The history of the creation of writing in Rus'. History of Russian font

Charter- the most ancient Russian letter, hand-drawn letter, each letter separate from the other, pre-15th century

Half-charter- since the end of the 14th century, it is not the beauty of the letters that is important, but the speed of writing, there are abbreviated words (words with titles - superscripts above the abbreviated word)

Cursive- became widespread in the 16th-17th centuries, running handwriting, the hand writes without looking up, the speed of writing is important, there are no divisions into sentences or words

The “word” was written in cursive.

The Bulgarian orthography used in the text, fashionable since the 15th century (second South Slavic influence after Constantinople was captured)

All this also indicates that the manuscript is late.

the preparers of the manuscript saw that the manuscript was created in the northwestern region, the Pskov-Novgorod land (based on the spelling of the words)

a work from the 12th century survived in correspondence from the 15th century, but what came through is genuine.

The preparers made extracts from this meeting.

Done great job to transform this work.

Musin-Pushkin wrote a preface: his property, there are dark places in the work, he did not indicate the names of those who worked on the manuscript.

Today: we have a copy made for Catherine the Second, published in the 19th century, extracts by Karamzin and Malinovsky.

Interest in this work was enormous; it was renewed against the Patriotic War when classes at the university began in August 1813. Professor, famous historian Mikhail Trofimovich Kachanovsky (editor of the Bulletin of Europe, head of the skeptical school, doubted whether historical monuments were genuine, believed that the “Word” was not genuine, that it was possibly a fake of the late 18th century). Kachanovsky’s argument: the authenticity of a thing can be proven by the presence of something similar (there is a work that, in terms of artistic level, approaches the level of this work).

Pushkin-Kachanovsky: who could have faked it? A lyrical thing - only a poet could fake it.

The historian, Karamzin, could have faked it. But he is not a poet.

A question from a writer who intuitively feels that a thing is genuine.

1813 - Kalaidovich, in the Pskov Apostle of 1307, discovered a quotation from the “Tale” about the princes “under whom...” (about Oleg Gorislavovich). Proof of authenticity.

By the middle of the 19th century, skepticism passed, because in 1852 the monument “Zadonshchina” was unveiled. The work was written at the beginning of the 15th century. Is an imitation of the "Word"

(question: “The Word” and “Zadonshchina” - cook)

Maksimovich and Potidnyak established a connection between “The Lay” and Ukrainian and Belarusian folklore. In the 19th century, translations were made by Zhukovsky and Maykov.

The "Word" has been a subject of study in the West and East.

1938 André Mazon, a French specialist in Russian language and Russian literature, released big book, in which he argued that “The Lay” is a reworking of “Zadonshchina.” It was about the priority of culture.

Reply to Mazon, refutation of his views Gudziy - 1946: only a person who lacks taste, who has not read both of these works in the original, can put these works side by side; Mazon’s statements do not agree.

1960s Academician Zimin, historian, new hypothesis: the author of the “word” was Joel Bykovsky. Zimin read his archive, got to know him - Bykovsky wrote poetry. If Joel Bykovsky wrote the “Word”, then he should have been a genius in everything, but this was not the case - his sermons and poems are ordinary.

Discussion - Zimin’s theory was found untenable

A 12th-century work has come down to us in 15th-century correspondence, discovered in the 18th century, printed in 1800, lost manuscript - original

proof is the accuracy of the historical realities contained in the work.

Rus' was fragmented into 10 principalities, the princes fought with each other. The Polovtsians have consolidation. They are the second problem of the Russians. Vladimir Monomakh fought with them.

Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians began on April 23, 1185. 4 princes are descendants of Oleg Gorislavich. May 1, 1185 - eclipse. Meeting on the Kayal River. At first the Russians won, Igor wanted to leave, but in the end they decided to stay, in the morning they were surrounded by the Polovtsian army, Russian army was destroyed. Of the entire army, 15 people were saved. The Russian princes were captured.

At this time, Svyatoslav was gathering troops for a campaign against the Polovtsy, because in 1184 he made a successful campaign against the Polovtsy, in which Igor did not participate.

The trend of events in the Lay is maintained in the same way as this time is depicted in the chronicle. With only one exception: Igor returns to Kyiv, and not to Novgorod-Seversky, as in reality.

The opening says that this is a story, which means it does not resemble the works of accordion fame.

Igor is a typical prince of that era, thinking about personal honor, and not about the honor of his Russian land and its happiness.

But! It is not specific princes that are condemned, but their policies in general; the fragmentation that led to the Tatar-Mongol invasion is condemned.

This is not a war story.

(in the title) journalistic, instructive.

It is impossible to determine the genre of “Words”.

The style of monumental historicism: the action takes place over vast geographical areas. Mentioned great amount cities. Central image- the image of the Russian land.

Refrain about the Russian land, which is located beyond the hills. It is contrasted with the image of the deserted Polovtsian steppe.

The scale is emphasized by the simultaneity of action in different places

this is a book work.

Folklore does not know the mixing of different genres within one work. In folklore there is no simultaneous appeal to the present and the past.

The work is complex in language.

Written in purely Russian.

Written in rhythmic prose.

“The Word” is not similar to the Byzantine work of the 12th century (nature is not important for the Byzantine, the opposition God-man is important)

Natural images are very important for the “Word”; they are not static, not dead, they are alive. The opposition between man and nature is important.

When it is written: they think that the Lay was written hot on the heels of an event in the fall of 1185 (Academician Rybakov), when Igor traveled to Kyiv. Likhachev - no later than 1187. In 1187 Yaroslav died, to whom Svyatoslav addresses himself as a living person. Demkova (1997) “The Lay” was created between the summer of 1194 and the summer of 1196. why: after the death of Prince Svyatoslav - there is no glory to the prince of Kyiv, until the death of Prince Vsevolod, who died in May 1196.

Exactly: 12th century! All studies confirm this.

The title "Mr." The military terminology is correct. Historically accurate references to weapons. Mentions of clothing typical of the 12th century.

could have been a supporter of Svyatoslav

could have been a vigilante (knows what the eyewitness knows)

does not protect local interests, a person of book culture, knows folklore, a person Christian culture, but knows paganism

Likhachev “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign and the culture of his time”

It is no secret that the formation of ancient Russian church literature began after such a process as Christianization. According to certain data, literacy in Rus' appeared thanks to Bulgaria, after the well-known religious act took place in 998. This version turned out to be not entirely correct. Historians have proven that Old Russian letters, as well as Old Russian writing appeared thanks to Cyril and Methodius.

Many people know that in Rus' they already had writing before 988, and this is a recognized fact. Some researchers argue that writing began to appear during the Bronze Age. According to the treatise of Chernorizets Khrabra, which is dedicated to the appearance ancient Slavic writing, this process had several main stages. One of the main stages was the borrowing of letters from the Greek and Latin alphabets. That is why Old Russian letters have known origins.

Features of the development of writing in Rus'

Also, the development of writing was influenced by the signs of many local peoples. If we talk about total number the main such signs, there were about two hundred of them. According to historians, the bearers of the so-called Chernyakhov culture supported quite a good relationship with the Greeks and Romans. Many representatives of this culture often visited ancient cities, where the acquisition of certain writing skills took place.

In the Cathedral of St. Sophia, the Sophia alphabet was discovered, which was drawn on the wall in quite high quality and in large, expressive letters. According to some researchers, this alphabet is an ordinary Cyrillic alphabet. The main difference can only be said that the Sofian alphabet is unfinished. By the way, the ancient Russian letters are depicted here quite neatly. This suggests that the Sofia alphabet deserves the full right to be called pre-Cyrillic, it ideally reflects First stage the emergence of Slavic writing.

Creating the first library

It is worth noting that in the 11th century, Yaroslav the Wise created a cultural and educational center in Kyiv, where the first library appeared. In this library, according to historians,
very important political documents, various texts of treaties, etc. were stored. You can also see here a large number of books, mainly literate translations of Christian literature, church documentation, etc.

Modern research has learned that East Slavic writing appeared exclusively thanks to the missions of Cyril.

Sources of Old Russian writing

The main source of occurrence Old Russian writing nevertheless, Greek sources served. Old Russian symbols also contributed to this. The first Cyrillic alphabet had several variants. One option consisted of 38 letters, and the other of 43 letters. Many historians try to answer next question: What exactly was the alphabet that Kirill invented?

If we talk about the Glagolitic alphabet, then this is one of the most mysterious problems of the entire period of formation of Old Russian writing. By the way, the origin of the Glagolitic alphabet is today is unknown. Today, the ancient Russian alphabet, writing and reading, is also a kind of mystery for researchers.

Most importantly, scientists have proven that Cyril put a lot of effort into the appearance of the first alphabet, alphabet and writing in Rus'. Of course, this topic has been quite discussed for many decades, since, unfortunately, there are not many facts about the origin of writing Ancient Rus'.

Video: The history of the birth of Slavic writing

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IN last decade V historical science An interesting area of ​​research has emerged - deciphering secret inscriptions on antiques, ancient stones, icons, etc.

An outstanding researcher in this field is Dr. philosophical sciences, Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences V. A. Chudinov. Valery Alekseevich deciphered several thousand ancient inscriptions.

In the blogosphere I often come across arrogant statements about Chudinov’s transcripts. “Some romantics try to see the image they need in the outlines of clouds and sunspots...”

Very self-confident people have no idea that similar works Many researchers around the world are engaged in the fact that our Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, and the artist Albrecht Durer used this knowledge. Secret writing has been discovered in Plato's dialogues about Atlantis.

In ancient times, secret writing was considered one of the 64 arts that should be mastered by both men and women. Information about methods of encrypted writing can already be found in documents of the ancient civilizations of India, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Among the simplest is hieroglyphic writing, writing characters not in order, but randomly according to some rule. The classic Caesar cipher is described in all cryptography textbooks. Not trusting messengers, Julius Caesar encrypted his dispatches using a method that later became known as the direct substitution cipher. In his letters, he replaced every A with a D, every B with an E, etc. And his message could only be deciphered by someone who knew the “shift by 3” rule.

Humanity has created many ways to hide information. The researcher is not offended by the objections of Chudinov’s opponents. The situation was too unexpected for him. He did not suddenly or immediately publish the results of his research.

Because the serious work accompanied first of all common sense and provide scientific credibility, then this is the first answer to skeptics. One or two coincidences, when a dash or fold resembles a letter, are allowed by the theory of probability. But three or four coincidences, or when “shadows” or “dots” form a meaningful word, speak of a pattern.

It is impossible to find a word where there is none. And many thousands of them have already been found.

Today, on trams they place advertisements for the SpetsOdezhda store, where instead of the letter “O” there is a button, which in this context we interpret as a letter. Likewise, ancient people used the image of any object to designate a letter or syllable.

The famous French cryptographer Rossignol created the doctrine that “the strength of the cipher must ensure secrecy during the period of execution of the order. A diplomatic cipher must resist unauthorized reading for several decades.” The durability of religious ciphers in Rus' spanned many centuries, and this is no longer the merit of Rossignol.

All of Rus', from the Sovereign to the icon god, used cryptography.

Russian chroniclers hid words in intricate letter patterns, in which the letters seemed to be glued to each other. In ancient chronicles there are texts woven into artistic miniatures.

In addition to the works of V. Chudinov on reading ornaments and ancient encrypted records, other sources and researchers are known.

Moscow sculptor Vladimir Buinachev took an unbiased look at “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and discovered secret writing in it, and not simple and stereotypical, but polysyllabic, diverse and in highest degree original.

Tsar's secret writing in Zvenigorod.

In 1667, in honor of the arrival of the Ecumenical Patriarchs of cannon and bell makers in Moscow, master Alexander Grigoriev cast the most famous bell of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, which is near Zvenigorod - Bolshoi Blagovestny - weighing 2125 pounds (about 34 tons). The bell had an unusually deep and beautiful ringing, and whoever heard it spoke - there was no equal to it in Russia. Along the outside of the bell there were inscriptions in nine rows: the top six were in Old Church Slavonic, and the bottom three were secret writing, consisting of 425 characters. The text was presumably compiled personally by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Russian and Soviet historians were busy deciphering secret writings in the period from the 18th to the 20th centuries. It turned out that the code tables of this cipher are original and are not found anywhere else.

In 1941, all the bells of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery were removed for melting down. Bolshoi Blagovest did not escape this fate. Moreover, when removed from the bell tower, it fell and broke. All that was left of it was a fragment of a “tongue” weighing 700 kg, which is now on display. Bolshoi Blagovest is depicted on the coat of arms of Zvenigorod.

Well, how? Isn't it time to replace condescending grins with interest?

The desire for secret writing.

In the last century, boys and girls were fond of reading, including, of course. Kataev’s “Dirk” and detective stories about Sherlock Holmes, and then this secret writing with the Wise Litorrhea and dancing men is all cool school lessons enough.

It is difficult for those who do not read books today to understand this. Digital communications have replaced everything for them.

The need for encryption has appeared since the advent of writing itself.

Anyone who, in one way or another, is involved or has heard about letter encryption is familiar with the term Steganography - this is the science of the hidden transmission of information by keeping the very fact of transmission secret. Please note the difference from cryptography, which only encrypts the message. Steganography goes even further - it hides the very fact of the message's existence.

Revolutionaries used similar techniques in Russian Empire, when they wrote with milk between the lines, the ancient Greek historian Herodotus left messages about technologies with wax in writing (and not vice versa), in ancient China messages were written, naturally, on strips of silk. They were then rolled into balls and covered with wax. Then the messenger swallowed these balls and headed straight to the addressee. Return trip is also quite understandable. The slaves had inscriptions applied to their shaved heads and waited until the hairstyle was restored. And again they shaved the courier’s head at the place where the message was delivered. During excavations of Sumerian clay tablets, multilayered ones were discovered, in which one record was covered with a layer of clay, and on this upper layer they wrote again.

In the field of concealing information, impressive successes were achieved in Sparta. Not only did theory develop there. From there the first encryption devices came to us. Six centuries before Christ, the cunning Greeks invented the “scitalla” - the first device that implements a permutation cipher. A belt was wound in a spiral around a cylinder of a certain diameter, onto which letters were written along the axis of the cylinder. When unfolded, the belt contained a seemingly chaotic set of letters. To decipher it, it was necessary to know the original diameter of the cylinder.

The great Archimedes solved the problem of deciphering messages. Archimedes' next eureka was winding telegram belts intercepted from the enemy around a cone. By moving the belt wound around the cone up and down, the required diameter was found and the message was read. What does steganography have to do with it? And despite the fact that they already understood that it was necessary not only to hide the message, but also, just in case, to encrypt it.

In Rus', another type of concealment of information was widely used - tachygraphy. Letter styles were changed. The letters might not have been added or, on the contrary, they might have been supplemented with new elements, rotated, or changed in size.

Moving on to modern times, I would like to note such a steganographic method as writing inside a boiled egg. The addressee, having received boiled eggs, peeled the shell and read the message. I wonder how it was recorded? I once read the answer either in “Entertaining Chemistry” or “Entertaining Physics”.

During the Great Patriotic War in the German-occupied territories of the USSR, using the preserved bell towers, intelligence officers reported information ringing bells. This completely replaced radio communication, since at dawn the ringings spread over tens of kilometers.

IN Soviet times V children's film Drummer's Destiny showed everyone how to use sympathetic ink. Here, a means of developing the notes made was already required, since the text immediately disappeared after writing.

I think there is no longer any need to talk about modern digital technologies for hiding information, because even on the Internet today programs are offered for home use, so to speak.

Discoveries of V. Chudinov.

On hundreds of sacred objects of both Christian and pre-Christian eras, secret writing filled with sacred runes has been revealed. Decryption of detected sacred texts directly explodes the currently dominant ideas about the history of Christianity and Russian Vedism.

Thus, deciphering the cryptography on the papal crypt of the catacombs of St. Callista forced Chudinov to conclude: “The early Christians revered not only the Virgin Mary as the one who gave birth to the Savior, but also the goddess Makosh, in whose temple Mary actually lived, serving there as a priestess. We find echoes of the event in the New Testament. It talks about young Mary's intention to become a nun.

The ancient texts read report that Christianity should have appeared only as a development of Slavic Vedism, and not any other faith!

Research on the sacred stones of the Magi and Christian icons dating back to the 14th century. made it possible to establish the fact that the Magi themselves were involved in the planting of Russian Orthodox Christianity, who considered it as the development and fulfillment of the prophecies of Russian Vedism - the Rule was glorified, hence Orthodoxy !

It turns out that it was no coincidence that the Magi came to greet the birth of the infant Christ. The New Testament again told us about this, slightly veiling the Slavic magicians under certain eastern rulers.

This discovery is so revolutionary that today they simply don’t know what to do with it. Or rather, they don’t know what to do with today’s knowledge against this background, and just in case, Chudinov’s readings on historical monuments are either hushed up or declared nonsense.

The discoveries themselves are the result of the historian’s scientific research, and not religious statements at all.

Not the study of sunspots, but the deciphering of hidden records of ancestors, this is what Professor Chudinov is doing.

Here we come into contact with a religious and philosophical issue that requires separate, broad consideration. And let me remind you, we're talking about only about deciphering ancient texts and hidden inscriptions.

Inscriptions on the walls of the temple.

Coptic nuns scratched numerous inscriptions into the walls of an ancient Egyptian temple 1,500 years ago. Today this vandalism serves as a valuable source on the religious history of Egypt.

Historian Westerfeld presented a paper with the first results of the study at the annual meeting of the American Research Center in Egypt.

According to Westerfeld, such a find is unprecedented. “This collection of epigraphic data left by the female monastic order has virtually no analogues in Egypt.

It’s interesting that abroad such research is a green street, where they are “unprecedented” and “have no analogues,” but our discoveries, as always, are completely hindered, and mockery about “sun spots.”

Why were bells and temples destroyed?

All citizens of Russia know a fact from the history of the country, when churches were massively destroyed, bells were thrown down and destroyed, and icons were burned. And today there are many church ruins in the country. Even during the so-called Under the Mongol-Tatar yoke, churches were built throughout Rus' without hindrance; just look at the dates of their foundation.

Of course, the new government after 1917 solved the problem of replacing the state ideology with its own. But Tsar Peter, who destroyed the bells, also has something to do with this vandalism. Then it was declared necessary to melt down the bells for cannons. But we have every reason not to fully believe these explanations.

Any metallurgical university student will say: “The alloy of bell bronze is absolutely not suitable for cannon bronze, which means pouring from one to another is devoid of practical meaning. The bell bronze must ring, and the cannon barrel must have mechanical strength. These qualities cannot be realized in one alloy. Bell bronze contains about 20% tin, and traditional gun bronze contains half as much.”

It turns out that under Tsar Peter and under Soviet power, antiquities were destroyed for something else. The reasons announced by Peter I and the communist leaders were only a cover for the true, unadvertised reason. One talked about guns, others announced the fight against religion, and together they did a common dirty deed.

Peter attributed the failures with the cannons, cast from bell bronze on the advice of Western specialists, to the negligence of his boyars. Soviet authority poured bells onto decorations. The crimson bells of the Moscow forty-forty went to sculptures on the metro and bas-reliefs of administrative buildings.

Together with ancient icons, frescoes of destroyed churches and bells, Russia was losing its history, recorded in the secret writing of its ancestors. That's the main reason.

The destroyers, having entered into a frenzy, could no longer stop until they had brought their obscurantism almost to the end. A modern remake of temples and bells, now does not contain ancient secret writing. It must have been very dangerous for some people.

Thank God, what was recorded using steganography survived. These are the notes that scientists now read. On surviving ancient icons and utensils, V. Chudinov discovered inscriptions indicating the workshops where these items were made. And the workshops were called simply, but tastefully - the workshop of the temple of Veles, the temple of Rod, the temple of Mokosh, the temple of Dyya, etc. How do you like it orthodox icons made in Paganism.

This is the answer to the question why churches were destroyed. It was not the temples that were destroyed, but primarily the ancient inscriptions along with frescoes, icons, and bells. Ancient Russian history was destroyed. The wearing of ancient amulet and pectoral crosses, passed down through generations, was declared relics and persecuted. These family heirlooms were also created by ancient artisans in the already listed pagan temples. This is what Chudinov discovered after reading the secret writings of artisans from the time of Vedicism. This newly discovered knowledge is clearly denied today for non-scientific reasons.

Conclusion.

The task of hiding information from outsiders has existed since time immemorial. And, as we see, all this began long before the birth of Valery Alekseevich Chudinov. Today his works can be read like historical detective stories.

There are so many facts about reading encrypted inscriptions that they should be studied and not rejected. Researchers understand those Old Slavonic and Old Russian books that are considered fakes by pro-Western people. Work in this direction makes it possible to find out how these books were lost or deliberately destroyed.

Works in this area allowed V. Chudinov not only to read hidden inscriptions on ancient church icons and ancient stones, but to trace the path of movement famous book the Magi of the Book of Veles many centuries ago. And this Book, too, of course, has been declared a fake.

Not surprising, this is another method of hiding information from unwanted dissemination.

You and I, dear reader, see that secret inscriptions on antiques exist objectively. And, since there are messages from our ancestors, our task as descendants is to read the letters addressed to us.

Old Russian secret writing based on the Greek alphabet.

“According to the Slavic-Aryan Vedas, the basis of the written literacy of the Slavic-Aryan peoples were four forms of writing, from which all other types of alphabets and alphabets subsequently originated.

a) Sanskrit (samckrit) is an independent secretive priestly language.
A form of the Sanskrit language conveyed in dance on the temple mount
special dancers were called devanagarn (nowadays it’s just a Sanskrit font);
b) futhark; V) Slavic runes, runes of Boyan's hymn; d) Siberian (Khak) runnitsa, etc.

2. Da'Aryan Trags (approved shining path) - hieroglyphic (ideogram) outline of transmitted images. Read in all four areas.

3. Rassen figurative-mirror writing (molvitsy).

This writing is now called Etruscan (Tyrrhenian) writing, which formed the basis of the ancient Phoenician alphabet, on the basis of which later simplified Greek writing and Latin were created.
The Russian scientist P.P. Oreshkin, in his book on the decipherment of ancient languages, “The Babylonian Phenomenon,” also notes this very peculiar feature of Rasen writing (mirrority), before which modern linguistics with its capitulatory slogan turned out to be powerless: “Etruscan is not readable.” Oreshkin calls this set of ingenious, in his opinion, techniques the “trick system” of the ancient races and gives his recommendations for overcoming them. But Rasen writing, as we see from its naming, is an organic synthesis of the figurative content of letters and words, as well as methods for identifying this figurative content.
This feature is, to one degree or another, characteristic of all forms of Rasich writing (Slavic “two-row”), because is the most important manifestation of the Vedic view, according to which everything is divided, reunited, and cannot exist without its own reflection.

The most common letter among the Slavic peoples of antiquity (“Pra-Cyrillic” or “runes of the Family” according to V. Chudinov). It was used both by priests and when concluding important inter-tribal and interstate agreements. One of the forms of the Holy Russian Initial Letter was the semi-runic letter known to us, with which the “Book of Veles” was written. “Vlesovitsa” (the name is conditional) is typologically older than the Cyrillic alphabet, writes linguist V. Chudinov, representing a sign system intermediate between syllabic writing and the alphabet. In the text of the “Veles Book” such a phonetic feature as “tsoking” was discovered, i.e. replacing Ch with C. This is found very widely in Novgorod birch bark letters and still distinguishes the Novgorod dialect.”

The form of the Initial Letter was also the “Slovenian” letter, in which, as in Sanskrit, the verbal structures “tha”, “bha”, etc. were also used. But “Sloveni” was too cumbersome a writing system for everyday communication, so subsequently a simplified form of “Slovenia” appeared - a voluminous, all-encompassing Old Slovene Initial Letter, consisting of 49 symbols-images (basic), where the recording conveyed not only the grapheme of the word being composed, but also its figurative meaning.
“Appeared in the 9th century. The “Cyrillic alphabet” was specially created (based on the Initial Letter - mine) using the Macedonian dialect of the Old Bulgarian language for the needs of the Christian Church as a bookish and literary language (Old Church Slavonic). Subsequently, under the influence of living speech, he gradually absorbed local language features... These later regional varieties are usually called the Church Slavonic language of Bulgarian, Serbian, Russian, etc.
edition or excerpt.” (G. Khaburgaev. Old Slavonic language). Thus, we see what, according to Slavists, Old Church Slavonic and Church Slavonic were and where, when and in what circles they were used. The Old Russian language (a secular simplified version of the Bukvitsa) survived until Peter’s language reform.

5. Glagolitic is a commercial script, and later they began to be used to record legends and Christian books.

6. Slovenian folk writing (traits and cuts) - for transmission short messages at the household level.

7. Voivodeship (military) letter - secret codes.

8. Princely letter - each ruler has his own.

9. Knot letter, etc.

In those days they wrote on tablets made of wood, clay, metal, as well as on parchment, fabric, birch bark, and papyrus. They scratched metal and bone sharpened rods (writing) on ​​stones, plaster, and wooden buildings. In 2000, a book consisting of wooden pages was found in Novgorod - an analogue of the “Vlesovaya Book”. It was given the name “Novgorod Psalter”, because it included famous texts three psalms of King David. This book was created at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries and is the most ancient book Slavic world from those recognized by official science.

“The emergence of a new source of information about events that took place thousands of years ago is always like a miracle. After all, it’s hard to believe that over several centuries of studying the written heritage of our ancestors, something significant could have escaped the attention of scientists; something significant was noticed and appreciated, for example, the monuments of the Russian runic. And did they even want to notice? After all, the presence of the same runic contradicts the position of inert official science, which proves that the Slavs before baptism were a young tribe, and not a people with ancient culture(“Return of the Russian runic.” V. Torop).

Another great find domestic historians became a pre-Cyrillic text, which received the code name “extensive edition of Boyanov’s hymn.” The text, consisting of the 61st line, has suffered quite a lot from time. The underlying protograph was restored, and it received its own name - the Ladoga Document.

In 1812, Derzhavin published two runic fragments from the collection of the St. Petersburg collector Sulakadzev. Until our time, the mystery of the published passages remained unsolved. And only now it becomes clear that the lines torn out by Derzhavin from the abyss of oblivion are not fakes, as would-be scientists have assured us for so many years, but unique monuments of pre-Cyrillic writing.

The Ladoga document allows us to draw an important conclusion. The Russian runic had a fairly wide circulation and was used not only among priests for recording such sacred texts as “Patriarsi” (Vlesova Book). Ladoga and Novgorod, of course, were not some unique centers of literacy in Rus'. Russian runic signs were found on antiquities of the 9th-10th centuries from Belaya Vezha, Staraya Ryazan, and Grodno. The text from the Derzhavin archive is the surviving evidence of a written tradition that once existed everywhere...

The commonality of information from both runic monuments speaks volumes. Enlargement historical tradition, which formed their basis until the beginning of the 19th century (the date of the Sulakadze copy), makes the very idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe falsification of “Patriarsi” (Mirolyubov - ours) ridiculous. At the time of Sulakadzev, almost all the information contained in “Patriarsi” was unknown to science. Christian chroniclers wrote about the pagan Slavs about the same thing as today: “.... they live in a brutal way, they chew in a bestial manner, and they eat each other in Bivaku, eating everything unclean, and they have married each other... "

The authors of Patriarchy also stood up for the honor of the Slavic people. On one of her tablets we read: “Askold is a dark warrior and was only enlightened by the Greeks that there are no Rus, but only barbarians. One can only laugh at this, since the Cimmerians were our ancestors, and they shook Rome and scattered the Greeks like scared pigs.” The Ladoga document ends with a description of suffering Rus'. The same thing is said in “Patriarsi”: “Rus is broken a hundred times from north to south.” But in “Patriarsi” we find a continuation of the thought that ended mid-sentence in the document: “Thrice fallen Rus' will rise.”

How relevant is this ancient prophecy today! Derzhavin showed an example of successful resistance to the destruction of our memory. Until his last days, the great son of the Russian people fought to save the Russian runic and ultimately won. Miraculously, the surviving pages reveal to us the Slavic civilization, no less ancient and no less rich than the civilization of any other people.”

Modern Russian is based on Old Church Slavonic, which, in turn, was previously used for both writing and speech. Many scrolls and paintings have survived to this day.

Culture of Ancient Rus': writing

Many scientists claim that before the ninth century there was no trace of writing. This means that during Kievan Rus writing did not exist as such.

However, this assumption is erroneous, because if you look at the history of other developed countries and states, you can see that each strong state had its own written language. Since it was also part of a number of fairly strong countries, writing was also necessary for Rus'.

Another group of scientific researchers proved that there was writing, and this conclusion was supported by a number of historical documents and facts: Brave wrote the tale “About the Letters.” Also “in the Lives of Methodius and Constantine” it is mentioned that Eastern Slavs writing. The records of Ibn Fadlan are also cited as evidence.

So when did writing appear in Rus'? The answer to this question is still controversial. But the main argument for society, confirming the emergence of writing in Rus', are the treaties between Russia and Byzantium, which were written in 911 and 945.

Cyril and Methodius: a huge contribution to Slavic writing

The contribution of Slavic enlighteners is invaluable. It was with the beginning of their work that they developed their own alphabet, which was much simpler in pronunciation and writing than the previous version of the language.

It is known that the enlighteners and their disciples did not preach among the East Slavic peoples, but researchers say that, perhaps, Methodius and Cyril set such a goal for themselves. Sharing your views would not only allow you to expand your range of interests, but would also simplify the introduction of a simplified language into East Slavic culture.

In the tenth century, books and lives of great enlighteners came to the territory of Rus', where they began to enjoy real success. It is to this moment that researchers attribute the emergence of writing in Rus', the Slavic alphabet.

Rus' since the appearance of its language alphabet

Despite all these facts, some researchers are trying to prove that the alphabet of the enlighteners appeared during the times of Kievan Rus, that is, even before baptism, when Rus' was a pagan land. Although most of historical documents are written in Cyrillic, there are papers that contain information written in Glagolitic alphabet. Researchers say that, probably, the Glagolitic alphabet was also used in Ancient Rus' precisely in the period of the ninth-tenth centuries - before Russia adopted Christianity.

More recently, this assumption has been proven. Research scientists found a document that contained records of a certain priest of Upir. In turn, Upir wrote that in 1044 the Glagolitic alphabet was used in Rus', but the Slavic people perceived it as the work of the enlightener Cyril and began to call it “Cyrillic.”

It is difficult to say how different the culture of Ancient Rus' was at that time. The emergence of writing in Rus', as is commonly believed, began precisely from the moment of widespread dissemination of books by enlighteners, despite the facts indicating that writing was important element for pagan Rus'.

The rapid development of Slavic writing: the baptism of a pagan land

The rapid pace of development of the written language of the East Slavic peoples began after the baptism of Rus', when writing appeared in Rus'. In 988, when Prince Vladimir converted to Christianity in Rus', children who were considered the social elite began to be taught using alphabetic books. It was at this same time that church books appeared in written form, inscriptions on cylinder locks, and there were also written expressions that blacksmiths embossed to order on swords. Texts appear on princely seals.

Also, it is important to note that there are legends about coins with inscriptions that were used by princes Vladimir, Svyatopolk and Yaroslav.

And in 1030, birch bark letters became widely used.

The first written records: birch bark letters and books

The first written records were those on birch bark letters. Such a document is a written record on a small fragment of birch bark.

Their uniqueness is that today they are perfectly preserved. For researchers, such a find is very great importance: in addition to the fact that thanks to these letters you can learn the features of the Slavic language, writing on birch bark can tell about important events, which took place during the period of the eleventh to fifteenth centuries. Such records have become an important element for studying the history of Ancient Rus'.

Except Slavic culture, birch bark letters were also used among cultures of other countries.

At the moment, the archives contain many birch bark documents, the authors of which are Old Believers. In addition, with the advent of birch bark “paper”, people learned to peel birch bark. This discovery was the impetus for writing books on Slavic writing in Rus' began to develop more and more.

A find for researchers and historians

The first writings made on birch bark paper that were found in Russia were in the city Velikiy Novgorod. Anyone who has studied history knows that this city was of no small importance for the development of Rus'.

A new stage in the development of writing: translation as the main achievement

The southern Slavs had a huge influence on writing in Rus'.

Under Prince Vladimir, books and documents from the South Slavic language began to be translated in Rus'. And under Prince Yaroslav the Wise it began to develop literary language, thanks to which such a thing appeared literary genre as church literature.

Of great importance for the Old Russian language was the ability to translate texts from foreign languages. The first translations (of books) that came from the Western European side were translations from Greek. Exactly Greek language changed the culture of the Russian language in many ways. Many loanwords were increasingly used in literary works, even in the same church scriptures.

It was at this stage that the culture of Rus' began to change, the writing of which became increasingly more complex.

Reforms of Peter the Great: on the way to simple language

With the advent of Peter I, who reformed all the structures of the Russian people, significant amendments were made even to the culture of the language. The appearance of writing in Rus' in ancient times immediately complicated the already complex In 1708, Peter the Great introduced the so-called “civil font”. Already in 1710, Peter the Great personally revised every letter of the Russian language, after which it was created new alphabet. The alphabet was distinguished by its simplicity and ease of use. Russian ruler I wanted to simplify the Russian language. Many letters were simply excluded from the alphabet, due to which not only Speaking, but also written.

Significant changes in the 18th century: introduction of new symbols

The main change during this period was the introduction of such a letter as “and short”. This letter was introduced in 1735. Already in 1797 Karamzin used new sign to represent the sound "yo".

By the end of the 18th century, the letter “yat” lost its meaning, because its sound coincided with the sound of “e”. It was at this time that the letter “yat” was stopped being used. Soon it also ceased to be part of the Russian alphabet.

The last stage of development of the Russian language: minor changes

The final reform that changed the written language in Rus' was the reform of 1917, which lasted until 1918. It meant the exclusion of all letters whose sound was either too similar or even repeated. It is thanks to this reform that today the hard sign (Ъ) is a dividing sign, and the soft (b) has become a dividing sign when denoting a soft consonant sound.

It is important to note that this reform caused enormous dissatisfaction on the part of many prominent literary figures. For example, Ivan Bunin strongly criticized this change in his native language.