything else in Pushkin, the open ending of the novel is optimistic. The writer leaves his hero hope for revival.
The next representative of the “extra people” type is Grigory Aleksandrovich Pechorin from the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time". This hero reflected characteristic life of society in the 30s of the 19th century - the development of social and personal self-awareness. Therefore, the hero, the first in Russian literature, himself tries to understand the reasons for his misfortune, his difference from others. Of course, Pechorin has enormous personal powers. He is gifted and even talented in many ways. But he also finds no use for his powers. Like Onegin, Pechorin in his youth indulged in all sorts of bad things: social revelry, passions, novels. But as a non-empty person, the hero very soon got bored with all this. Pechorin understands that secular society destroys, dries up, kills the soul and heart of a person.
What is the reason for this hero’s restlessness in life? He does not see the meaning of his life, he has no goal. Pechorin does not know how to love, because he is afraid of real feelings, afraid of responsibility. What remains for the hero? Only cynicism, criticism and boredom. As a result, Pechorin dies. Lermontov shows us that in a world of disharmony there is no place for a person who with all his soul, albeit unconsciously, strives for harmony.
Next in the line of “extra people” are the heroes of I.S. Turgenev. First of all, this Rudin- the main character of the novel of the same name. His worldview was formed under the influence of philosophical circles of the 30s of the 19th century. Rudin sees the meaning of his life in service high ideals. This hero is a magnificent speaker, he is able to lead and ignite the hearts of people. But the author constantly tests Rudin “for strength”, for viability. The hero cannot stand these tests. It turns out that Rudin is only able to talk; he cannot put his thoughts and ideals into practice. The hero doesn't know real life, cannot assess the circumstances and his own strengths. Therefore, he also finds himself “out of work.”
Evgeny Vasilievich Bazarov stands out from this orderly row of heroes. He is not a nobleman, but a commoner. He had, unlike all previous heroes, to fight for his life, for his education. Bazarov knows reality very well, the everyday side of life. He has his own “idea” and implements it as best he can. In addition, of course, Bazarov is a very powerful person intellectually; he has great potential. But the point is that the very idea that the hero serves is erroneous and destructive. Turgenev shows that it is impossible to destroy everything without building something in its place. In addition, this hero, like all other “superfluous people,” does not live the life of the heart. He devotes all his potential to mental activity.
But man is an emotional being, a being with a soul. If a person knows how to love, then there is a high probability that he will be happy. Not a single hero from the gallery of “extra people” is happy in love. This says a lot. They are all afraid to love, afraid or cannot come to terms with the surrounding reality. All this is very sad because it makes these people unhappy. The enormous spiritual strength of these heroes and their intellectual potential are wasted. The unviability of “superfluous people” is evidenced by the fact that they often die untimely (Pechorin, Bazarov) or vegetate, wasting themselves (Beltov, Rudin). Only Pushkin gives his hero hope for revival. And this gives us optimism. This means there is a way out, there is a path to salvation. I think that it is always within the individual, you just need to find the strength within yourself.
Image " little man"in Russian literature of the 19th century
"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the 19th century.
The theme of the “little man” is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, to which writers of the 19th century constantly turned. It was first touched upon by A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Warden.” This theme was continued by N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.
This person is small precisely in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower steps of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is small or completely unnoticeable. A person is considered “small” also because the world of his spiritual life and aspirations is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all kinds of prohibitions. For him there are no historical and philosophical problems. He remains in a narrow and closed circle of his life interests.
The best humanistic traditions are associated with the theme of the “little man” in Russian literature. Writers invite people to think about the fact that every person has the right to happiness, to their own view of life.
Examples of “little people”:
1) Yes, Gogol in the story “The Overcoat” characterizes the main character as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and unnoticed person. In life, he was assigned an insignificant role as a copyist of departmental documents. Brought up in the field of subordination and execution of orders from superiors, Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin I’m not used to thinking about the meaning of my work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary intelligence, he begins to worry, worry and ultimately comes to the conclusion: “No, it’s better to let me rewrite something.”
Bashmachkin's spiritual life is in tune with his inner aspirations. Accumulating money to buy a new overcoat becomes the goal and meaning of life for him. The theft of a long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him.
And yet Akaki Akakievich does not look like an empty, uninteresting person in the reader’s mind. We imagine that there were a great many such small, humiliated people. Gogol called on society to look at them with understanding and pity.
This is indirectly demonstrated by the name of the main character: diminutive suffix -chk-(Bashmachkin) gives it the appropriate shade. “Mother, save your poor son!” - the author will write.
Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As compensation for the humiliations and insults suffered during his life, Akaki Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, appears and takes away their overcoats and fur coats. He only calms down when he takes away outerwear y " significant person”, who played a tragic role in the life of the “little man”.
2) In the story Chekhov's "Death of an Official" we see the slave soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful surname: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world through the eyes of a worm, and these events become huge.
So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt at the height of bliss. But suddenly... he sneezed.” Looking around like " polite person", the hero discovered with horror that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day...
There are a lot of such little officials who know only their own little world, and it is not surprising that their experiences consist of such small situations. The author conveys the entire essence of the official’s soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the scream in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitations.
3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the “little man” in his work. The main characters of the novel “Poor People” - Makar Devushkin- a semi-impoverished official, oppressed by grief, poverty and social lack of rights, and Varenka– a girl who became a victim of social disadvantage. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the theme of the powerless, immensely humiliated “little man” living his inner life in conditions that violate human dignity. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul.
4) Theme "poor people"
develops by the writer and in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One after another, the writer reveals to us pictures of terrible poverty that degrades human dignity. The setting of the work is St. Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, keenly peers into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth.
Family life unfolds before us Marmeladovs. These are people crushed by reality. The official Marmeladov, who has “nowhere else to go,” drinks himself to death out of grief and loses his human appearance. Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released onto the streets to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.
The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich Luzhin, whom she feels disgusted with. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere of social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of man and faith in his high calling. The souls of the “poor” can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but broken by the most difficult living conditions.
6. Russian world in prose of the 19th century.
By lectures:
Image of reality in Russian XIX literature century.
1. Landscape. Functions and types.
2. Interior: problem of detailing.
3. Depiction of time in a literary text.
4. The road motif as a form of artistic development national picture peace.
Scenery - not necessarily an image of nature; in literature it can involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, locality. In French art theory, landscape description incorporates both the image of wild nature and the image of objects created by man.
The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specific functioning of this text component.
Firstly, the landscapes that form the background of the story are highlighted. These landscapes usually indicate the place and time against which the events depicted take place.
The second type of landscape is a landscape that creates a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence emotional condition reader.
The third type is landscape, which creates/becomes the psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the psychology of the character.
The fourth type is landscape, which becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolically reflecting the reality depicted in the artistic text.
Landscape can be used as a means of depicting a special artistic time or as a form of the author’s presence.
This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Modern critics isolate Goncharov’s landscapes; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for perfect performance about the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skills of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:
· Dopushkinsky, during this period landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;
· post-Pushkin period, the idea of an ideal landscape changed. It assumes a parsimony of details, economy of image and precision in the selection of parts. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, involves identifying the most significant sign perceived in a certain way feelings. This Pushkin idea will later be used by Bunin.
Second level. Interior - image of the interior. The main unit of an interior image is a detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. Literary test The 19th century did not demonstrate a clear boundary between interior and landscape.
Time in literary text in the 19th century it becomes discrete and intermittent. The characters easily retreat into memories and their fantasies rush into the future. A selectivity of attitude towards time appears, which is explained by dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. Time in a lyrical work is as conventional as possible, with the predominance of present tense grammar; lyricism is especially characterized by the interaction of different time layers. Artistic time not necessarily concrete, it is abstract. In the 19th century, the depiction of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.
One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century was the road motif, which became part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. IN XI-XVIII centuries in the travel genre, the road motif was used primarily to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motive is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The update of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858
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The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “ Bakhchisarai fountain", "Gypsies" ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for it romantic poem"Mtsyri" the poetic story “The Demon”, many romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely related with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples understanding the role of the poet and influence on political life countries are poems by A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.
Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels V. Scott, whose translations were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates story " Captain's daughter»,
where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin produced a colossal work, exploring this historical period
. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main art types
, which would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer, in a sharp satirical manner, shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, Various types landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy is based on the same plan "Inspector". Full satirical images and works by A.S. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict vices and shortcomings Russian society- a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature
. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
WITH mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature, which is created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis is brewing in the feudal system; there are strong contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country.
Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia.
Writers appeal to the socio-political problems of Russian reality.
The genre is developing realistic novel. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The socio-political, philosophical issues. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
people.
The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of small things literary genre- a storyteller, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature, distinctive features which included mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens new page in the history of Russian literature.
7. Literary situation the end of the 19th century.
Realism
The 2nd half of the 19th century is characterized by undivided dominance realistic direction in Russian literature. basis realism How artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the person depicted appears as a result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, the universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be observed in the works of A.S. Pushkin).
Realism 2nd half of the 19th century V. often call critical, or socially accusatory. IN Lately In modern literary criticism, attempts are increasingly being made to abandon such a definition. It is both too broad and too narrow; it neutralizes the individual characteristics of writers’ creativity. Founder critical realism often called N.V. Gogol, however, in Gogol’s work social life, history human soul often correlates with such categories as eternity, supreme justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogolian tradition to one degree or another in the 2nd half of the 19th century. picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, and partly N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially late) a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehension of reality as preaching, religious and philosophical utopia, myth, and hagiography is revealed. No wonder M. Gorky expressed the idea of the synthetic nature of Russian classical realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. IN late XIX- early 20th century the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes universal human content, a “mysterious plan”, which brings realists closer to the quests of romantics and symbolists.
Socially accusatory pathos in its pure form appears most in the works of second-line writers - F.M. Reshetnikova, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, despite their closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their creativity posing purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of a person unites all realist writers of the 2nd half of the 19th century.
The 19th century revealed the main aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism. In Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. Conditionally, several directions can be distinguished within the framework of realism.
1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the “forms of life itself.” The image often acquires such a degree of authenticity that literary heroes they speak as if they were living people. I.S. belong to this direction. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.
2. The 60s and 70s are bright the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature is outlined(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have stunning pictures of social reality, depicted in the “forms of life itself.” But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.
3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the 1st half of the 19th century it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded with all its might in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not appear as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the writer’s method; he combines in images, types, plots that which is unnatural and absent in life, but is possible in the world created creative imagination artist; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that dominate life.
4. Completely unique realism, “heartened” (Belinsky’s word) with humanistic thought, represented in creativity A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the “Voltairean” nature of his talent: “the talent went into the mind,” which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, and personal biographies.
Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. The direction of so-called “pure art” also developed - it is both romantic and realistic. Its representatives avoided “damned questions” (What to do? Who is to blame?), but not real reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feelings of man, the life of his heart. They were excited by the beauty of existence itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable to I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct influence on Tolstoy’s work during the Anna Karenina era. It is no coincidence that Nekrasov revealed F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.
Problematics and poetics
Russian prose, with all the flourishing of poetry and drama (A.N. Ostrovsky), occupies central place in the literary process of the 2nd half of the 19th century. It develops in line with the realistic direction, preparing, in the diversity of genre quests of Russian writers, an artistic synthesis - the novel, the pinnacle of the world literary development XIX century
Searching for new artistic techniques images of man in his connections with the world appeared not only in the genres story, story or novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Pisemsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, D. Grigorovich). The quest for an accurate recreation of life in the literature of the late 40-50s begins to look for a way out memoir-autobiographical genres, with their focus on documentary. At this time they begin to work on creating their autobiographical books A.I. Herzen and S.T. Aksakov; The trilogy partly adheres to this genre tradition L.N. Tolstoy (“Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth”).
Another documentary genre goes back to aesthetics " natural school", This - feature article. In its purest form it is presented in the works of democratic writers N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsova, A.I. Levitova, N.G. Pomyalovsky (“Essays on the Bursa”); revised and largely transformed - in Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter” and “ Provincial essays"Saltykov-Shchedrin, "Notes from House of the Dead» Dostoevsky. Here there is a complex interpenetration of artistic and documentary elements, fundamentally new forms of narrative prose are created, combining the features of a novel, essay, and autobiographical notes.
The desire for epicness is a characteristic feature of the Russian literary process of the 1860s; it captures both poetry (N. Nekrasov) and drama (A.N. Ostrovsky).
The epic picture of the world is felt as a deep subtext in the novels I.A. Goncharova(1812-1891) “Oblomov” and “Cliff”. Thus, in the novel “Oblomov”, the depiction of typical character traits and way of life subtly transforms into an image of the universal content of life, its eternal states, collisions, and situations. Showing the destructiveness of the “all-Russian stagnation”, something that has firmly entered the Russian public consciousness under the name “Oblomovism,” Goncharov contrasts it with the preaching of action (the image of the Russian German Andrei Stolz) - and at the same time shows the limitations of this preaching. Oblomov's inertia appears in unity with true humanity. “Oblomovism” also includes poetry noble estate, the generosity of Russian hospitality, the touchingness of Russian holidays, the beauty of Central Russian nature - Goncharov can trace the primordial connection noble culture, noble consciousness with popular soil. The very inertia of Oblomov’s existence is rooted in the depths of centuries, in the distant recesses of our national memory. Ilya Oblomov is in some ways akin to Ilya Muromets, who spent 30 years sitting on the stove, or the fabulous simpleton Emelya, who achieved his goals without applying his own efforts - “at the behest of a pike, according to my desire.” “Oblomovshchina” is a phenomenon of not just noble, but Russian national culture, and as such it is not idealized by Goncharov at all - the artist explores both its strong and weak features. In the same way, strong and weak features are revealed by purely European pragmatism, opposed to Russian Oblomovism. The novel reveals on a philosophical level the inferiority, insufficiency of both opposites and the impossibility of their harmonious union.
The literature of the 1870s is dominated by the same prose genres as in the literature of the previous century, but new trends appear in them. Epic tendencies in narrative literature are weakening, an ebb is expected literary forces from the novel to small genres - novellas, essays, short stories. Dissatisfaction with the traditional novel was characteristic phenomenon in literature and criticism of the 1870s. It would be wrong, however, to consider that the genre of the novel entered a period of crisis during these years. The works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin serve as an eloquent refutation of this opinion. However, in the 70s the novel experienced an internal restructuring: the tragic beginning sharply intensified; this trend is associated with a keen interest in the spiritual problems of the individual and its internal conflicts. Novelists pay special attention to the individual who has reached his full development, but is faced with the fundamental problems of existence, deprived of support, experiencing a deep discord with people and himself (“Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy, “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky ).
IN short prose The 1870s revealed a craving for allegorical and parable forms. Particularly indicative in this regard is the prose of N.S. Leskov, whose creativity flourished precisely in this decade. He acted as an innovative artist who combined into a single whole the principles of realistic writing with the conventions of traditional folk poetic techniques, with an appeal to the style and genres of ancient Russian books. Leskov’s skill was compared to icon painting and ancient architecture, the writer was called an “isographer” - and not without reason. Gorky called the gallery of original folk types painted by Leskov “the iconostasis of the righteous and saints” of Russia. Leskov introduced into the sphere artistic image such layers folk life, which before him were almost not touched upon in Russian literature (the life of the clergy, philistinism, Old Believers and other layers of the Russian province). In depicting various social strata, Leskov masterfully used skaz forms, intricately mixing the author’s and folk points of view.
