Longitudinal engraving. History of the book

Two random arguments on the topic "Scientific progress and morality" to the Unified State Exam:

1) Morality and scientific technical progress– difficultly compatible concepts. Proof of this is Zamyatin’s novel “We”. The heroes of the work live in a special systemic system, where the population has achieved incredible scientific and technological progress, but has completely lost all moral principles and human feelings. People, living according to a special mechanism, have become like cogs in a large social machine. The whole life of the heroes is subject to certain laws and rules. There is a general schedule of life, obligatory for everyone, even intimate, a person loses his name and becomes a “number”. The whole world is subject only to logic and mathematics. This leads the novel's heroes to moral degradation and loss of the meaning of life. Thus, naked technical progress, which does not take into account the desires and needs of a person, turns society into a kind of soulless and homogeneous mass, while a person needs warmth, love and understanding.

2) Humanity has achieved enormous success in its development: a computer, a telephone, a robot, a conquered atom... But a strange thing: the stronger a person becomes, the more anxious the expectation of the future. What will happen to us? Where are we going? Let's imagine an inexperienced driver driving his brand new car at breakneck speed. How pleasant it is to feel the speed, how pleasant it is to realize that a powerful motor is subject to your every movement! But suddenly the driver realizes with horror that he cannot stop his car. Humanity is like this young driver who rushes into an unknown distance, not knowing what lurks there, around the bend.

Usage example

For example, at the Unified State Exam you received a text by D. Granin on the topic of honor. By using our service " Ready Arguments for an essay on the Unified State Exam", you receive the following two arguments *:

1) As you know, A.S. Pushkin died in a duel, fighting for the honor of his wife. M. Lermontov in his poem called the poet “a slave of honor.” The quarrel, the cause of which was the insulted honor of A. Pushkin, led to the death of the greatest writer. However, Alexander Sergeevich retained his honor and good name in the memory of people.

2) A hero with high moral qualities is Petrusha Grinev - a character in the story by A. S. Pushkin " Captain's daughter"Peter did not sully his honor even in those cases when he could have paid for it with his head. This was worthy of respect and a highly moral person with pride. He could not leave Shvabrin’s slander against Masha unpunished, so he challenged him to a duel.
Shvabrin is the complete opposite of Grinev: he is a person for whom the concept of honor and nobility does not exist at all. He walked over the heads of others, stepping over himself to please his momentary desires. Popular rumor says: “Take care of your dress again, and take care of your honor from a young age.” Once you have tarnished your honor, you are unlikely to ever be able to restore your good name.

As a result, you have already written most of the essay: 150 words (arguments) out of 200 (the full answer required for the Unified State Exam).

* Selection of arguments by given topic is done automatically, with each new time you receive new pair arguments.

The influence of nature on the human soul.

Natasha Rostova, admiring the beauty of the night in Otradnoye, is ready to fly like a bird: she is inspired by what she sees. She enthusiastically tells Sonya about the wonderful night, about the feelings that overwhelm her soul. Andrei Bolkonsky also knows how to subtly sense the beauty of the surrounding nature. During a trip to Otradnoye, seeing an old oak, he compares himself with him, indulging in sad reflections that life has already ended for him. But the changes that subsequently occurred in the hero’s soul are associated with the beauty and grandeur of the mighty tree that blossomed under the rays of the sun.

In the story by V. Astafiev “The Tsar is a Fish” main character, fisherman Utrobin, caught on a hook huge fish, unable to cope with it. In order to avoid death, he is forced to release her. Meeting with a fish symbolizing moral principle in nature, forces this poacher to reconsider his ideas about life. In moments of desperate struggle with the fish, he suddenly remembers his whole life, realizing how little he has done for other people. This meeting morally changes the hero.

ABOUT careful attitude to nature.

Nature is alive and spiritual, endowed with moral and punitive power, it is capable of not only defending itself, but also inflicting retribution. An illustration of punitive power is the fate of Gosha Gertsev, the hero of Astafiev’s story “The Tsar is a Fish.” This hero is punished for his arrogant cynicism towards people and nature. Punishing power extends not only to individual heroes. An imbalance poses a threat to all of humanity if it does not come to its senses in its intentional or forced cruelty.

The relationship between fathers and children.

Bulba believed that only then could the education of Ostap and Andriy be completed, when they learned the wisdom of battle and became his worthy heirs. However, Andriy’s betrayal made Taras a murderer; he could not forgive his son for his betrayal. Only Ostap warmed his father’s soul with his courage in battle, and then during the execution. For Taras, partnership turned out to be higher than all blood ties.

Loss of spiritual values.

The events of Boris Vasiliev’s story “Glukhoman” allow us to see how in today’s life the so-called “new Russians” strive to enrich themselves at any cost. Spiritual values have been lost because culture has disappeared from our lives. Society was split, and the bank account became the measure of a person’s merit. Moral wilderness began to grow in the souls of people who had lost faith in goodness and justice.

Meanness and dishonesty.

Shvabrin Alexey Ivanovich, hero of the story by A.S. Pushkin! The Captain’s Daughter,” is a nobleman, but he is dishonest: having wooed Masha Mironova and received a refusal, he takes revenge by speaking ill of her; During a duel with Grinev, he stabs him in the back. The complete loss of ideas about honor also predetermines social betrayal: as soon as Belogorsk fortress goes to Pugachev, Shvabrin goes over to the side of the rebels.

Vandalism, thoughtless attitude towards one's culture.

D.S. Likhachev in “Letters about the Good and the Beautiful” talks about the indignation he felt when he learned that a cast-iron monument on Bagration’s grave was blown up on the Borodino field in 1932. At the same time, someone left a giant inscription on the wall of the monastery, built on the site of the death of another hero, Tuchkov: “It’s enough to preserve the remnants of the slave past!” At the end of the 60s, the Travel Palace was demolished in Leningrad, which even during the war our soldiers tried to preserve and not destroy. Likhachev believes that “the loss of any cultural monument is irreparable: they are always individual.”

Ecology.

Our fellow countryman, writer Vasily Ivanovich Yurovskikh, in his stories talks about unique beauty and the wealth of the Trans-Urals, about the natural connection village man with the natural world, which is why his story “Ivan’s Memory” is so touching.

In that small work Yurovskikh raises important problem: human impact on the environment.

Ivan, the main character of the story, planted several willow bushes in a swamp that scared people and animals.

Many years later. The nature around has changed: all sorts of birds began to settle in the bushes, a magpie began to build a nest every year and hatch magpies. No one wandered through the forest anymore, because the trail became a guide on how to find the right way. Near the bush you can hide from the heat, drink some water, and just relax.

Ivan left a good memory of himself among people, and surrounding nature ennobled.

The role of the family in personality development.

In the Rostov family, everything was built on sincerity and kindness, respect for each other and understanding, which is why the children - Natasha, Nikolai, Petya - became for real good people They are responsive to the pain of others and are able to understand the experiences and suffering of others. Suffice it to recall the episode when Natasha gives the order to release the carts loaded with them family values, To give them to the wounded soldiers.

And in the Kuragin family, where career and money decided everything, both Helen and Anatole are immoral egoists. Both are looking for only benefits in life. They don't know what it is real love and are ready to exchange their feelings for wealth.

Motherhood as a feat.

Bukhara, the heroine of L. Ulitskaya’s story “Bukhara’s Daughter,” accomplished a maternal feat, devoting herself entirely to raising her daughter Mila, who had Down syndrome. Even being terminally ill, the mother thought through everything later life daughters: got a job, found her new family, husband, and only after that she allowed herself to die.

Maria, the heroine of Zakrutkin’s story “Mother of Man,” during the war, having lost her son and husband, took responsibility for her newly born child and for other people’s children, saved them, and became their Mother. And when the first people entered the burned farm soviet soldiers, It seemed to Mary that she had given birth not only to her son, but to all the war-dispossessed children of the world. That's why she is the Mother of Man.

The role of a teacher in a person's life.

The teacher Lidia Mikhailovna from Rasputin’s story taught the hero not only lessons French, but also lessons of kindness, empathy, compassion. She showed the hero how important it is to be able to share someone else’s pain with a person, how important it is to understand another.

The influence of parents on children.

In the story “The Captain's Daughter,” his father’s instructions helped Pyotr Grinev remain an honest man, true to yourself and duty. Therefore, the hero evokes respect by his behavior.

Following his father’s behest to “save a penny,” Chichikov devoted his entire life to hoarding, turning into a man without shame and conscience. He's with school years valued only money, so in his life there were never true friends, the family that the hero dreamed of.

About the Russian language.

K.I. Chukovsky in his book “Alive as Life” analyzes the state of the Russian language, our speech and comes to disappointing conclusions: we ourselves are distorting and mutilating our great and powerful language.

Relationship between name and inner essence hero.

In the comedy, many characters have “telling” surnames: Vralman, a former coachman, lied that he was a foreign teacher; the name Mitrofan means “like his mother,” who is depicted in the comedy as a stupid and arrogant ignoramus. Skotinin Taras - Mitrofan's uncle; loves pigs very much and in terms of the coarseness of his feelings is similar to cattle, as indicated by the surname

Worship of rank and human insignificance.

The official Chervyakov in Chekhov’s story “The Death of an Official” is incredibly infected with the spirit of veneration: having sneezed and splashed the bald head of General Bryzzhalov sitting in front of him (and he did not pay attention to it), the hero was so frightened that after repeated humiliated requests to forgive him, he died of fear.

The hero of Chekhov's story "Fat and Thin", the official Porfiry, met at the Nikolaevskaya station railway school friend and found out that he was a Privy Councilor, i.e. advanced significantly higher in his career. In an instant, the “subtle” one turns into a servile creature, ready to humiliate himself and fawn over him.

Molchalin, negative character comedy, I am sure that one should please not only “all people without exception,” but even “the janitor’s dog, so that it is affectionate.” The need to tirelessly please also gave birth to his affair with Sophia, the daughter of his master and benefactor Famusov. Maxim Petrovich, the “character” of the historical anecdote that Famusov tells for Chatsky’s edification, in order to earn the Empress’s favor, turned into a jester, amusing her with absurd falls.

Scientific progress and moral qualities person

1) The uncontrolled development of science and technology worries people more and more. Let's imagine a baby dressed in his father's costume. He's wearing a huge jacket, long trousers, a hat that slides down over his eyes... Doesn't this picture remind you of modern man? Without having time to grow morally, mature, and mature, he became the owner of powerful technology that is capable of destroying all life on Earth.

3) B ancient mythology There is a legend about Pandora's box.

A woman discovered a strange box in her husband's house. She knew that this item was fraught with terrible danger, but her curiosity was so strong that she could not stand it and opened the lid. All sorts of troubles flew out of the box and scattered around the world. This myth sounds a warning to all of humanity: rash actions on the path of knowledge can lead to a disastrous ending.

4) In M. Bulgakov’s story, Doctor Preobrazhensky turns a dog into a man. Scientists are driven by a thirst for knowledge, a desire to change nature. But sometimes progress turns into dire consequences: a two-legged creature with “ with a dog's heart“- this is not yet a person, because there is no soul in him, no love, honor, nobility.

b) “We boarded the plane, but we don’t know where it will land!” - wrote the famous Russian writer Yu. Bondarev. These words sound a warning addressed to all humanity. Indeed, we are sometimes very careless, we do something, “get on a plane,” without thinking about what the consequences of our hasty decisions and thoughtless actions will be. And these consequences can be fatal.

8) The press reported that the elixir of immortality would appear very soon. Death will be completely defeated. But for many people this news did not cause a surge of joy; on the contrary, anxiety intensified. How will this immortality turn out for a person?

9) There are still ongoing debates about how morally legitimate experiments related to human cloning are. Who will be born as a result of this cloning? What kind of creature will this be? Human? Cyborg? Means of production?

10) It is naive to believe that some kind of bans or strikes can stop scientific and technological progress. For example, in England, during a period of rapid development of technology, a movement of Luddites began, who in despair broke cars. People could be understood: many of them lost their jobs after machines began to be used in factories. But use technical achievements ensured an increase in productivity, so the performance of the followers of the apprentice Ludd was doomed. Another thing is that with their protest they forced society to think about the fate of specific people, about the penalty that has to be paid for moving forward.

11) One science fiction story tells how the hero, finding himself in the house of a famous scientist, saw a vessel in which his double, a genetic copy, was preserved in alcohol. The guest was amazed at the immorality of this act: “How could you create a creature similar to yourself and then kill it?” And they heard in response: “Why do you think that I created it? It was he who created me!”

12) Nicolaus Copernicus, after much research, came to the conclusion that the center of our Universe is not the Earth, but the Sun. But the scientist for a long time did not dare to publish data about his discovery, because he understood that such news would change people’s ideas about the world order. and this can lead to unpredictable consequences.

13) Today we have not yet learned to treat many deadly diseases, hunger has not yet been defeated, and the most pressing problems have not been solved. However, technically, man is already capable of destroying all life on the planet. At one time, the Earth was inhabited by dinosaurs - huge monsters, real killing machines. Over the course of evolution, these giant reptiles disappeared. Will humanity repeat the fate of dinosaurs?

14) There have been cases in history when some secrets that could cause harm to humanity were destroyed deliberately. In particular, in 1903, the Russian professor Filippov, who invented a method of transmitting shock waves from an explosion by radio over a long distance, was found dead in his laboratory. After this, by order of Nikolai P, all documents were confiscated and burned, and the laboratory was destroyed. It is not known whether the king was guided by the interests own safety or the future of humanity, but similar means power transmission

atomic or hydrogen explosion would be truly disastrous for the world's population.

15) Recently newspapers reported that a church under construction in Batumi was demolished. A week later, the district administration building collapsed. Seven people died under the rubble. Many residents perceived these events not as a mere coincidence, but as a dire warning that society had chosen the wrong path.

16) In one of the Ural cities they decided to blow up an abandoned church so that it would be easier to extract marble at this place. When the explosion occurred, it turned out that the marble slab was cracked in many places and became unusable. This example clearly shows that the thirst for short-term gain leads a person to meaningless destruction.

Man and cognition

1) Ancient historians say that one day a stranger came to the Roman emperor and brought him a gift of metal as shiny as silver, but extremely soft. The master said that he extracts this metal from clayey soil. The emperor, fearing that the new metal would devalue his treasures, ordered the inventor’s head to be cut off.

2) Archimedes, knowing that people were suffering from drought and hunger, proposed new ways to irrigate lands. Thanks to his discovery, crop yields increased sharply and people stopped being afraid of hunger.

3) The outstanding scientist Fleming discovered penicillin. This drug has saved the lives of millions of people who previously died from blood poisoning.

4) One English engineer in the mid-19th century proposed an improved cartridge. But officials from the military department arrogantly told him: “We are already strong, only the weak need to improve weapons.”

5) The famous scientist Jenner, who defeated smallpox with the help of vaccinations, was prompted by the words of an ordinary peasant woman to come up with a brilliant idea. The doctor told her that she had smallpox. To this the woman calmly replied: “It can’t be, because I already had cowpox.” The doctor did not consider these words to be the result of dark ignorance, but began to make observations that led to a brilliant discovery.

6) Early Middle Ages commonly called the “Dark Ages.” Barbarian raids, destruction ancient civilization led to a deep decline in culture. It was difficult to find a literate person not only among common people, but also among people of the upper class. For example, the founder of the Frankish state, Charlemagne, did not know how to write. However, the thirst for knowledge is inherently human. The same Charlemagne, during his campaigns, always carried with him wax tablets for writing, on which, under the guidance of teachers, he painstakingly wrote letters.

7) For thousands of years, ripe apples fell from trees, but no one attached any significance to this common phenomenon. The great Newton had to be born in order to look at a familiar fact with new, more insightful eyes and discover the universal law of motion.

8) It is impossible to calculate how many disasters their ignorance has brought to people. In the Middle Ages, every misfortune: illness of a child, death of livestock, rain, drought, poor harvest, loss of something - everything was explained by machinations evil spirits. A brutal witch hunt began and fires started burning. Instead of treating diseases, improving agriculture, helping each other, people enormous forces wasted on a meaningless struggle with the mythical “servants of Satan,” not realizing that with their blind fanaticism, their dark ignorance they serve the Devil.

9) It is difficult to overestimate the role of a mentor in the development of a person. An interesting legend is about the meeting of Socrates with Xenophon, the future historian. Once, having talked with an unfamiliar young man, Socrates asked him where to go for flour and butter. Young Xenophon answered smartly: “To the market.” Socrates asked: “What about wisdom and virtue?” The young man was surprised. “Follow me, I’ll show you!” - Socrates promised. And the long-term path to the truth connected strong friendship famous teacher and his student.

10) The desire to learn new things lives in each of us, and sometimes this feeling takes over a person so much that it forces him to change life path. Today, few people know that Joule, who discovered the law of conservation of energy, was a cook. The brilliant Faraday began his career as a peddler in a shop. And Coulon worked as an engineer on fortifications and devoted only his free time to physics. For these people, the search for something new has become the meaning of life.

11) New ideas make their way through a difficult struggle with old views and established opinions. Thus, one of the professors, lecturing students on physics, called Einstein’s theory of relativity “an annoying scientific misunderstanding” -

12) At one time, Joule used a voltaic battery to start an electric motor he had assembled from it. But the battery charge soon ran out, and a new one was very expensive. Joule decided that the horse would never be replaced by the electric motor, since it was much cheaper to feed a horse than to change the zinc in a battery. Today, when electricity is used everywhere, the opinion of an outstanding scientist seems naive to us. This example shows that it is very difficult to predict the future, it is difficult to survey the opportunities that will open up for a person.

13) In the mid-17th century, from Paris to the island of Martinique, Captain de Clieu carried a coffee stalk in a pot with soil. The voyage was very difficult: the ship survived a fierce battle with pirates, a terrible storm almost broke it against the rocks. At the trial, the masts were not broken, the rigging was broken. Supplies gradually began to run out fresh water. It was given out in strictly measured portions. The captain, barely able to stand on his feet from thirst, gave the last drops of precious moisture to the green sprout... Several years passed, and coffee trees covered the island of Martinique.

Woodcut is a wood engraving used to print images and texts. A pattern is applied to the polished surface, after which the lines of the pattern are cut off on both sides with a sharp knife, and the background is selected with wide chisels to a depth of 2-5 mm. After this, the board can be rolled with paint and printed on paper.

Woodblock printing originates in China, and is closely associated with Buddhism, which encourages the dissemination of sutras. The oldest surviving Chinese printed work dates back to 684~705.

Images on fabric are made using woodblock printing. Central Asia and in Byzantine Empire, and in Islamic Egypt there are examples of printing on papers dating back to the year 1000.

In Europe, textile printing spread before paper printing, and was common by 1300. Woodblock prints on paper began to be made almost as soon as paper became widely available around 1400.

The woodcut technique was the same as in Asia: a mirror-relief image or text was cut out on a wooden board, then paint was applied to the relief, and the printer pressed a sheet of paper to this board, easily smoothing it with a brush.

Poor Man's Bible

In Europe, woodblock printing was used to print images of saints, texts of prayers, and secular works, such as calendars and playing cards.

Woodblock books steel popular literature for poor, often semi-literate city dwellers. Therefore, they were supplied with a large number of illustrations, and by modern standards they were not books, but comics.

A typical example is the Poor Man's Bible, a popular retelling of the Old and New Testaments with numerous illustrations. The only example of a book from that time that does not contain images is a textbook on Latin grammar.

To print books with images, so-called “block books,” they used one board on which both text and pictures were located. Engravings were applied to paper sheets, filling them. To prevent the pages of the book from getting mixed up and lost, they were glued together.

Most woodcut books around 1480 were printed on only one side of the sheet - it was difficult to print on both sides without staining the first side. Sometimes printed sheets were glued together with blank sides, but this was inconvenient. Specifications Printing on both sides of a sheet was created only by the invention of the printing press.

Woodcut books by the middle of the 15th century. have spread throughout Western Europe. The centers of their production were Northern Germany and Holland. In 1417, Antwerp woodcuts united into one workshop with portholes and carving artists. This is how the printers' workshop appears.

Woodcut "books for the poor" were not recognized educated people and the clergy. They did not end up in monastery libraries and private collections, but passed from hand to hand until they wore out. “Serious” books continued to be written on parchment.

In fact, in late Middle Ages There are two types of book production - parchment manuscripts for religious and university literature, and paper woodcuts for the poorly educated common people.

However, soon the invention and improvement of type and the printing press replaced both manuscripts and woodcuts from book production in Europe.

Nevertheless, the school of woodcut printing of artistic engravings is preserved and developed, and for a long time it is the main way to create illustrations for early printed books in Europe.