Features of a natural school. Natural school in Russian literature

Declension of the word by case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional. In plural and singular. Convenient search declensions for words, more than 34571 words in our database. Watch the video tutorial on how to pronounce words correctly.

Singular

Plural

It is important to know about word declension

Declension of nouns

Changing nouns by case is characterized by changing their endings, which are called case forms. In total, there are six cases in the Russian language, each of which has its own auxiliary question.

In order to determine the case of a noun, you need to try asking one of the auxiliary questions to it.

There are also indeclinable nouns, i.e. those that have the same form in all cases. Indeclinables include both common nouns (for example, “coffee” or “cocoa”) and proper names (for example, “Goethe”).

As a rule, indeclinable nouns are words borrowed from foreign languages. They can belong to all three genera.

Declension of numerals

Declension of numerals does not have uniform sample, it is represented by several types:

1. The numeral one is declined as a singular adjective: one - one (new - new).
2. The numerals from five to ten and the numerals -twenty and -ten are declined as nouns of the 3rd declension. Numerals with -ten have two endings, since both parts change: fifty, fifty.
3. The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred, one and a half and one and a half hundred, changing according to cases, have only two forms: nominative and accusative cases - forty, ninety, one hundred, one and a half, one and a half hundred; genitive, dative, instrumental, prepositional cases- forty, ninety, one hundred, one and a half, one and a half hundred.
4. Numerals from two hundred to four hundred and from five hundred to nine hundred are declined according to special type.
5. Collective numbers are also declined according to a special type. Numerals are both, both have two different options declination.
6. Simple ordinal numbers are declined like adjectives: first (new) - first (new). Complex ordinal numbers have only one ending. For compound ordinal numbers, only the last part changes.
7. For fractional numerals, both parts change when declension occurs.

Declension of adjectives

The declension of adjectives is changing them according to gender, case and number.

However, not all adjectives change by gender, number, and case. Short adjectives do not change by case, and adjectives are in the simple form comparative degree They don’t bow at all.

In order to correctly decline adjectives, you need to know their case questions in both numbers.

It is important to understand that the ending of an adjective can be checked by the ending of a question.

Russian language for beginners. Cases. Lesson 2.

1\. Nominative - WHO? WHAT?

2\. Genitive - WHOM? WHAT?

3\. Dative - TO WHOM? WHAT?

4\. Accusative - WHOM? WHAT?

5\. Creative - BY WHOM? HOW?

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There are 6 cases in Russian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional.

Let's take a closer look at them. Each case answers certain questions

1\. Nominative - WHO? WHAT?

2\. Genitive - WHOM? WHAT?

3\. Dative - TO WHOM? WHAT?

4\. Accusative - WHOM? WHAT?

5\. Creative - BY WHOM? HOW?

6\. Prepositional - ABOUT WHOM? ABOUT WHAT?

For example, let’s inflect the words “girl” and “person”.

1\. Nominative - girl person

2\. Genitive – human girls

3\. Dative - girl to person

4\. Accusative - a person's girl

5\. Creative - girl-person

6\. Prepositional - about a girl about a person

Genitive and accusative cases have general issues. It is very easy to distinguish them from each other.

Who is this doll? This doll is a girl.

Here the question WHO can be replaced by the question WHOSE. That is, Genitive indicates belonging to someone or something. Remember. If the question WHO means WHOSE (Whose, WHOSE, etc.), then the case is genitive.

IN accusative case there is no need to replace anything. There the word WHOM has a different meaning.

WHO did mom punish? Mom punished the girl.

Accusative - from the words WINE, BLAME.

WHAT is the dog looking for? The dog is looking for a bone. Here the word BONE is in the accusative case.

Difficult? This is just the beginning. It will be easier later)) Good luck!

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Noun cases in English

In ancient times English language nominative, accusative, genitive, instrumental and dative cases were present. Over time, they died out and now in modern English there are only two cases - general and possessive.

Common case(common case) English nouns is not indicated by anything, that is, nouns in this case have a zero ending (chair, car). Its meaning is very vague, and depending on the context, a noun in the common case can perform a variety of functions.

Possessive(possessive/genitive case) most often expresses ownership (hence the name possessive).

The possessive case is formed using an apostrophe and a letter s ('s) or just an apostrophe ( ‘ ). Last method used for plural nouns (pupils’ work, cars’ colour) and Greek loanwords ending in [ -iz] (Xerxes’ army, Socrates’ wife).

However, if the form plural is not formed according to the usual rule (men, children), then in the possessive case it is added 's:

If the noun is a compound noun, then 's is added to its last element:

Sometimes 's can refer to several nouns or an entire phrase:

It must be taken into account that possessive animate nouns in English are built using the ending 's, and for inanimate ones - using the preposition of:

However, among inanimate nouns there are exceptions that can be put in the form possessive case through 's:

• Nouns denoting time and distance:

• Names of countries and cities:

• Names of newspapers and organizations:

• Words nation, country, city, town:

• Words ship, car, boat:

• Words nature, water, ocean:

• Names of months and seasons:

• Planet names:

• Some common expressions:

Expressing cases of English nouns using prepositions

Although there are only two cases in English, some prepositions can convey the meaning of other cases.

Genitive conveyed using a preposition of:

Dative corresponds to the preposition to:

Instrumental case corresponds to the preposition with when referring to a tool or object with which an action is performed:

If you mean actor or strength, then the preposition is used by:

Dative

What is the dative case?

Dative case in Russian– indirect case, expressing in speech attributive, subjective, objective and object-circumstantial meanings. The dative case can be adjective (used with nouns) and verbal (used with verbs). Nouns in the dative case answer questions – To whom? Why? and are combined with prepositions to, by.

How to determine the dative case?

To determine the dative case of a noun, put the corresponding case questions to the word ( To whom? Why?) and select from him case ending. The endings of nouns of different declensions in D. p. are presented in the table.

Meaning of the dative case

In phrases and sentences, dative noun forms can express different meanings:

• Subjective (used in impersonal terms): the student is not thinking, the woman is sad, the car is four years old.
• Object (used in the meaning of addressee or indirect object): give to a friend, entrust a courier, advice to daughters, letters to colleagues.
• Object-adverbial: walk along the road, head towards the castle, approach the crossroads.
• Definitive: monument to Griboyedov, the price of words.

Test on the topic

Did not like? — Write in the comments what is missing.

1. What is the dative case?
2. How to determine the dative case?
3. Meaning of the dative case

• Test on the topic

• Nominative
• Genitive
• Genitive case Full name
• Constant and inconstant signs of a noun
• Dative
• Dative case full name
• Dative endings
• Accusative
• Instrumental case
• Noun cases
• Instrument endings
• Prepositional
• Case endings of nouns
• Declension of nouns
• 1 declension of nouns
• Prepositional case endings for nouns
• 2 noun declension
• 3 declension of nouns
• Unstressed endings of nouns

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Dative

The dative case in Russian has a number of its own functions; there are prepositions that will tell you that it is the dative case that should be used. But also quite big list verbs that are used with it and they just need to be taught.

1. So, the prepositions of the dative case are K and PO.

Note that the preposition K is used to refer to an object or direction, not a place.

We are going to our parents. We are coming to you.

We are going to the cinema.
Talking on the phone.
Walk along the seashore.
Russian language exam.

2. The functions of the dative case are a state, emotional or physical.

I feel cold, warm, hot, good, bad.
He is happy, bored, funny, interesting.

3. Verbs with which the dative case is used. This rule applies to both the perfect and imperfect forms of most verbs.

believe-believe
talk-say
give-give
give-donate
prohibit-prohibit
call-call
stir-stir
remind-remind
like-like
explain-explain
answer-answer
give away
transmit-transfer
write-write
buy-buy
send-send
offer-offer
bring-bring
sell-sell
show-show
help-help
belong
rejoice-rejoice
allow-allow
tell-tell
advise - advise
be surprised - be surprised

Here are the rules for changing the endings of nouns and adjectives singular in the dative case:

Feminine: A-E, Z-E, L-I, IA-II. AY-EYE, YAY-EYE.

Masculine: consonant-U, L-Y, J-Y. YUM, YOW.

Neuter gender: E-YU, O-U, IE-IYU. OH-OMU, OH-HIM.

Dative case (came from Latin language"casus dativus") belongs to a number of indirect cases. This case, which has its own semantics, is opposed to such cases as nominative, genitive and accusative. This opposition is explained quite simply: these very cases (in their original form) represent a certain dependence of the name on the word that controls it.

The dative case is characterized by the meaning of “Recipient” (that is, “Recipient”). In the Russian language there is such a concept as the experiential dative (experiential is the bearer of perceptions and feelings), which in syntax behaves in a special way- in this form you can see some properties that are characteristic only of the subject.

The dative case is combined with prepositions such as “by” and “to”. This case can convey different meanings depending on what position it is in. For example, in the conditional position with the preposition “to” the dative case performs the following functions:

Conveys the objective meaning: “indifferent to the grief of others”; “contempt for the lazy”; “to force reconciliation”; “I lost interest in my friend”; “prepare for negotiations”; “write to an official”; “study habit”; "aversion to food"; “drug sensitivity”;

It has a defining meaning: by time (“cool by spring”; “cooling by autumn”), by purpose and purpose (“prepare for inspection”; “fit for loading”; “prepare for lunch”; “products for breakfast”; “ details for the car”; “reference book for the text”), by location (“go to the window”; “turn to the park”; “road to the house”; “flight to Mars”);

Appears in an informatively filling role: “reduces to trifles”; “was among the worst”; "leaned towards the opinion."

Speaking in a non-verbal position, the dative case will have the following meanings:

Definitive (in place and time);

Object;

Predicative feature.

In a conditional position with the preposition “by”, the dative case can have such meanings as attributive (specifying, in time, space, place, purpose, method, reason, correspondence, measure) and objective.

In Russian it is also possible to combine distributive meanings with different meanings dative case in the verb position with the preposition “by”. Here we're talking about about a meaning showing reference to both several or many subjects and several or many objects.

In a non-verbal position, the dative case with the preposition “by” can have:

Subjective meaning (in in this case acts as the main member in the sentence);

Determinative (by place, time, limitation and basis);

The meaning of the predicate.

From all of the above we can conclude that the dative case with the preposition “by” has a lot of meanings. It is also worth noting that a design of this kind is particularly productive. The preposition “by” can very often act as an indicator of certain relationships.

In addition to the prepositions “po” and “to”, the dative case in phrases and sentences is also combined with other prepositions, which in Russian are called non-primitive. These include: “in relation to (someone, something)”, “unlike (someone, something)”, “according to (something)”, “like (someone, something)”, “in contrast to (someone, something)”, “in contrast to (someone, something)”, “thanks to (someone, something)”, “towards ( someone, something)”, “in accordance with (something)”, “contrary to (someone, something)”, “according to (something)”, “in the direction of (someone, something)".

Most of these prepositional-case forms are distinguished by their unambiguity. The meanings of attributive and predicative features are derived precisely from these same meanings. For some of these forms, when figurative use an object value appeared.

Today we will talk about the era of the 1840s, in which one of the the most important stages Russian realism. We will look at the problems of the natural school, look at its authors and talk about three stages and at the same time three directions of this literary phenomenon of the 19th century.

in 1841 - Lermontov (Fig. 2),

Rice. 2. M.Yu. Lermontov ()

and one gets the feeling that the literary scene is somewhat empty. But at the same moment, a new generation of writers, who were born around 1820, rises up to it. In addition, at the same moment he moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg famous critic V.G. Belinsky (Fig. 3),

Rice. 3. V.G. Belinsky ()

who becomes the main one ideological inspirer and the leader of this circle of young writers, who, in turn, give birth to a new literary direction.

The name of this direction was not immediately determined, although we know it as natural school. Although there are other names: natural movement in literature, Gogol school, Gogol movement in literature. It was meant that N.V. was the teacher and unquestioned authority for these young writers. Gogol (Fig. 4),

Rice. 4. N.V. Gogol ()

who writes almost nothing during this period, is abroad, but he is the author of great works with enormous authority: Petersburg stories, the collection “Mirgorod”, the first volume “ Dead souls».

Where does the idea of ​​depicting society in all its details come from? This is exactly the idea promoted by Belinsky and supported by a young circle of writers (Nekrasov (Fig. 5),

Rice. 5. N.A. Nekrasov ()

Turgenev (Fig. 6),

Rice. 6. I.S. Turgenev ()

Dostoevsky (Fig. 7),

Rice. 7. F.M. Dostoevsky ()

Grigorovich (Fig. 8),

Rice. 8. D.V. Grigorovich ()

Druzhinin (Fig. 9),

Rice. 9. A.V. Druzhinin ()

Dahl (Fig. 10)

Rice. 10. V.I. Dal()

and etc.). The environment, which is understood very broadly: as a person’s immediate environment, as an era, and as a social organism as a whole, becomes extremely important for this circle of young writers. So where did the idea of ​​depicting a social organism in all its advantages and disadvantages come from? This idea came from the West: in France and England in the 1830s - early 1840s. works of this kind appeared in droves. And this idea was given birth to by an extraliterary phenomenon. The reason for this is the huge, very important discoveries, which were committed in the 1820-30s. in the field of natural sciences. By that time, the church ban on dissection had somewhat weakened, anatomical theaters had arisen, and an extraordinary amount had been learned about human anatomy and physiology.

Accordingly, if the human body was recognized in such detail, then it became possible to treat many before that time incurable diseases. But a curious transference occurs from the human body to the body of society. And an idea arises: if we study the social organism in all its details, it will be possible to eliminate the glaring contradictions and cure the social ills of society. A lot of so-called physiologies appear that talk about social groups, about representatives of individual professions, about social types frequently encountered in society. This kind of literature is often published anonymously and resembles investigative journalism. Here, for example, are works published in France: “Physiology of Paris”, “Physiology of the Grisette”, “Physiology of a Married Man”, and it is by no means about his intimate life, but about how he spends his day, how he communicates with loved ones. The physiology of a shopkeeper, the physiology of a salesman or saleswoman, the physiology of an actress. There were even physiologies dedicated to objects: the physiology of an umbrella, the physiology of a hat, or the physiology of an omnibus. Balzac began working in this genre in France (Fig. 11),

Rice. 11. Honore de Balzac ()

Dickens in England (Fig. 12),

Rice. 12. C. Dickens ()

who devoted a lot of time to researching social ills. And this idea comes to Russia - to study a dysfunctional environment - this is the task that young writers set for themselves under the leadership of Belinsky. Soon the first work appears, the first collective collection, which is a manifesto of this emerging trend. This is “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (Fig. 13).

Rice. 13. Title page publication “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1845) ()

Here are Belinsky’s articles: “Petersburg and Moscow”, “ Alexandrinsky Theater", "Petersburg literature"; and Dahl’s essay “The Petersburg Janitor”, which was published under the pseudonym Cossack Lugansky; and “Petersburg Corners,” an excerpt from Nekrasov’s unwritten novel “The Life and Adventures of Tikhon Trostnikov.” Thus, a direction is formed. It is curious that the name of this direction - “natural school” - was given by its ideological enemy - F.V. Bulgarin (Fig. 14),

Rice. 14. F.V. Bulgarin ()

who was also both an enemy of Pushkin and an opponent of Gogol. In his articles, Bulgarin mercilessly condemned representatives of the new generation, spoke of a base, dirty interest in the unsightly details of social life, and called what young writers were trying to do dirty naturalism. Belinsky picked up this word and made it the motto of the entire movement. Thus, the name of the school, the group of young writers and what they did, gradually became established.

Natural school as a phenomenon developed quite quickly, and they usually talk about three stages, or directions, of this school. The first direction is essay. What the young writers did may be reminiscent of investigative journalism. For example, Grigorovich became interested in an everyday phenomenon that seemed mysterious to him - the St. Petersburg organ grinders. Everyone hears their sounds, but where do they come from and where do they go, where do they eat, spend the night, what do they hope for? And Grigorovich literally undertakes a journalistic investigation. He dresses warmly and casually and sets off to wander with the organ grinders. In this way he spent about two weeks and found out everything. The result of this investigation was the essay “St. Petersburg Organ Grinders,” which was also published in “Physiology of St. Petersburg.” V. Dahl became interested in colorful, in an interesting way Petersburg janitor. WITH great interest he describes in work of the same name and the appearance of it social type, and the furnishings of his closet and does not shy away from even the most unsightly details. For example, Dahl says that the janitor had a towel, but the dogs, who often ran into the closet, constantly mistook this towel for an edible object, it was so dirty and greasy. An excerpt from Nekrasov’s novel “Petersburg Corners” sounded even more vivid and provocative. It begins with a completely journalistic description of such a St. Petersburg phenomenon as the third courtyard. “Do you know what the third courtyard is?” - asks the author. It is said that the first courtyards retain decency and a formal appearance. Then, if you go under the arch, a second courtyard will appear. It is in the shadows, it is a bit dirty and unsightly, but if you look closely, you can see a low arch that resembles a dog hole. And if you squeeze through there, the third courtyard will appear in all its glory. The sun never hits there; these courtyards are decorated with a terrible, stinking puddle. This is exactly the path that Nekrasov’s young hero takes and tries to find a place for himself in a shelter. With anxiety and trepidation he looks at this huge puddle, which completely blocks the entrance to the shelter. The entrance to the shelter looks like a stinking hole. The hero feels that he will not be able to go to the shelter without passing this puddle, over which green flies fly in swarms and which is teeming with white worms. Naturally, such details could not previously serve as a subject for consideration in the literature. Writers of the new generation act fearlessly: they explore life themselves and present the results of their research to the reader. But why are we talking specifically about investigative journalism, why do we call this direction feature writing? Because here, as a rule, there is no artistic plot, the personalities of the characters are not at all interesting to the writer or they fade into the background. It is the nature that is important. The motto of this direction can be chosen as follows: “Such is life. Look, reader, maybe you will be surprised, maybe you will be horrified, but that’s just how life is. It is necessary to know the social organism.” At the same time, one can note a certain mechanistic approach, characteristic of Western writers, and for young Russians. They imagined society as a kind of organism akin to the human. For example, in French physiologies it was assumed that such an organism had lungs, a circulatory, digestive and even an excretory system. For example, numerous gardens and city parks were declared light; the circulatory system was represented as a financial system that washes all parts of this organism; they compared digestion to the market, which in Paris was called the “Belly of Paris”; Accordingly, the excretory system is the sewerage system. In Paris, young writers ventured into the Parisian sewer and carried out all kinds of research there. In the same way, writers in St. Petersburg ventured on the most risky expeditions to find out everything the smallest details and flaws in the social organism. Daguerre’s discovery also had a certain influence on sketch prose of the early 1840s (Fig. 15)

photographs in 1839. The first method of photography was named after him: the daguerreotype.

Daguerreotype- This is a photograph taken using the daguerreotype method.

Daguerreotype- This is a method of directly obtaining a positive image when shooting.

The sketch method was sometimes called daguerreotype in Russia, that is, it is a method of direct photographing of existence. A snapshot of life is taken, and then it’s up to the reader how to react to it. The main goal is educational.

But of course fiction does not stand still, and without the attitude of the author it was quite difficult to present all new flaws in reality. The author had to express his inner attitude to what was happening, and readers also expected this.

Therefore, a new direction, or the next stage in the development of the natural school, appears quite quickly - sentimental-natural(1846). The new motto of the direction is the question: “Is this life? Is this how life should be? In 1846, the next landmark publication was published: “Petersburg Collection”.

Rice. 16. Title page of the publication “Petersburg Collection” (1846) ()

The most important works for writers of this direction are the famous “The Overcoat” by Gogol and “ Stationmaster» Pushkin. These are the examples with which I wanted to be equal, but not everyone succeeded. Young writers sought to depict the life of a small, unhappy, oppressed person. As a rule, this was a St. Petersburg official. Gradually, images of peasants also appeared (Grigorovich’s story “Anton the Miserable,” where sorrows rain down on the unfortunate peasant, like cones on poor Makar), from all sides. But it seemed to young writers that Gogol in his “Overcoat” treated Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin somewhat harshly and not entirely humanely. We see whole line misfortunes that haunt Gogol's hero, but we do not see how the hero relates to the world, to life, we do not see his thoughts, we are not present inside the soul of this character. Young writers wanted to somehow soften and “slow” this image. And a whole series of works appears in which a small official also suffers and suffers in a huge, cold, inhumane city, but he develops attachments to, say, his wife, his daughter, his dog. In this way, young writers wanted to strengthen the humanistic side of the story. But in practice it turned out that they could not reach Gogol’s heights. After all, for Gogol it’s not so important what his hero feels, but that he is a man, he is our brother and has the right to warmth, to a place where no one will touch him. Akaki Akakievich does not have such a niche - he dies from the cold, from the indifference of the surrounding world. This is Gogol’s idea, but in numerous essays and stories of a sentimental-natural direction, everything looks somewhat simpler and more primitive.

A huge exception against this background is the story of F.M. Dostoevsky “Poor People”, published in the “Petersburg Collection”. Largely thanks to this story, the collection gained enormous popularity and was published in an incredible edition of 5,000 copies at that time, which sold out very quickly. So the hero of the story “Poor People” Makar Devushkin is a petty official. He is poor, homeless, he rents not a room, but a corner in the kitchen, where there is fumes, a stench, where the screams of guests bother him. It would seem that we should only feel pity for him. But Dostoevsky poses the question completely differently: his little people are, of course, poor, but poor in the absence of money, but mentally and spiritually these people are rich. They are capable of high self-sacrifice: they are ready to give their last without hesitation. They are capable of self-development: they read books, think about the fate of the heroes of Gogol and Pushkin. They are able to write to each other beautiful letters, after all, this story is in letters: Varenka Dobroselova writes the letters, and Makar Devushkin answers her. Thus, Dostoevsky, in a sense, immediately stepped over the rather narrow boundaries of the sentimental-natural direction. It is not just sympathy for the characters that evokes his story, but deep respect for them. And they turn out to be spiritually poor in this story the mighty of the world this.

Thus, the first two directions appeared quite quickly, and after them the third direction, or the third stage in the development of the natural school, appeared. The issue of environment is still important for the writer, but now the idea appears to shine a brighter light on the hero himself. The third level is the level big story, or novel. And here Russian literature makes a world-class discovery: the introduction of a hero of the Onegin-Pechorin type into Gogol’s milieu. The Gogol environment is the environment that is generously and vividly depicted in Gogol's works. And into such a gray, hopeless environment, a bright, educated, intelligent hero is introduced, who has retained the rudiments of conscience. Those. a hero similar to Onegin or Pechorin. With such a connection, the following will arise: the environment will torment and crush the hero. And then the plot can go in two directions. First direction. The hero holds firm and does not yield to the environment in anything, and the environment is fate, life, which is given to a person only once. The hero refuses to deal with vulgar people, to serve in a department where they do meaningless and vulgar things, he wants to prove himself somehow, but the situation is such that the hero cannot prove himself. And at some point the hero may come to the conclusion that life was in vain, he was unable to accomplish anything, he was unable to defeat the environment, although he remained true to his beliefs and ideals. He turns into a smart irrelevance. And it’s bitter for the hero to realize such an ending own life. All this is the problematic of the novel by A.I. Herzen "Who is to blame?" (Fig. 17)

Rice. 17. Cover of the edition of the novel “Who is to Blame?” ()

Second direction. The hero feels complete hopelessness and hopelessness to follow his pure youthful ideals. Still, life is stronger, and he has to give in and reconcile. It seems to the hero that he remains true to himself, but the environment comes inexorably and at some point suppresses the hero so much that he disappears as a person, he has turned into the same vulgarity as those around him. Sometimes the hero understands this, and sometimes he is not even able to understand the terrible transformation that has happened to him. This is the problematic of the novel by I.A. Goncharova " An ordinary story"(Fig. 18).

Rice. 18. Cover of the edition of the novel “An Ordinary Story” ()

Both of these novels were published in 1847 and mark the beginning of the third stage of the natural school.

But we are talking about the natural school in relation to the 1840s. And at the end of the 40s, a whole series of events took place: Belinsky dies, finds himself under arrest and sentenced to execution, but then exiled to the distant Omsk prison of Dostoevsky. And it turns out that writers are now going their own way and the greatest classics are already creating for themselves certain direction. That's why we say it's time for apprenticeship, common labor and the development of ideology occurred precisely in the 40s of the 19th century.

Bibliography

1. Sakharov V.I., Zinin S.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. - M.: Russian Word.
2. Arkhangelsky A.N. and others. Russian language and literature. Literature (advanced level) 10. - M.: Bustard.
3. Lanin B.A., Ustinova L.Yu., Shamchikova V.M. / ed. Lanina B.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. - M.: VENTANA-GRAF.

1. Internet portal Km.ru ( ).
2. Internet portal Feb-web.ru ().

Homework

1. Make a table of the main stages of development of a natural school.
2. Compose comparative characteristics romantic and naturalistic literature based on brief analysis most significant works these two periods.
3. * Write an essay-reflection on the topic “The ideological confrontation between Bulgarin and Belinsky.”

I was going through a difficult period. The death of Lermontov in 1841, Koltsov in 1842, Gogol’s long silence after the publication of the first volume of Dead Souls in 1842 were heavy losses. At the same time, the growth of public self-awareness, social problems, put forward by time, could not but lead to an intensification of the process of new ideological and artistic quests, to the formulation in literature the most important problems social plan. Despite the fact that in the 40s they did such interesting poets, like F. I. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, K. S. Aksakov, Ya. P. Polonsky and others, nevertheless leading place V literary process was occupied by prose in which principles were affirmed critical realism. It is characteristic that Turgenev, Herzen, Goncharov, Saltykov began their creative path as poets, but then switched almost exclusively to prose. Even Nekrasov in the 40s, in terms of the volume of what he wrote in to a greater extent was a prose writer rather than a poet (although his talent manifested itself primarily in the field of poetry). This group of young writers was called the “natural school” (Dostoevsky, Panaev, Grigorovich, Grebenka, etc. also joined it).

The “Natural School”, which was a natural stage in the development of Russian realism, assimilated and developed creative principles Gogol. This school began to take shape in 1842 in connection with the controversy that arose around “Dead Souls” and under the influence of the speeches of Belinsky, who at that time had already firmly moved to the position of revolutionary democracy. The heyday of the school dates back to 1845 - 1848. After Belinsky’s death, in the context of the “gloomy seven years,” the school essentially ceased to exist.

The term “natural school” itself was first used by Bulgarin in order to humiliate the new direction. But Belinsky picked it up and, polemically rethinking it, designated it as the work of young writers who strived for the most truthful reproduction of reality. In the magazines " Domestic notes”, and from 1847 in Sovremennik, on the pages of the books “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1845) and “Petersburg Collection” (1846), published by Nekrasov and which were manifestos of the new literary direction, numerous stories, tales, physiological essays appeared, depicting the life and customs of the St. Petersburg poor, petty officials, city

grassroots In the works of the participants of the “natural school,” new spheres of Russian life opened up for the reader. The choice of subject matter testified to the democratic basis of their creativity. They exposed serfdom, the crippling power of money, and the injustice of the entire social system that oppresses the human personality. Question about " little man» developed into a problem of social inequality.

On early stages the existence of the “natural school” and man were perceived only as a consequence of a certain social order. In accordance with this, all the blame for a distorted personality was placed on objective conditions independent of the person. In the future, the understanding of the relationship between man and the environment becomes more complicated. In the works of Dostoevsky of the 40s, for example, the question is raised that in the most human nature There are deep contradictions that are not always explained by the direct impact of unfavorable reality. Among other representatives of the “natural school” (Nekrasov, Saltykov), criticism begins to extend not only to the environment, but also to the individual, who becomes the object of closer reflection in terms of its dialectical interaction with the outside world.

Since the second half of the 40s, the “natural school” has increasingly turned to depicting the peasantry. In the works of Grigorovich (“Village”, “Anton the Miserable”), in Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter”, the works of Herzen, and the poems of Nekrasov, images of serfs imbued with deep sympathy appear, who are endowed with high moral qualities and are contrasted with cruel, depraved, ignorant landowners. This trend in Russian literature was immediately supported by Belinsky, polemicizing with ideological opponents"natural school" In one of his articles, he conveyed the essence of opposing points of view in dialogue: “What kind of desire is there to flood literature with men? - exclaims an aristocrat of a certain rank... - Isn’t a man a man? - But what could be interesting about a rude, uneducated man? - Like what? - His soul, mind, heart, passions, inclinations, in a word, everything is the same as in educated person" These thoughts of the critic became the program for the entire subsequent development of Russian democratic literature.