What is liberalism, definition from history. Liberalism and neoliberalism: essence, stages of development, main representatives and their works (general characteristics)

Today, on television and in general on the Internet, many people say: “Here they are liberals, liberal-minded citizens...” Also, modern liberals are called even worse: “liber@stams”, liberoids, etc. Why did these liberals not please everyone who complains? What is liberalism? Now we will explain in simple words, and at the same time we will determine whether it is worth scolding modern liberals and why.

History of liberalism

Liberalism is an ideology - a system of ideas about the structure of society and the state. The word itself comes from the word Libertas (Latin) - which means freedom. Let us now find out what relation he has to freedom.

So, imagine the harsh Middle Ages. You are a craftsman in a European medieval city: a tanner, or generally a butcher. Your city is in the possession of a feudal lord: a county, barony or duchy. And the city pays him rent every month for what is on his land. Suppose a feudal lord wanted to introduce a new tax—for example, on air. And he will introduce it. And the townspeople will not go anywhere - they will pay.

Of course, there were cities that bought their freedom and themselves already established more or less fair taxation. But those were extremely rich cities. But yours, such an average city, cannot afford such luxury.

If your son wants to become a doctor or a priest, it will simply be impossible. Because state law determines the life of each class. He can only do what you do - be a butcher. And when the tax burden ruins the city, then, probably, he will rise and overthrow the power of the feudal lord. But the royal troops, or the troops of the feudal lord, of a higher rank, will come and punish such a rebellious city.

By the end of the Middle Ages, this order of things was primarily tired of the city dwellers: artisans, merchants - in a word, those who really made money from their hard work. And Europe was swept by bourgeois revolutions: when the bourgeoisie began to dictate its terms. In 1649 there was a revolution in England. And what are the interests of the bourgeoisie?

Definition of liberalism

Liberalism is an ideology whose key elements are: personal freedom, the idea of public good, and a guarantee of legal and political equality. This is what the bourgeoisie needs. Freedom: if a person wants to do business, let him do what he wants - that’s his right. The main thing is that he does not harm other people and does not encroach on their freedom.

Equality- a very important idea. Of course, all people are not equal: in their intelligence, perseverance, physical abilities. But! We are talking about equal opportunities: if a person wants to do something, no one has the right to stop him on the basis of racial, social or other prejudices. Ideally, any person can become a leader and “rise” with hard work. Of course, not everyone will rise, because not everyone can and wants to work long and hard!

Common Good: means a reasonable structure of society. Where the state guarantees the rights and freedoms of the individual, protects this individual from all kinds of threats. The state also protects the rules of life in society: it monitors compliance with laws.

Another very important basis of liberalism: idea of natural rights. This idea was developed by English thinkers John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. It lies in the fact that a person is born with three rights: the right to life, to private property and to the pursuit of happiness.

No one has the right to take a person’s life, except perhaps the state and only by law. The right to private property was examined in detail. The pursuit of happiness means the same freedom of action, of course within the framework of the law.

Classical liberalism died for a long time in 1929, when a crisis arose in the United States as a result of which tens of thousands of banks went bankrupt, millions of people died of hunger, and all that. Today we are talking about neoliberalism. That is, under the influence of various factors, liberalism has changed: it has transformed into neoliberalism.

We analyze in detail what neoliberalism is.

Why are liberals in Russia today so “bad” that everyone criticizes them? The fact is that people who call themselves liberals defend not so much the ideology of liberalism as the idea that Europe and the United States are the best countries and that it is them that we need to focus on: join the European Union, NATO, in a word, bend to the West. At the same time, if you say that you don’t think it’s right, they prove to you that you’re completely wrong. That is, they deliberately violate your right to the same freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, and position.

Why do we need Europe if they have a crisis economy? After all, all crises begin in the West. Look at the countries that are members of the European Union: Greece, Romania. Romanians now go to Germany to clean German toilets - they cannot work at their bus factories - they were closed because Germany supplies the buses. And Greece - several years in the European Union brought this country to financial collapse, not even a crisis - collapse.

Looking at all this, you can’t help but think, why do we need to be in the EU? So that we could at least destroy what else is still working somewhere? Therefore, if I would call modern Russian “liberals” (those people who advocate reckless European integration) liberals, then only with quotation marks.

In conclusion, I quote a common joke. To the question: “Should we leave?” the patriot answers “Who?”, and the liberal “Where?” 🙂

I hope you have received a comprehensive answer to the question “What is liberalism”, like it, write in the comments about all this.

Best regards, Andrey Puchkov

Liberal politics defends the will of each individual. After all, it is the latter in this case that is considered to have the highest value. Laws are established as a fair basis for economics and order among people. The constitution plays an important role, within the framework of the rules of which the state and church have the right to influence social processes.

Main features and features

Liberal ideology is characterized by:

equality of all citizens and the chance to influence political processes;
the opportunity to speak freely in public, decide on religion, vote honestly for a particular candidate in elections;
inviolable private property, trade and entrepreneurship are unlimited;
the law is supreme;
citizens are equal, influence, wealth and position do not matter.

Wide dissemination of ideas

Liberal ideology is very popular these days. In the modern world, freedom plays a very important role. Attention is paid to the sense of personal dignity and the universal rights of people. A person's privacy and private property must be inviolable. The market must remain free, religious choice must be tolerated.

When liberal democratic ideology reigns, the state is legal, the government is transparent, the power of the people is higher than the rulers. A good ruling force is one that speaks for the people and is regulated and controlled by them. Not only does the head of the country rule over man, but man also rules over his own land.

A state with a liberal ideology has those common features that are now observed in Finland, Estonia, Cyprus, Uruguay, Spain, Slovenia, Canada and Taiwan. Here the values of will and freedom are given the dominant role. It is on their foundation that the country’s new goals are built.

Different features in individual territories

North America and Western Europe differ in that political currents there are in solidarity with the movement for people's power. The liberal ideology of the “right” representatives is more inclined to classical views about order in the state.

The influence of conservatives, who are inclined towards established models and schemes, is clearly visible here. Social and cultural progress, which can shake established moral norms, is alien to them.

There used to be rivalry between traditionalists and freedom fighters, but when World War II ended, authoritarianism was discredited. The leading role was given to moderate movements, whose ideas were expressed in the desire for softer regimes of conservatism and Christian democracy.

The second half of the 20th century was marked by the fact that liberal ideology suffered from an ingrained desire to preserve private property and privatization. Old customs had to be adjusted.

In the United States of America, the values of liberal ideology reached the people through socialists, as well as through the “left” currents of this political trend. Western Europe is characterized by differences in the actions of its public organizations. The “left” there pursues social policies in the struggle for the freedoms of the people.

The Liberal Party in Europe promotes non-interference in personal affairs and business. Such actions can only be carried out when the freedoms and property of some citizens must be protected from others.

Support is provided for cultural and economic trends in which liberal ideology moves. Social orientation is not supported. When seeking to implement the rule of law, it is required that the government has sufficient strength. Some people are of the opinion that private and public organizations are sufficient to ensure order. Armed movements are considered the most recent and unacceptable way to solve problems in the event of military aggression.

Differences in directions

When economic interests are respected, the liberal party can isolate itself into separate movements. Economic schemes of work that do not affect politics are considered. The state must ensure maximum freedom for the development of business and trade, without interfering with this process.

Only moderate regulation of the monetary system can be carried out, and the international market is accessible. Obstruction of foreign economic activity is not carried out by the authorities. On the contrary, any initiative is encouraged. The privatization procedure is being carried out. Margaret Thatcher set an example of such management by carrying out a number of reforms in Great Britain.

The effect of putting ideas into practice

Nowadays, liberals can be classified as centrist movements or social democratic ones. In Scandinavia, such management models are very popular. There were economic downturns, which made the issues of protecting society particularly acute. The population suffered from unemployment, inflation and poor pensions.

The Social Democrats increased taxation, and the state sector played a large role in the economy. For a long time, the “right” and “left” political forces fought for rule.

Thanks to this, effective laws have emerged, the government has become transparent, and now it is engaged in the protection of civil human rights and the property of business entities.

Nowadays in Scandinavia the state does not regulate pricing policy. Banks are run by private companies. Trading is open to everyone who wishes to participate in fair competition in both local and international markets. A liberal democratic system of politics was implemented. The level of social protection has become extremely high. Other European countries are characterized by similar processes. There, social democracy is mixed with liberal government policies.

Proclamation of rights and freedoms

The main goals of liberal movements are to strengthen democratic views that give freedom to the people. The state must take as its basis the right to ensure an independent judicial system. The transparency of the work of governing structures must be monitored. Civil rights should be protected and there should be room for competition.

It is very important to understand, when talking about a particular party, whether it belongs to the social liberals, libertarians or the right sector.

Society also promotes the ideas of equality and freedom in a variety of ways. Some support free choice of sexual life, the right to sell drugs and weapons, and expand the powers of private security organizations, to which some of the powers of the police may be transferred.

In terms of the economy, a stable income tax or its change to a per capita tax is supported. They are trying to privatize educational institutions, the procedure for providing for pensioners, and health care. They want to make science associated with self-sustaining sponsorship. A number of states are characterized by the fact that the liberal party seeks to abandon the death sentence, disarm troops, reject the development of nuclear weapons, and take care of the environment.

Unity of nations

The debate around multiculturalism is becoming increasingly heated. Ethnic minorities should share those values of the people that are considered fundamental. The majority of the population, having the same roots, must protect the rights of small communities. There is also an opinion that there must be rapid integration between minorities in order to keep the nation intact.

Organizations and associations

Since 1947, the Mont Pelerin Society has been working to unite economic, entrepreneurial, philosophical minds, and journalists to support the ideals preached by the classical struggle for freedom.

In our time, this policy is promoted by the Liberal International, which unites 19 organizations based on the Oxford Manifesto. As of 2015, the formation has 100 members, including the Free Democratic Party of Germany, Yabloko in Russia and so on.

The term “liberalism” (from the Latin liberalis - free) was first used in Spain in 1811 in Spain. Subsequently, this term entered all European languages. The ideas of liberalism were actively developed and defended by such thinkers as J. Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith, C. Montesquieu, I. Kant, T. Jefferson, B. Constant, A. De Tocqueville, I. Bentham, J. St. Mill and others. As an ideological and political phenomenon, liberalism arose on the basis of the ideas of the Enlightenment in the late XYII - early XYIII centuries. In the early stages of its development, it was the most important means of struggle of the “third estate” led by the bourgeoisie against the existing absolutist order. Therefore, its content was directly related to the needs and interests of the emerging bourgeoisie. From the very beginning, the foundation of liberalism was laid down by the principles of individual freedom, its high self-worth and the right to self-realization, as well as the recognition of its responsibility to society. Freedom was understood by liberals as freedom from state, church and other forms of social control. Based on these prerequisites, the economic and political guidelines of liberalism were formed. In the economic sphere, the idea of individual freedom was interpreted by liberals as freedom of private enterprise and the market. They consistently advocated for the liberation of economic activity from state regulation and for providing maximum scope for private initiative. Economic freedom, according to liberals, is the basis of civil and political freedoms. The principle of freedom in the political sphere was interpreted by liberals as freedom from restrictions from the state. On the basis of such an attitude, the idea of the “night watchman state” was formulated, the essence of which was that the state should be endowed with only the most minimal and necessary functions that ensure the protection of order, legality and protection of the country from external danger. It was noted that civil society should have priority over the state, which can be achieved on the basis of the principles of constitutionalism and parliamentarism. Liberals defended the ideas of the rule of law as a means of limiting the state and the separation of powers as an instrument of public control over the state. Opposing class privileges, they emphasized the idea of equality of citizens before laws, which should be more in the nature of prohibitions rather than regulations. Such ideas of liberalism created a theoretical basis for the formation of the rule of law. By the beginning of the twentieth century, liberalism found itself in a rather difficult position in Western countries. The development of the free market and entrepreneurship has gone from an idea to a reality. But it was then that it became clear that the unrestricted play of market forces in conditions of social insecurity of workers did not bring the majority of society either prosperity or freedom. In such a situation, trust in traditional liberal values fell sharply and a revision of the most important provisions of classical liberalism began. Under the influence of the current situation, as well as the development of the labor and social democratic movement, ideas of social justice, state support for the poor, elimination of extremes of property inequality, etc. appeared in the arsenal of liberals. As a result, liberalism evolved into “social liberalism (neoliberalism)” Decisive The socialist revolution in Russia and the global economic crisis of the early 1930s played a role in the establishment of neoliberalism as one of the most important reformist ideologies of the twentieth century, which raised the question of the need to rethink such postulates of classical liberalism as unlimited individual freedom and freedom of competition. Of particular importance were the ideas of the English economist J. Keynes (1881 - 1946), which were widely popular in those years, who developed a model of state regulation aimed at a sharp expansion of state intervention in the economy and a significant limitation of its market principles. The Keynesian model also provided for a significant expansion of consumer demand based on a significant increase in government spending, the creation of social guarantees for the poor in the field of medicine, education, employment, pensions, etc. In practice, the ideas of neoliberalism were first implemented in the “New Deal” President F. Roosevelt, elected in 1932. His government began to actively pursue a policy of demonopolizing the economy and implementing its state regulation. Unemployment benefits were introduced, the activities of trade unions were legalized, and collective agreements began to be concluded between workers and entrepreneurs. Subsequently, similar processes covered almost all industrialized countries. The main difference between neoliberalism and classical liberalism is the recognition of the active role of the state in regulating the economy and pursuing social policy. The idea of its detachment from economic and social processes has been replaced by the understanding that the state must do everything possible to help end social conflicts and smooth out excessive social inequality on the basis of supporting the poorest and most socially vulnerable sections of society. It was recognized that such a policy can be carried out by the state only on the basis of its active influence on economic processes. Under these conditions, liberals, like Social Democrats, began to defend the ideas of medical care available to all citizens, free school and higher education, expansion of the social security system, etc. They were also adherents of the idea of progressive taxation, believing that large owners should bear their share of responsibility for the social stability of society. As a result of the implementation of similar policies in the West, a new model of state was created, called the “welfare state.” However, in the 70s, neoliberal ideology also began to lose its influence, which, while remaining faithful to the basic principles of freedom and market entrepreneurship, absorbed a number of ideas that were previously unusual for it (emphasis on social equality of citizens, recognition of the need for government intervention in the economy and social life of society etc.), which gave rise to a violation of its internal integrity and consistency. The economic crisis of the 70s, accompanied by the crisis of the “welfare state,” was largely a consequence of the policies pursued by neoliberal-oriented parties. As a result of the decline in their popularity, they were forced to cede state power to parties pursuing neoconservative policies. However, later liberalism again embarked on the path of rethinking its leading principles. In particular, the need to return to the principles of stimulating market mechanisms while simultaneously reducing the regulatory role of the state was recognized.

Having inherited a number of ideas of the ancient Greek thinkers Lucretius and Democritus, liberalism as an independent ideological movement was formed on the basis of the political philosophy of the English enlighteners D., Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. Linking individual freedom with respect for fundamental human rights, as well as with the system of private property, liberalism based its concept on the ideals of free competition, market, and entrepreneurship.

Liberalism is an ideology that proclaims the recognition of the political and economic rights of the individual within the framework of laws that are a generalization of the natural needs and inalienable rights of people to life, freedom, property, security, order. Liberalism provides for a structure of society and power mechanisms in which free competition and the market limit the role of the state in the life of society.

The main, system-forming principles of liberalism are the following:

1) natural equality of people;

2) the presence and guarantee of the inalienability of such human rights as the right to life, freedom, property;

3) the rule of law, its binding on everyone;

4) the contractual nature of relations between the state and citizens, providing for their mutual responsibility;

5) a democratic political regime that gives all citizens equal rights to vote and be elected;

6) the presence of a developed civil society and guarantees of non-interference in private life;

7) constitutionalism, which provides for the limitation of legislative and executive powers through, first of all, a system of separation of powers, a mechanism of checks and balances, establishing limits and “clear” procedures for the activities of legislators.

The main problems of liberal ideology have always been the determination of the permissible degree and nature of state intervention in the private life of an individual, the combination of democracy and freedom, loyalty to a specific Fatherland and universal human rights.

Attempts to resolve these issues led to the emergence of numerous internal trends in liberalism. So, in the 20th century. Along with traditional liberalism, trends were formed that tried to combine its basic values with total reliance on the state, or with socially oriented ideas that asserted the greater responsibility of society for the well-being of all people rather than the individual, or with ideas that denied the social orientation of the state’s activities (“conservative liberalism ") etc.

The strengthening of elements of state ideology and social goals, which adapted the traditional values of liberalism to the economic and political realities of the second half of the 20th century, led to talk about its historically updated form - neoliberalism. The most important advantage of the political system here was proclaimed justice, and the government’s orientation towards moral principles and values. The political program of the neoliberals was based on the ideas of consensus between the managers and the governed, the need for mass participation in the political process, and the democratization of the procedure for making managerial decisions.

In contrast to the previous tendency to mechanically determine the democracy of political life by the majority, preference began to be given to pluralistic forms of organization and exercise of state power. Moreover, R. Dahl, C. Lindblum and other neopluralists believe that the weaker the rule of the majority, the more consistent it is with the principles of liberalism. True, representatives of right-wing liberal movements (F. Hayek, D. Escher, G. Olson) believe that with pluralism, mechanisms can be formed for the majority to expropriate the rich minority, and this can jeopardize the fundamental principles of liberalism.

At the same time, the orientation preserved in neoliberalism primarily towards public types of human activity (political activity, entrepreneurship, freedom from prejudice, etc.), the traditional attitude towards morality as a private matter of a person (which does not contribute to the strengthening of all connections and relationships in society, and at times carries the danger of atomization of society) limit the electoral base of these ideas in modern conditions.

On the other hand, it was the basic values of liberalism that caused a fundamental change in mass political views in many countries of the world and formed the basis of many national ideologies, guidelines for neoconservatism and Christian-democratic ideology. On a liberal basis, various theories of political participation, democratic elitism, etc. have developed.

Liberalism - school in international studies, which is fundamentally opposed to realism. The origins of this trend are in the works of J. Locke, I. Kant, A. Smith, J. S. Mill. The founder of this school is considered to be Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), the 28th President of the United States, one of the founders of the League of Nations. Representatives of this school are also called idealists, and the school itself is called idealistic. Idealism was especially widespread in 1919-1939 and represented an attempt through international institutions, primarily the League of Nations, to ensure peace and cooperation between states.

The idealistic approach is distinguished from other approaches by a clearly expressed ethical position. It proceeds from an optimistic idea of the nature of man as a rational being, capable of moral improvement, peaceful coexistence, and for the sake of the common good, ready to abandon the politics of force and the desire for dominance. Idealists sought to create a harmonious model of international relations, devoid of military conflicts. They put international cooperation, legal resolution of conflicts, regulation of relations between peoples with the help of international organizations, and discussion of controversial issues in negotiations at the forefront. The factor of power in politics was not valued as highly as among the realists; economic and legal levers were considered more effective means of influence. Liberals proceeded from the fact that the interaction of states on the world stage in order to maintain peace and economic prosperity must necessarily be regulated by intergovernmental organizations and international regimes (rules, norms, procedures jointly developed by members of the world community in a specific area of international relations, for example, in trade, financial policy and etc.). In a liberal approach, states are recognized as the main participants in international relations, but not the only ones. It is emphasized that, along with them, there are intergovernmental (UN, OSCE, etc.) and non-governmental organizations (human rights, environmental, humanitarian, transnational corporations, etc.).

In the 1980s, a school appeared neoliberalism A(or structural liberalism), which continues classical liberalism, but takes into account the new realities of the world political process: complex interdependence, developing interstate cooperation, integration, the creation of a global community. Neoliberalism places particular emphasis on the relationship between politics and economics. Due to the interdependence of states, the possibilities for their cooperation through international organizations should increase, and the influence of anarchy on the international environment should weaken.

Within neoliberalism and several directions and concepts have emerged, which are sometimes considered as independent conceptual schools. These include, first of all, the concept complex interdependence. Its representatives are American political scientists Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. In this concept, international politics is analyzed from the point of view of the participation of many political actors in it - not only states, but also non-governmental organizations (there are over 10,000 of them in the world today), including influential transnational corporations. Parties, churches, trade unions and other organizations actively participated in political life. The state has ceased to be the only actor on the world stage; moreover, it is losing its role as the main subject of international politics in favor of international organizations. Recognition of the diversity of actors, types and channels of interaction between them has led to the fact that in the study of world politics, now instead of the concept of international (and essentially interstate) relations, the concept has begun to be used transnational relations. The model of transnational relations, which emphasizes the role of non-state actors, was formulated by R. Keohane together with J. Nye, and the concept of complex interdependence is often attributed to transnationalist, or globalist school.

According to interdependence theory, all political actors influence international politics to a greater or lesser extent. They are interested not only in economic cooperation, but also in joining efforts to solve common, global problems, for example, environmental protection, arms limitation, non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, etc. The position of any country depends on its relations with other states and on the international system in in general. Due to the growing interdependence of different countries, the distinction between domestic and foreign policies of a state is becoming more and more relative: not only foreign policy depends on domestic policy, but also domestic policy on foreign policy, and to an ever greater extent. The multilateral dependence of states makes forceful resolution of conflicts unprofitable, while cooperation creates conditions for peace and prosperity, transnationalists say.

Contrary to the popular belief that liberalism is something completely new, brought into Russian culture by trends from the West, liberal political views in Russia have a very extensive history. Usually the arrival of these political views in our country is usually dated to the mid-18th century, when the first thoughts about freedom began to creep into the minds of the most enlightened citizens of the state. M.M. Speransky is considered the most prominent representative of the first generation of liberals in Russia.

But, if you think about it, liberalism is a phenomenon almost as ancient as Christianity, and even as After all, coming precisely from the Greek word meaning freedom, liberal political views, first of all, imply the value of freedom itself as the greatest gift found in human power. And we are talking not only about internal but also about the freedom of a citizen from the state. This means non-interference by the state in any private affairs of its citizens, the opportunity to freely express their political views, the absence of censorship and dictatorship on the part of the country’s leaders, and this is what both ancient philosophers and the first adherents of Christianity preached.

By personal freedom, people who preach liberal views understand the freedom of self-realization, as well as the freedom to resist any force coming from outside. If a person is internally unfree, this inevitably leads to his collapse as a person, because external interference can easily break him. Liberals consider the consequence of lack of freedom to be an increase in aggression and the inability to adequately evaluate key ideological concepts such as truth, good, and evil.

In addition, liberal means that it must be guaranteed by the state. Freedom of choice of residence, movement, and others are the foundations on which any liberal government must rest. At the same time, for adherents of liberalism, even the slightest manifestation of aggression is unacceptable - any changes in the state should be achieved only through evolutionary, peaceful means. Revolution in any form is already a violation of the freedom of some citizens by others, and, therefore, it is unacceptable for those who profess liberal political views. In Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, liberals lost precisely because they expected reforms from the authorities that would help transform the country without bloodshed. But, unfortunately, this path of development of the state was rejected by the monarchy, which resulted in a revolution.

Thus, to briefly summarize, we can say that liberal political views are such worldview ideas and ideological concepts, which are based on exceptional respect for freedom as the highest value. The political and economic rights of a citizen, the possibility of implementing free enterprise throughout the country, the absence of total control by the state over its citizens, the democratization of society - these are the main features of liberalism as a political system of views.

To implement such a system, a clear separation is necessary to avoid its concentration in the hands of individuals or oligarchies. Therefore, clearly defined and independent from each other executive, judicial and legislative powers are an integral attribute of any state living according to liberal laws. Considering this, as well as the fact that in almost all democratic countries of the world freedom and human rights are the highest values, we can safely say that it was liberalism that became the basis for the creation of modern statehood.

Liberals– representatives of an ideological and socio-political movement that unites supporters of representative government and individual freedom, and in economics – freedom of enterprise.

general information

Liberalism originated in Western Europe during the era of the struggle against absolutism and the domination of the Catholic Church (16th–18th centuries). The foundation of the ideology was laid during the period of the European Enlightenment (J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, Voltaire). Physiocratic economists formulated the popular slogan “don’t interfere with action,” which expressed the idea of state non-interference in the economy. The rationale for this principle was given by the English economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo. In the 18th–19th centuries. the social environment of liberals was predominantly bourgeois strata. Radical liberals associated with democracy played an important role in the American Revolution (embodied in the US Constitution of 1787). 19th–20th centuries The main provisions of liberalism were formed: civil society, individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, democratic political institutions, freedom of private enterprise and trade.

Principles of liberalism

The essential features of liberalism are determined by the etymology of the word itself (Latin Liberaly - free).

The main principles of liberalism in the political sphere are:

personal freedom, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, recognition of the right of all people to self-realization. It should be noted that in the ideology of liberalism, individual freedom coincides with political freedom and “natural rights” of man, the most important of which are the right to life, liberty and private property;
restriction of the scope of state activities; protection of private life – primarily from the arbitrariness of the state; “the curbing of the state through a constitution that guarantees individual freedom of action within the limits of the law;
the principle of political pluralism, freedom of thought, speech, and belief.
delimitation of the spheres of activity of the state and civil society, non-interference of the former in the affairs of the latter;
in the economic sphere - freedom of individual and group entrepreneurial activity, self-regulation of the economy according to the laws of competition and free market, non-interference of the state in the economic sphere, inviolability of private property;
in the spiritual sphere – freedom of conscience, i.e. the right of citizens to profess (or not to profess) any religion, the right to formulate their moral duties, etc.

Success and development of the direction

In its completed classical form, liberalism established itself in the government of Great Britain, the USA, France and a number of other European states in the second half of the 19th century. But already at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. a decline in the influence of liberal ideology is revealed, which developed into a crisis that lasted until the 30s of the 20th century, which was associated with the new socio-political realities of this period.

On the one hand, free competition left without state control led to the self-liquidation of the market economy as a result of the concentration of production and the formation of monopolies, ruined small and medium-sized enterprises, on the other hand, unlimited property rights caused a powerful labor movement, economic and political upheavals, especially evident in the late 20s. x - early 30s. XX century All this forced us to reconsider a number of liberal attitudes and value guidelines.

Thus, within the framework of classical liberalism, neoliberalism is formed, the origin of which many scientists associate with the activities of American President F. D. Roosevelt (1933–1945). The rethink affected primarily the economic and social role of the state. The new form of liberalism is based on the ideas of the English economist D. Keynes.

Neoliberalism

As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. Certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of “social liberalism” was developed - neoliberalism.

The neoliberal program was based on ideas such as:

consensus between managers and managed;
the need for mass participation in the political process;
democratization of the procedure for making political decisions (the principle of “political justice”);
limited government regulation of economic and social spheres;
state restrictions on the activities of monopolies;
guarantees of certain (limited) social rights (the right to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).

In addition, neoliberalism involves protecting the individual from the abuses and negative consequences of the market system. The core values of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological movements. It is attractive because it serves as the ideological basis for the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.

Forms

Classical liberalism

Liberalism is the most widespread ideological movement that formed at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. as the ideology of the bourgeois class. John Locke (1632–1704), an English philosopher, is considered the founder of classical liberalism. He was the first to clearly separate such concepts as personality, society, state, and distinguished the legislative and executive powers. Locke's political theory, set out in “Two Treatises on Government,” is directed against patriarchal absolutism and views the socio-political process as the development of human society from a state of nature to civil society and self-government.

The main purpose of government from his point of view is to protect the rights of citizens to life, liberty and property, and in order to secure natural rights, equality and freedom, people agree to establish a state. Locke formulated the idea of the rule of law, arguing that in a state absolutely any organ must obey the law. In his opinion, the legislative power in the state must be separated from the executive (including judicial and foreign relations), and the government itself must also strictly obey the law.

Social liberalism and conservative liberalism

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. representatives of liberal movements began to feel a crisis in the ideas of classical liberalism associated with the aggravation of social contradictions and the spread of socialist ideas. Under these conditions, new trends in liberalism emerged - “social liberalism” and “conservative liberalism.” In “social liberalism” the main ideas were that the state acquired social functions and was given responsibility for providing for the most disadvantaged sections of society. “Conservative liberalism,” on the contrary, rejected any social activity of the state. Under the influence of the further development of social processes, the internal evolution of liberalism took place, and in the 30s of the 20th century, neoliberalism was born. Researchers associate the beginning of neoliberalism with the “New Deal” of the American president.

Political liberalism

Political liberalism is the belief that individuals are the foundation of law and society and that public institutions exist to help empower individuals with real power without kowtowing to elites. This belief in political philosophy and political science is called “methodological individualism.” It is based on the idea that each person knows best what is best for him. The English Magna Carta (1215) provides an example of a political document that extends some individual rights further than the prerogative of the monarch. The key point is the social contract, according to which laws are made with the consent of society for its benefit and protection of social norms, and every citizen is subject to these laws. Particular emphasis is placed on the rule of law, in particular, liberalism assumes that the state has sufficient power to enforce it. Modern political liberalism also includes the condition of universal suffrage, regardless of sex, race or property; Liberal democracy is considered the most preferable system. Political liberalism means a movement for liberal democracy and against absolutism or authoritarianism.

Economic liberalism

Economic liberalism advocates individual rights to property and freedom of contract. The motto of this form of liberalism is “free private enterprise.” Preference is given to capitalism based on the principle of laissez-faire, which means the abolition of government subsidies and legal barriers to trade. Economic liberals believe that the market does not need government regulation. Some of them are ready to allow government oversight of monopolies and cartels, others argue that market monopolization arises only as a consequence of government action. Economic liberalism argues that the prices of goods and services should be determined by the free choices of individuals, i.e., market forces. Some accept the presence of market forces even in areas where the state traditionally maintains a monopoly, such as security or justice. Economic liberalism views economic inequality, which arises from unequal bargaining power, as a natural result of competition in the absence of coercion. Currently, this form is most expressed in libertarianism; other varieties are minarchism and anarcho-capitalism. Thus, economic liberalism is for private property and against government regulation.

Cultural liberalism

Cultural liberalism focuses on individual rights related to consciousness and lifestyle, including issues such as sexual, religious, academic freedom, and protection from government interference in personal life. As John Stuart Mill said in his essay “On Liberty”: “The only object which justifies the interference of men, individually or collectively, in the activities of other men, is self-defense. It is permissible to exercise power over a member of a civilized society against his will only for the purpose of preventing harm to others.” Cultural liberalism, to varying degrees, objects to government regulation of such areas as literature and the arts, as well as such issues as academia, gambling, prostitution, the age of consent for sexual relations, abortion, the use of contraception, euthanasia, alcohol and other drugs. The Netherlands is probably the country with the highest level of cultural liberalism today, which, however, does not prevent the country from proclaiming a policy of multiculturalism.

Third generation liberalism

Third generation liberalism was a consequence of the post-war struggle of third world countries against colonialism. Today it is more associated with certain aspirations than with legal norms. Its goal is to fight against the concentration of power, material resources and technology in a group of developed countries. Activists of this movement emphasize the collective right of society to peace, to self-determination, to economic development and to access to the commonwealth (natural resources, scientific knowledge, cultural monuments). These rights belong to the “third generation” and are reflected in Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Defenders of collective international human rights also pay close attention to issues of international environmental and humanitarian assistance.

Bottom line

In all of the above forms of liberalism, it is assumed that there must be a balance between the responsibilities of government and individuals and that the function of the state should be limited to those tasks that cannot be adequately performed by the private sector. All forms of liberalism aim to provide legislative protection for human dignity and personal autonomy, and all argue that the removal of restrictions on individual activity improves society. Modern liberalism in most developed countries is a mixture of all these forms. In third world countries, “third generation liberalism” – the movement for a healthy living environment and against colonialism – often comes to the fore. The basis of liberalism as a political and legal doctrine is the idea of the absolute value and self-sufficiency of the individual. According to the liberal concept, it is not society that precedes and socializes individuals, but independent individuals who, in accordance with their own will and reason, create society itself - all social institutions, including political and legal institutions.

Liberalism in modern Russia

Liberalism is widespread to one degree or another in all modern developed countries. However, in modern Russia the term has acquired a significant negative connotation, since liberalism is often understood as the destructive economic and political reforms carried out under the rule of Gorbachev and Yeltsin, a high level of chaos and corruption, covered up by an orientation towards Western countries. In this interpretation, liberalism is widely criticized due to fears of further destruction of the country and loss of its independence. Modern liberalization often leads to a decrease in social protection, and “price liberalization” is a euphemism for “increasing prices.”

Radical liberals in Russia are usually considered to be admirers of the West (“creative class”), including in their ranks very specific individuals (Valeria Novodvorskaya, Pavel Shekhtman, etc.) who hate Russia and the USSR as such, for example, comparing them with Nazi Germany, and Stalin and Putin - with Hitler, deifying the USA. Well-known resources of this kind: Echo of Moscow, The New Times, Ej, etc. The opposition, which held mass protests against the Russian government in 2011–2012, identified itself as liberal. due to disagreement with the nomination and election of Putin for a third term. But it is interesting that at the same time, Russian President Vladimir Putin, for example, called himself a liberal, liberal reforms were proclaimed by Dmitry Medvedev when he was president of Russia.