Founder of the natural school. "Natural school" in the history of the Russian literary language

Used to express an action aimed at something, carried out in favor of someone, in particular, the transfer of something (hence its name). Very often it appears in conjunction with the accusative, for example, “I’ll give my mother-in-law an apple,” “I’ll write a message to my brother,” and in impersonal phrases like “I’m bored,” “my heart is empty.”

How is the dative case formed?

IN in some cases Such - let us emphasize, very common - word usages serve as a kind of cultural marker. Another difficulty related to the dative case concerns the declension of female names into -and I- Victoria, Lilia, Maria, Natalia, etc. They all have an ending in the dative case -And: Victoria, Lilia, Maria, Natalia. This, however, does not apply to eastern names, in which -and I the emphasis falls on the last vowel: Aliya, Alfiya, Zulfiya, etc. Such names in the dative case end in -e: Aliye, Alfie, Zulfie. There are also 11 neuter exceptions; if the dative case is used with them, the endings of these words will be -And: burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown And child(this is exactly what the word “child” looks like in the dative case).

In Russian everything six independent cases, and nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns are declined (changed by case). But schoolchildren often have difficulty determining case. Students cannot always correctly put a question to a word, and this leads to mistakes. Particular difficulties arise when a word has the same form in different cases.

There are several techniques that will help you accurately determine the case of a word.

1. Statement of the question.

Please note that the question must be case, and not semantic. For questions where? Where? When? Why? case cannot be determined.

Both candidates(who? – R. p.).

What happened in 1812?(in what? – P. p.).

After the concert five(I. p.) spectators(whom? – R. p.) stayed in the hall(in what? – P. p.).

In ten minutes(through what? – V. p.) he (I. p.) returned.

She is happy with the new car(how? – etc.).

2. Exist auxiliary words, which can help in determining case:

To distinguish between homonymous case forms use the following techniques.

3. Replacement singular to plural.

To go on the road(ending -e in both D. p. and P. p.).

Walk on the roads(Why? – D. p., in P. p. – about roads).

4. Replacement male to female.

Met a friend(the ending -a in both R. p. and V. p.).

Met a friend(whom? – V. p., in R. p. – girlfriends).

5. Magic word Mother.

Particular difficulties arise when distinguishing the forms of accusative and genitive, accusative and nominative cases. As always, he will come to the rescue "Mother". This is the word that can be substituted into a sentence. Framed, look at the ending: mom A – nominative, mom Y – Genitive; mom U – accusative.

Perish yourself, and comrade(ending -a in both R. p. and V. p.) help out.

Die yourself, and mom(V.p.) help out.

6. Knowledge of characteristic prepositions also helps to determine case.

As you can see, there are prepositions characteristic of only one case: without– For genitive case (no hitch); by, to – for dative case (through the forest, towards the house), oh, oh, at – For prepositional case (about three heads, in front of you).

Let us remember that the case of the adjective is determined by the case of the word being defined. In order to determine the case of an adjective, it is necessary to find in the sentence the noun to which it refers, because the adjective is always in the same case as the word being defined.

I'm happy with the new coat. Adjective new refers to a noun coat in T. p., therefore, new – etc.

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Dative case (came from Latin language"casus dativus") belongs to a number of indirect cases. This case, which has its own semantics, is opposed to such cases as nominative, genitive and accusative. This opposition is explained quite simply: these very cases (in their original form) represent a certain dependence of the name on the word that controls it.

The dative case is characterized by the meaning of “Recipient” (that is, “Recipient”). In the Russian language there is such a concept as the experiential dative (experiential is the bearer of perceptions and feelings), which in syntax behaves in a special way- in this form you can see some properties that are characteristic only of the subject.

The dative case is combined with prepositions such as “by” and “to”. This case can convey different meanings depending on what position it is in. For example, in the conditional position with the preposition “to” the dative case performs the following functions:

Conveys the objective meaning: “indifferent to the grief of others”; “contempt for the lazy”; “to force reconciliation”; “I lost interest in my friend”; “prepare for negotiations”; “write to an official”; “study habit”; "aversion to food"; “drug sensitivity”;

It has a defining meaning: by time (“cool by spring”; “cooling by autumn”), by purpose and purpose (“prepare for inspection”; “fit for loading”; “prepare for lunch”; “products for breakfast”; “ parts for the car"; "reference book for the text"), by place ("go to the window"; "turn to the park"; "road to the house"; "flight to Mars");

Appears in an informatively filling role: “reduces to trifles”; “was among the worst”; "leaned towards the opinion."

Speaking in a non-verbal position, the dative case will have the following meanings:

Definitive (in place and time);

Object;

Predicative feature.

In a conditional position with the preposition “by”, the dative case can have such meanings as attributive (specifying, in time, space, place, purpose, method, reason, correspondence, measure) and objective.

In Russian it is also possible to combine distributive meanings with different meanings dative case in the verb position with the preposition “by”. Here we're talking about about a meaning showing reference to both several or many subjects and several or many objects.

In a non-verbal position, the dative case with the preposition “by” can have:

Subjective meaning (in in this case acts as the main member in the sentence);

Determinative (by place, time, limitation and basis);

The meaning of the predicate.

From all of the above we can conclude that the dative case with the preposition “by” has a lot of meanings. It is also worth noting that a design of this kind is particularly productive. The preposition “by” can very often act as an indicator of certain relationships.

In addition to the prepositions “po” and “to”, the dative case in phrases and sentences is also combined with other prepositions, which in Russian are called non-primitive. These include: “in relation to (someone, something)”, “unlike (someone, something)”, “according to (something)”, “like (someone, something)”, “in contrast to (someone, something)”, “in contrast to (someone, something)”, “thanks to (someone, something)”, “towards ( someone, something)”, “in accordance with (something)”, “contrary to (someone, something)”, “according to (something)”, “in the direction of (someone, something)".

Most of these prepositional-case forms are distinguished by their unambiguity. The meanings of attributive and predicative features are derived precisely from these same meanings. For some of these forms, when figurative use an object value appeared.

OOO The educational center

"Professional"

Abstract on the discipline:

"literature"

On this topic:

« “Natural school” in the history of Russian literary language»

Executor:

Borovskikh Irina Anatolevna

Moscow 2016.

Content:

Introduction.

Chronological boundaries of the school.

3.Philosophical and aesthetic direction of the school.

Main directions in which it was studied natural school:

a) thematic approach

b) genre approach

5. Conclusion.

6. Literature used.

Introduction:

“Natural school” is one of the most difficult problems in the history of the formation of the Russian literary language. Is this so...?

This is also the rallying of writers around one publication: “ Domestic notes", and then "Contemporary"; a more or less conscious orientation towards Gogol’s work, which does not exclude polemics with him in some cases; high level theoretical understanding of the processes occurring in literature: critical articles Belinsky, Nekrasov, Pleshcheev, Maykov. Vivid evidence of unanimity is the almanacs “Physiology of St. Petersburg” and “Petersburg Collection”. Among the writers belonging to the natural school, there were extremely bright individuals, so different from each other that it is not possible to talk about the common style or language of their works: Herzen, Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Goncharov, Saltykov and Pisemsky.

Based on this, researcher Yu. Mann pointed out that the “Natural School” is, strictly speaking, not a school (a school, from Mann’s point of view, is a community of style, theme, that is high degree generality). It is interesting that Vinogradov, when defining the concept of “Natural School,” united not writers, but works, believing that “poetic individuality in itself is extracurricular, it does not fit into the framework of one or another school.

It is interesting to explore the origin and development of the principles of the “Natural School” in the work of its individual representatives.

In determining the composition of the participants, we proceed from the fact that the decisive factors are not the personal contacts of the artists, not the circle closeness that develops around Belinsky, but loyalty to certain creative principles, which arose under the influence of the general literary situation and the ideological and artistic needs of the time.

Let's try to reveal the concept of the “Natural School” and prove that it has appeared cultural phenomenon and occupied in Russian literature aesthetic positions.

Chronological boundaries of the school .

An analysis of the works of writers undoubtedly associated with the “Natural School”, developing in its mainstream, and then outgrowing its framework, proves the impossibility of strictly limiting the time of the school’s existence. On the one hand, certain principles of the “natural school” began to take shape back in the late 30s of the 19th century, and on the other hand, in the early 50s there was no sharp disintegration of the school. In the works of its individual representatives artistic principles The “natural school” continued to exist until the end of the 50s. Such bright representative like Pisemsky, entered literature only in the late 40s (although the researcher Kuleshov argued that Ostrovsky and Pisemsky are outside the natural school). In fact, the complex process of developing new approaches to life material, new principles of poetics cannot be artificially limited to one decade.

The most significant signs of the existence of a “natural school”:

The relationship between man and environment;

The pathos of social research into life when social structure society is a special and independent object of image;

Consideration of a person, first of all, in his system social connections, How typical representative a certain layer of people.

This was the novelty and specificity of the ideological and artistic position of the figures of the “natural school”. The poetics of the natural school developed under the influence of the task of studying and describing reality and the environment as completely as possible.

Hence the demand for “naturalness”, the utmost life-like authenticity of the image, the attraction to the unceasing “prose” of life.

Fiction and fantasy give way to observation, collection of material, its analysis, and classification.

In the works of V. Dahl, Druzhinin, Panaev, Butkov, V. Sollogub, the “physiological” essay and the story and moral narrative that grew on their basis received initial development.

With the advent of the works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Herzen, Dostoevsky, Saltykov, Grigorovich, Pisemsky, Nekrasov, Ostrovsky comes new period in the history of the “natural school”. The leading genres are stories and novels.

Philosophical and aesthetic foundations of the natural school.

Vinogradov, Kuleshov, and Mann saw the unity of the “natural school” differently. It is obvious that the work of specific writers and critics can never entirely fit within the framework of any artistic and philosophical doctrine.

For Belinsky, the “natural school” was precisely a school, a direction, although in artistically- “wide type”. The very word “school” implies something that does not arise arbitrarily, but is created consciously, with some pre-given goals in mind.

In ideological terms, this is specific system views on reality, its content, leading trends, opportunities and ways of its development. A common worldview is an important condition for the formation of a literary school. And meanwhile, literary school unite, first of all, structurally - poetic moments. Thus, young writers of the 40s adopted Gogol’s techniques, but not Gogol’s worldview.

According to Belinsky, a genius creates what and when he wants; his activity cannot be predicted and directed. His works are inexhaustible in the number of possible interpretations. One of the tasks of fiction, Belinsky believed, was the promotion of advanced scientific ideas.

At the origins of the “Natural School” are Belinsky and Herzen, who were largely brought up on the ideas of Hegel. Even later, arguing with him, this generation retained the Hegelian structure of thinking, commitment to rationalism, categories such as historicism, and the primacy of objective reality over subjective perception.

However, it is worth noting that Hegelian historicism and the “Russian idea” derived from it are by no means the exclusive property of Belinsky and the circle of writers who united around the “Notes of the Fatherland” in the early 40s.

Thus, Moscow Slavophiles, based on the same historical and philosophical premises as Belinsky, made opposite conclusions: yes, the Russian nation has reached world-historical boundaries; Yes, history is the key to modernity, but the full realization of the “spirit” of the nation and the great future glory lies not so much in the successes of civilization and Western enlightenment, as Belinsky and Herzen believed, but primarily in the manifestation of Orthodox-Byzantine principles.

So, although Hegel’s ideas were based on the “natural school,” they did not determine its originality against the literary background of the era of the 40s.

The name “Natural School” was first used by Bulgarin in the feuilleton “Northern Bee” dated January 26, 1846. Under Bulgarin’s pen, this word was a dirty word. In the mouth of Belinsky - the banner of Russian realistic literature. Both defenders and enemies, and later researchers of the “natural school,” attributed to it the work of young writers who entered literature after Pushkin and Lermontov, directly following Gogol, Goncharov and Dostoevsky, Nekrasov and others.

Belinsky, in his annual review “A Look at Russian Literature of 1847,” wrote: “The Natural School” is in the foreground of Russian literature. Belinsky attributed the first steps of the “Natural School” to the beginning of the 40s. Its final chronological boundary was later determined to be the beginning of the 50s. Thus, the Natural School covers a decade of Russian literature.

According to Mann, one of the brightest decades, when all those who in the second half of the 19th century were destined to form the basis of Russian literature declared themselves.

Now the concept of “natural school” is one of the generally accepted and most commonly used.

Researchers Blagoy, Bursov, Pospelov, Sokolov addressed the problem of the “natural school”.

The main directions in which the “Natural School” was studied.

Most commonthematic approach . The “Natural School” began with sketches of the city, broadly depicted the life of officials, but did not limit itself to this, but addressed the most disadvantaged segments of the population of the Russian capital: janitors (Dal), organ grinders (Grigorovich), merchant clerks and shopkeepers (Ostrovsky), declassed inhabitants of the St. Petersburg slums (“Petersburg Corners” by Nekrasov). Characteristic hero natural school was a democrat - a commoner, defending his right to exist.

Genre approach. Researcher Tseitlin in his doctoral dissertation examines the formation of the “Natural School” mainly as the development of the “Russian physiological essay.” In his opinion, the natural school owed its birth to physiological studies. Mann also agrees with this conclusion.

A. Herzen's first novel “Who is to Blame?” in 1847. Artist-publicist,

The writer is a researcher and thinker, drawing on the power of deep social and philosophical thought. Herzen enriches word art,

artistic principles of realism with the achievements of science and philosophy, sociology and history. According to Prutskov, Herzen is the founder of the artistic and journalistic novel in Russian literature, in which science and poetry, artistry and journalism merged into one whole.

Belinsky especially emphasized the presence in Herzen’s work of a synthesis of philosophical thought and artistry. In this synthesis, he sees the uniqueness of the writer, the strength of his advantage over his contemporaries. Herzen expanded the scope of art, opened up new ones for him creative possibilities. Belinsky notes that the author of “Who is to Blame?” “he knew how to bring the mind to poetry, to turn thoughts into living faces...” Belinsky calls Herzen “a predominantly thinking and conscious nature”

The novel is a kind of synthesis artistic reflection life with scientific - philosophical analysis social phenomena and human characters. Artistic structure The novel is original, it testifies to the bold innovation of the writer. For the first time in the novel, Herzen brought together a plebeian and a nobleman, a general. He made this collision the artistic core of his depiction of the life of the novel's heroes.

With the development of the “Natural School”, literature begins to dominate prose genres. The desire for facts, for accuracy and reliability also put forward new principles of plotting - not novelistic, but essayistic. Popular genres in the 40s, essays, memoirs, travels, stories, social - everyday and social - psychological stories began to appear. Socially, it also begins to occupy an important place. psychological novel, the flourishing of which in the second half of the 19th century predetermined the glory of Russian realistic prose.

At that time, the principles of the “Natural School” were transferred to poetry (poems by Nekrasov, Ogarev, poems by Turgenev) and drama (Turgenev).

The language of literature is also being democratized. IN artistic speech the language of newspapers and journalism, vernacular, professionalism and dialectisms are introduced. The social pathos and democratic content of the “Natural School” influenced the progressive Russian art: visual (P.A. Fedotov) and musical (A.S. Dargomyzhsky, M.P. Mussorgsky).

Conclusion.

“Natural school” in the history of the Russian literary language took an aesthetic position and was a cultural phenomenon.

Belinsky argued that the “Natural School” is in the forefront of Russian literature. Under the motto of the “Gogolian direction”, the “Natural School” united best writers of that time, although different in worldview. These writers expanded the area of ​​Russian life, which received the right to be depicted in art. They turned to the reproduction of the lower strata of society, denied serfdom, destructive power money and officials, vices social order, disfiguring the human personality.

For some writers, the denial of social injustice has grown into a depiction of the growing protest of the most disadvantaged (“Poor People” by Dostoevsky, “Confused Affair” by Saltykov, poems by Nekrasov and his essay “Petersburg Corners”, “Anton Goremyk” by Grigorovich)

Used Books:

Kuleshov V.I., Natural school in Russian literature of the 19th century, M., 1965.

Pospelov G.N., History of Russian literature of the 19th century, vol. 2, part 1, M., 1962

Materials from the sitehttp:// feb- web. ru