What did the ancient Indians do? How did ancient India represent the structure and shape of the Earth? Archaeological data on the ancient history of India

The culture of Ancient and Medieval India is one of the most interesting topics for those who want to learn something truly unusual and exotic. The fact is that the traditions of this country are so different from everything that can be seen in the world that at first you can’t even believe that all this happened on our planet. However, then, when the realization comes that these people lived and continue to live with us on the same Earth, the question arises: “How much do we know about humanity?”

Let's try to figure out what the culture of Ancient India was like. We will try to cover this topic briefly, but in as much detail as possible.

History of the country

The culture of Ancient India is divided into two stages: Harappan and Indo-Aryan.

About the first of them our knowledge today is very scarce. Thus, scientists can only claim that the first civilization, located on the territory of the Hindustan Peninsula and Pakistan, was incredibly developed for its time. Local residents had running water, carefully planned cities and a written language. And all this 2000 years BC!

Unfortunately, these ancient predecessors of the Hindus did not leave us any full-fledged literary sources. We have an idea of ​​the art of the Harappans only thanks to miniature sculptures that are made with incredible detail and accuracy. Unfortunately, there are not many of them left. Today, finding such a sculpture for an archaeologist means a huge success. The Harappan civilization itself disappeared without a trace for reasons unknown to us.

Most likely, it was destroyed due to the rapidly changing climate at that time. Also, the disappearance of the Harappans could have been caused by the actions of bloodthirsty tribes of nomads, united under the common name “Aryans”. By the way, very quickly they settled on the Hindustan Peninsula and began to set a new cultural tone on it.

Everything we know about the Aryans has survived to this day in the form of the Vedas written by them. This is one of the oldest literary sources in the world. And although the history of Ancient India in it takes on a more religious connotation, this book remains for us the only opportunity to look into the past.

At that time there was no single state of India. For the first time, all the city-kingdoms that were located on the territory of the peninsula in the first millennium BC. e., united to fight Alexander the Great. By the way, it was thanks to repelling the attack of this powerful army that the culture of Ancient India remained so original. After all, she never received the “injection” of antiquity, which the Persian peoples received in full.

Later, the peninsula was divided many times by various invaders and narcissistic kings. It was the reluctance of the Indians to become one superpower that became the main weakness during the expansion of the British Empire.

Fortunately, thanks to the efforts of Gandhi and his supporters, we now have one integral Indian state on the map.

Caste system

Life in Ancient India was a real test of humility of spirit. The fact is that those same Aryan “Vedas” created a unique rule for the social distribution of benefits and rights within a culture. This system was called caste. In total, there are four groups in this division - as the Hindus call them, varnas.

The first and most revered group are the priests. For a Hindu, they were not only a connection with the gods, but also healers, the wisest men, whose opinion was worth listening to.

The second most important were the warriors (only the large professional class, not the militia).

The third group included simple people- various artisans, merchants and peasants. All of them were free and could control their destiny as they wished (within the framework of their varna, of course). This was the most numerous, the main caste.

The fourth group included slaves and prisoners of war, who were in every ancient state. They, of course, were not really considered people - they were lower beings, forever doomed to work and suffering.

Over time, the caste system developed and acquired new subtypes, but they all appeared within one of the four varnas. The peculiarities of the culture of Ancient India appeared thanks to the philosophy that explained this division: it was believed that every person born on earth has his own role and does not have the right to change it, since the gods have prepared a similar fate for him. It was not easy to move from varna to varna, especially if we are talking about climbing up the social ladder. Although even a fall did not always have to be feared: a rare ruler, after conquering lands, changed people, making priests slaves. This was seen as a challenge to the gods and an attempt to destroy the fragile world order, which was maintained thanks to a clearly laid down system.

Hinduism

The religion and culture of Ancient India are intertwined with each other in such a way that it is virtually impossible to consider them separately. After all, the entire way of life and culture of the inhabitants of the peninsula is based on faith.

The most common religion in India is Hinduism. The foundations of this belief were laid in the Vedas, and it was thanks to it that the caste system was established. Its necessity was explained by the constant action of the “wheel of rebirth of souls,” or “samsara.” It was believed that what varna a person will fall into at his next birth depends on the karma he acquired during his life - bad or good.

It is noteworthy that in the Western tradition the theory of karma is interpreted incorrectly from the point of view of Hinduism, because it works exclusively in the caste system, and is not based on the concept of “good” and “evil”. What is a virtue for a slave (for example, submission) and will become a plus for him during rebirth, can be an absolute minus for a king. That is, karma depends, first of all, on how conscientiously a person fulfilled his role in society.

No other culture of ancient civilizations has so many paradoxes. India, along with its religion, confidently takes first place in this list, because its religion contains simultaneously monotheism, polytheism and totemism. This sounds crazy to a European person. But followers of Hinduism calmly explain this: there is one, the supreme god Vishnu, he is omniscient and omnipotent. He is outside samsara, but falls into it in various images, which are the other gods, or, as they are called, avatars. But that’s not all, because specifically on earth, in our material human world, The Supreme God, through his avatars, descends in the form of animals: monkeys, cows, cobras.

That is, whoever the adept of a religion worships, he in any case serves Vishnu. This explains why the cultural history of Ancient India has almost no religious conflicts. The same Buddha, who will be discussed further, was perceived in Hinduism as another avatar of Vishnu.

Buddhism

The history of Ancient India also tells us about the emergence of one of the three world religions - Buddhism. In fact, the origins of this belief must also be sought in Hinduism, since the main idea of ​​the “wheel of rebirth” came from there.

Another question is how Buddhists presented him in their faith. In the first millennium BC. e. originated in India new idea seeking salvation from the cycle of endless rebirths and dependence on karma. Ascetics and hermits began to appear in gigantic numbers in the country, seeking the truth in all possible ways.

Among them, Siddhartha Gautama stood out - the prince of a small Indian state, who, having lived most of his life in luxury, escaped from the palace to find out the nature of human suffering. After 7 years of wandering, the details of which we know from legends, he found enlightenment.

Along with its discovery, the culture of ancient India also changed. To briefly retell the view of the world through the prism of Buddhism, one can say this: a person, by definition, is doomed to suffer while in the endless wheel of samsara. However, salvation is possible. It is called “nirvana” and is a state of peace of the human soul, the renunciation of all passions. It is in the gradual renunciation of emotions and desires that the secret of salvation lies. When a person reaches the state of nirvana, he becomes enlightened, that is, Buddha. Anyone can be one, and for this it is not necessary to be born as some kind of superman or king. This religion assures us that everyone can be saved, regardless of the caste system, you just need to want and make an effort.

Buddhism also teaches a person the philosophy of the “middle path”: you should not go to extremes in anything, you should always look for something in the center. As a rule, this is how the true answer to the question is found. In general, it is very difficult to call all this “religion” in the traditional sense of the word. It is, rather, a philosophical movement that has its own monasteries and strong tradition.

Buddhism is absolutely not concerned with the nature of the question of the supreme being - it simply does not exist in this religion. But if a person wants to believe in the Almighty, the doors to a Buddhist temple are still open for him: the philosophy of Buddha does not officially accept or reject the presence of God in the world, leaving this to everyone’s personal consideration.

Scientific knowledge

It should be noted that Ancient India is characterized not only by its original culture, but also developed science. Thus, from time immemorial this country has been famous for its mathematics and astronomy.

Local astrologers at the beginning of the 1st century AD. e. argued that the Earth is a ball rotating both around its axis and around the Sun. And the very numbers that we usually call Arabic actually came to us through Persia from India, where they were invented. In addition, the scientists of this country were the first to introduce the concept of zero, absolute emptiness, into mathematics. No one had thought of this before - because why count something that doesn’t exist.

In their science, the Hindus primarily developed absolutely practical knowledge related to calendar calculation of time, surgical operations and the creation of medicines. However, they never went deeper than necessary, for example, into the same anatomy. And all because every Hindu set himself the goal of understanding the world through philosophy, which was relegated to a separate category.

Unlike China, the state of Ancient India had almost no famous inventors. Science here differed significantly from what is meant by the term in the rest of the world. First of all, science among the ancient Hindus was the knowledge of human nature and soul, and not, for example, physics and arithmetic. The same zero appeared exclusively in the context of searching for peace of mind.

Literature

From the point of view of literature, the artistic culture of Ancient India is based primarily on various sacred texts.

The first and most important of them is the already mentioned “Vedas”. The plot tells about the struggle of the Aryans for survival on the territory of the peninsula. The Vedas are divided into four equal parts: sacrificial formulas, magic spells, songs and religious hymns. This book is the oldest literary source in India, but it appeared in written form much later. At least, representatives of the priestly varna knew the texts by heart much earlier than they appeared on paper.

Also, the art of the pen in the ancient state was represented by various epic works, the most famous of which are the Mahabharata and Ramayana, poems about the journey of two avatars of Vishnu. However most of The text in these works is far from the main storylines and is a retelling of myths and legends, as well as various ancient Indian parables.

In general, the literature of this state in ancient times was mainly built exclusively on the form of parables or fables. Thanks to this, it combined moral teachings and a certain religious meaning.

In addition, Indian literature was rich in various treatises of a religious nature, although the word “religion” in our understanding is not applicable to the religions of the ancient inhabitants of the peninsula. These works examined and analyzed the fundamentals of the Buddhist and Hindu worldview.

Fine arts and architecture

The artistic culture of Ancient India is inextricably linked with architecture and fine arts. And the point here, first of all, is that it is impossible for us to find out exactly how the most ancient peoples of the peninsula lived. Their paintings, sculptures and buildings were mostly made on wooden base, and therefore simply did not survive the test of time for several millennia.

For our eyes, Indian architecture reveals itself only from the 1st millennium AD. e., when Buddhists began to use stone to create stupas. These are sacred objects in which, according to legend, material parts of the Buddha are stored - for example, his hair. There are quite a lot of similar structures all over India, and they create our main impression of Indian architecture. For local residents they represent the same thing as a temple for the Orthodox.

The tradition of sculpture has also reached us from that time, excluding those small sculptures of the Harappan era that were mentioned earlier. In fact, the whole world knows the giant Buddha statues near temples and the images of the prophet carved into the rocks. In addition, Hindus hold in great esteem figurines of various incarnations of Vishnu, which they place in their homes and altars. However, the descendants of the Aryans do not have a clear concept of sculpture as an art devoid of religious orientation.

The fine art of Ancient India has come down to us thanks to cave monasteries. Local residents never used canvas and paper for painting, choosing stone walls for this. Therefore, you won’t be able to go to a gallery of ancient Indian drawings, and in order to see the artists’ works, you will have to travel around the whole country. And, again, plot and everyday themes were almost not reflected in this type of creativity: it was based on parable stories from Buddhist and Hindu mythology.

Theater

The independent achievements of the culture of Ancient India in matters of theater are much smaller than, for example, Japanese performances. This is mainly due to the fact that the ideas of local residents have not moved away from the primitive enactment of scenes of the relationships between gods and myths. As a result, they never achieved the serious and multi-layered dramaturgy for which the European tradition is famous.

The basis of an Indian performance is spectacle, music and choreography. Many speeches are completely plastic and have no text. The main thing for theater in Indian culture is entertainment and instructive (from the point of view of their philosophy) morality.

A striking example of this type of representation is widely famous theater shadows, which made it possible to show all the mystical nature of the gods without any special decorative delights. This is actually the Indian version of ideas - the minimum number expressive means, which are created solely to convey one thought and convey philosophy.

Indian music arose in the same context as theater and is inextricably linked with it. It is difficult to say whether there is an independent direction - basically all these ethnic tunes and melodies were simply an addition to the performances and were not perceived by Indians as a separate art.

Influence of Indian culture

For many centuries, India itself was “cooked” in the cauldron of its culture and was supplemented only by the influence of the peoples living in the neighborhood. However, in the 20th century, Europeans discovered the uniqueness of the customs of this country.

Nowadays, a huge number of Western people are involved in the study of the subject “culture of ancient India”. They take advantage of its philosophical and esoteric achievements and are interested in Buddhism and its various branches.

The system of providing your body and spirit with the right loads, called yoga, has now gone far beyond the aura of hermits. Now this practice has become a world heritage. Yoga schools are open in almost every civilized country in the world.

Also, many people whose spirit is preoccupied with the search for truth find peace thanks to the religious achievements of Indian culture. The same “Vedas”, as the oldest religious text in the world, becomes a real discovery for many, since it seems that through it one can see true essence divine origin.

It is clear that the culture of India has changed a lot, and not all Western people understand it correctly. The same karma, as already mentioned, in its original world simply in theory cannot exist until the caste system of society is used.

Conclusion

Many people today are interested in the history and culture of the Ancient East. India occupies a special place in this topic. There are many traditions and practices in the culture of this country that may be misunderstood by us. However, you need to know that all this did not arise from a good life: the paradoxical lump called “the culture and art of Ancient India” was dictated to the Hindus by their very life and the need to somehow explain the complexities of existence.

Now Indian culture is rapidly modernizing and changing in a Western manner. The caste system in civilized big cities has disappeared. However, it still remains unique and necessary to study for those people who want to expand their horizons. It is especially recommended to study it for those who are trying to find at least some point of support and peace in the world, but the methods proposed by the Western tradition do not help.

Data modern science make it possible to show the important historical significance already in ancient times of one of the greatest countries in the world - India, to establish the origins of its civilization.

Already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. existed in India slave society, writing was known, and a relatively high level of culture was achieved.

Primitive communal system in India

Natural conditions

The name India comes from the name of the largest river in the northwest of this country. The ancient Indians called her Sindhu; This word sounded Hindu among the ancient Persians, and Indos among the ancient Greeks. In Europe, the country located in the basin of this river and to the east of it began to be called India in ancient times. The ancient Indians themselves did not have a generally accepted name for the entire country.

India is located in South Asia, on the Deccan (Hindustan) Peninsula and the part of the mainland adjacent to it from the north. In the north it is limited by the Himalayas - the world's greatest system of mountain ranges; in the east, low but impassable mountains separating India from the countries of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula; in the west - spurs of the Himalayas, as well as other mountain ranges. To the west of these spurs there are desert and semi-desert areas with a mountainous landscape. The Deccan Peninsula juts deep into the Indian Ocean, forming the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east. India's coastline is sparsely indented, there are few islands nearby, and the Indian Ocean remains rough for much of the year. All this hindered the early development of navigation. The geographical isolation of India made it difficult for its peoples to communicate with the outside world. However, the peoples of India, especially those inhabiting its northwestern part, even under these conditions maintained diverse ties with their neighbors for many millennia.

Geographically, India is clearly divided into two main parts: the southern - peninsular and northern - mainland. On the border between them there are mountains consisting of a number of latitudinal ranges (the largest of them is Vindhya), covered in ancient times dense forests. This mountainous area was a significant obstacle to communication between the northern and southern parts of the country, which contributed to some of their historical isolation from each other.

Southern India is a peninsula shaped like an irregular triangle with its apex facing south. The central part of the peninsula is occupied by the Deccan Plateau, enclosed between the Western and Eastern Ghats - mountains stretching along the western and eastern coasts. The Deccan Plateau has a slight slope from west to east, so almost all the major rivers of South India flow to the east. The coastal plains are most favorable for agriculture here. The central part of the peninsula is quite dry, as the mountains bordering the Deccan Plateau block the moist winds blowing from the ocean. The rivers of South India are characterized by unstable water regimes and rapid flows, which makes them difficult to use for transport and artificial irrigation.

Northern (mainland) India is divided by the Thar Desert and the vast semi-desert spaces adjacent to it into Western and Eastern. The most convenient routes of communication between them are located closer to the foothills of the Himalayas.

In the western part of Northern India is Punjab (Pyatirechye) - the valley of the Indus River and five large rivers that merge together and flow into the Indus with one river stream. Due to the arid climate, artificial irrigation is necessary for agriculture to develop here. True, areas immediately adjacent to the rivers of the Indus basin can be irrigated by their floods

In the eastern part of Northern India there is the valley of the Ganges River and its numerous deep tributaries. Currently it is almost treeless, but in ancient times it was covered with dense forests. The lower reaches of the Ganges have a very humid climate. Even such moisture-loving crops as rice, jute, sugar cane can be grown here without the use of artificial irrigation. However, as we move westward, precipitation becomes less and less abundant, and artificial irrigation becomes more and more necessary.

The natural conditions of India are extremely diverse: here are the world's highest mountains and vast plains, areas with exceptional amounts of precipitation and deserts, vast steppes and impenetrable jungles, areas with a very hot climate and high mountainous regions where ice and snow never melt. The flora and fauna of India is also rich and diverse. At the same time, many breeds of animals, for example, various types of cattle (zebu, buffalo, etc.), are easily tamed and domesticated. Many types of plants, including rice, cotton, jute, sugar cane, etc., were possible to cultivate even in very distant times.

One of the most important factors determining the climate of India as a whole is the southwest monsoons, which begin to blow from the Indian Ocean in June - July and bring the bulk of atmospheric precipitation. Therefore, in most regions of the country there is a very economically favorable combination of the period of maximum solar heat with the period of maximum precipitation.

The peculiarities of the geographical environment left their mark on the history of the peoples of India, contributing to the acceleration of the pace of historical development in some areas and slowdown in others.

India is larger in size than all the previously mentioned slave countries. The natural conditions of India, the ethnic composition of the population and the historical destinies of its various peoples are very diverse. This complicates the study of the ancient history of this country.

The study of the ancient history of India is also complicated by the fact that we do not have a single accurately dated written source older than the 4th century. BC e. Only for time starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. it is possible to establish the facts of political history and name with confidence the names of some historical figures. Archaeological data and materials of legends preserved in religious literature, epic, etc., for all their value, do not yet provide an opportunity to resolve many of the most important problems of the country’s ancient history.

Population

India, currently the second most populous country in the world after China, was densely populated even in ancient times; It is known that the Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century. BC e., considered India the most populated country in the world.

The ethnic composition of the population of modern India is heterogeneous. The peoples of North-West India differ little in their physical appearance from the peoples of Iran and Central Asia. The peoples of the southern part of the peninsula differ significantly from the inhabitants of the northwestern part of the country: for example, their skin color is much darker. Other peoples of India have intermediate anthropological features between these two main ones. The population of India is also very diverse in terms of language. The numerous languages ​​of the peoples of India for the most part belong to two groups that differ significantly from each other - Indo-European and Dravidian, which is a special language not related to others. language family. The languages ​​of the first group predominate over most of India, the Dravidian languages ​​only in the southern half of peninsular India; there are isolated pockets of Dravidian languages ​​in the northwest and Indo-European languages ​​in the south. In addition, in remote mountainous areas live peoples whose generally accepted classification according to anthropological and linguistic principles does not yet exist.

It is not yet possible to determine with certainty how this ethnic diversity came about. There are only various assumptions being made. For example, the fact that the population of Northern India is more similar in appearance and language on the peoples inhabiting Iran and Central Asia than on the population of South India, led European scientists of the 19th century. to the conclusion that India, whose indigenous population, in their opinion, were peoples speaking the languages ​​of the Dravidian group, was once invaded by the so-called “Aryans,” a group of tribes who spoke the language of the Indo-European family. Based on this assumption about the arrival of Indo-European tribes in India, the so-called theory of the “Aryan conquest of India” was created. However, what these tribes were, where they came from and when, in what form their invasion took place - none of the hypotheses expressed gives a substantiated answer to all these questions. India is one of the oldest centers of civilization.

Archaeological data on the ancient history of India

The main creator of the distinctive and original Indian culture, undoubtedly, was her indigenous people. Archaeological research in India began relatively recently, but it has already produced, especially in recent decades, extremely rich results that make it possible to shed new light on some of the most important issues in the country's ancient history.

India has been inhabited since ancient times. This is evidenced by finds in various parts of the country of tools dating back to Lower Paleolithic(Chellean and Acheulean types). However, no traces of Paleolithic man have yet been found in the main parts of the Indus and Ganges river valleys, this is quite consistent with the research of geologists showing that these most important areas of modern India were swampy and covered with jungle during the Stone Age. Their development was at that time a task beyond the power of man.

The Neolithic period in India has been better and more fully studied. Neolithic human settlements have also been found in river valleys, although they are still less common here than in hilly and mountainous areas. During this period, as well as in the previous one, the main material from which tools were made was stone. However, stone processing technology has reached significant heights; Neolithic tools were carefully trimmed, and sometimes, especially their working parts, were polished. The development of the production of stone products is evidenced by a special workshop for their production discovered in the Bellary district (Madras state).

Residents of Neolithic settlements were already engaged in primitive agriculture, knew how to tame livestock, and made pottery. The ancient Indians of the Neolithic times knew how to make boats that they were not afraid to sail even into the sea. Many sites of Neolithic man have been discovered in caves, although real dwellings of the simplest type were also built at this time. In some Neolithic sites, paintings were discovered on the walls of caves. The most interesting examples of Neolithic painting are found in caves near the village of Singanpur (Central India).

Public relations

Data on the primitive communal system in India have been preserved historical legends, myths, legends collected in ancient Indian religious literature and in the ancient Indian epic in the Indo-European language - Sanskrit. These legends go back to the 2nd millennium BC. e., but certainly retained earlier data, including about the population who spoke non-Indo-European languages. Studying the remnants of primitive communal relations among some tribes and nationalities of modern India also helps to understand the course of the historical development of the country in the distant past. Traditions and legends preserve vague memories of the period of gathering, how man learned to make and use fire and what significance he attached to this achievement.

Evidence has been preserved indicating the existence of a tribal community in India - the Ghana. Ghana usually consisted of one settlement - grama and was a single economic and social organism. Members of the Ghana were related by blood, each participated in the production process and military operations on an equal basis with everyone else and had the right to an equal share with others in the distribution of products collective work. The head of the community - ganapati, who supervised all the work, was elected by the community meeting - sabha. War booty was the property of the entire community, and what was to be consumed individually was divided equally. Position of a woman in. community was high. Relationships were counted on the maternal side, which indicates the presence of a maternal family at that time.

In the above written sources There is also data (however, scanty and insufficiently defined) about the tribal organization. The tribe, you see, consisted of several ganas. The supreme authority in the tribe was the general meeting of all adult members of the tribe - the samati, which elected the tribal leader - the raja, the head of the tribal militia.

Religious beliefs were based on the worship of the forces of nature, and the cult consisted of sacrifices to the gods along with various magical acts that represented the ritual reproduction of production processes in the community. During religious holidays, hymns were sung in praise of the gods. The religious ritual was led by the head of the community. There was no professional priesthood yet. The dead were buried without a coffin or in special urns. Known and tombstones like dolmens.

Transition to metal

Gold was the first metal that the ancient Indians learned to use, but it was used only to make jewelry. The first metal tools and weapons, dating from the end of the 4th and beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e., were first made of copper, and then of bronze. Naturally, the transition to metal tools occurred primarily in those areas in which there were deposits of copper ore with a high metal content. The oldest center of Indian metallurgy was probably the region of the Vindhya Mountains. This is evidenced by excavations in Gungeria (Madhya Pradesh), which discovered an ancient warehouse of various copper products (more than 400 items weighing about 360 kg), but the most ancient Indian civilization developed primarily in areas favorable for agriculture, which was at that time the most progressive type of economic activity. activities. Here the use of metal tools gave greatest effect in the sense of increasing labor productivity and the possibility of obtaining surplus product.

Interesting facts about Ancient India. A magical and fabulous country, one of the most ancient. India is full of secrets and mysteries; many facts about this state seem incredible. It is from India that many human achievements originate. Let's learn more about some of them.

1. The favorite game of many, chess, has come to modern world from India.
2. Even in ancient times, the inhabitants of India made crystalline sugar from cane. Many people who lived at that time were amazed at how honey could be made without bees; it was artificial honey made from sugar.

   

3. India is the birthplace of the world famous hookah. They taught the Persians to smoke, the Persians taught the Egyptians, and so gradually the whole world learned about it.

   

4. There are as many religions as in India, no other civilization has. In religion, Indian culture has no equal. Since ancient times, Hindus have worshiped many gods and composed a lot of legends and stories about the origin of humanity. The religion of India has left its mark on many modern creeds.

   

5. The people of Ancient India did a lot for the development of science. Indian sages achieved enormous success in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and also in linguistics. They knew the meaning of the number “pi”, and came up with the decimal counting system, the numbers we use are also their merit. Many mathematical terms were also invented by the people of India. In astronomy, they guessed about the rotation of the earth around its axis. Even in those distant times, doctors performed operations using special instruments. Doctors treated serious diseases with herbal remedies. While in other civilizations they had no idea about this.

   

6. Hindus are not inferior in literature. The Vedas are the most ancient literary heritage. They were created 2 thousand years ago BC. Later came the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Next came the Panchatantra. It was a collection of fables, fairy tales, parables and legends, its contents were instructive.

   

7. Surely everyone associates India with songs and dances; without this it is impossible to imagine this culture. Indian dances and theater have their origins in the ancient rituals of Indian tribes. Hindus consider Shiva to be the king of dance, and also give preference to Krishna.

   

8. There are quite a few achievements in chemistry. Ancient Hindus were knowledgeable about various metals and alloys. They knew how to create dyes, glass, jewelry, aromatic substances, and even poisons.

   

9. In ancient India they knew human anatomy well. Doctors knew all the organs of the human body. They were able to correctly diagnose and prescribe treatment.

   

10. Hindus were able to tame a huge animal - the elephant. These animals served to transport heavy loads and carry logs. They also took part in battles, warriors sat on them and shot arrows at enemies. Elephants trampled enemies. Hindus believed that elephants were of divine origin; one of their gods had the head of an elephant. Buffaloes served them to dig up the fields, and the cow was considered a sacred animal, she was called the mother and nurse. Killing a cow was considered a sin.

    

11. People built their homes along rivers or on the edge of the jungle. Ordinary Indians were engaged in growing wheat, vegetables and barley. They knew how to grow cotton, from which they made yarn, and made comfortable clothes. Over time, these clothes have colorfully transformed.

    

12. The cities of ancient India had sewerage systems. The sewage system was simply exemplary in those days. It was collected from a network of channels. Everything was done very thoughtfully and carefully. The channels were cleaned from time to time. Outside the city they made drains from bricks.

    

13. There is information in history that Indians fought unusual wars. They used some kind of “weapon of the gods.” What is most interesting is that the effect of this weapon is similar to nuclear weapons; at that moment, humanity was still very far from such achievements.

    

14. In the last century, a unique archaeological discovery was made. Near the Indus River, a huge city was excavated. Its length was 5 km, the city itself was divided into 12 parts. The streets were level and straight. The houses are built of clay and brick.

    

15. In ancient India there were schools of sculpture. The largest of them are Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravata. The sculptures of India are religious and cultural in nature. The Hindus have come up with a special manual for making sculptures.

    

The ancient Indians divided the history of mankind into four centuries. The first, they thought, was an age of general prosperity. People did not know illness or need, there was no need to work, since nature itself gave man everything he needed. There was no oppression, and no one lived at the expense of others. Everyone was equal, virtuous and fair.

These were the vague memories of the ancient Indians about the period of the primitive communal system. The continuous difficult struggle for life with a formidable nature, wild animals, hostile tribes, hunger - all this was forgotten. People only remembered that then everyone was equal, there were no masters or slaves.

In the second century, virtue in people decreased by one quarter. They already had to work hard to earn their own food. Virtue declined by another quarter in the third century, and disease and natural disasters befell the people. And in the fourth century, life became very difficult for people.

The Indians called this age “dark” and “sinful”: only one quarter of the former virtue remained among people. Some oppress others. The vicious enjoy the joys of life, but the virtuous are left with only sorrows. Royal power arises, and kings try to protect the rich and noble from the poor and oppressed with severe punishments.

Life was painted in such a gloomy light for the working people of slave-owning India.

Yet, long before our era, rumors about India as a “land of wonders” began to spread throughout the world. And it did not arise by chance. A lot of amazing and beautiful things were created in ancient times by the work of entire generations of Indians.

In India already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. arose high for that time. But this was only in the north-west of the country. Rare hunting tribes roamed the rest of its territory and reigned stone Age. The most densely populated areas of modern India - the Ganges River valley and the sea coasts - were then covered with jungles and swamps. Only at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. BC, having mastered the technology of mining and processing iron, the Indians began to cut down the jungle and drain the swamps. At the cost of enormous labor over many centuries, people developed the Ganges Valley. By the 5th century BC e. There is almost no uninhabited land left in this fertile valley. Many small states arose here, often at war with each other.

In the 4th century. BC e. India experienced an invasion. In the Indus River valley, the invaders managed to overcome the stubborn resistance of local tribes, but by this time the states of the Ganges valley had already been united by the kings of the country of Magadha into one strong state, and the Macedonians did not dare to continue their campaign further to the east.

Soon the Macedonian garrisons were expelled from the north-west of the country. After this, Chandragupta, who led the liberation movement, seized power in Magadha. He and his successors managed to subjugate other parts of the country, and under his grandson, King Ashoka (3rd century BC), almost all of India, except the extreme south of the peninsula, came under the rule of the kings of Magadha. Since Chandragupta and his descendants belonged to the Mauryan family, their state is usually called the “Mauryan Empire.”

In conquering new territories, the Mauryan kings and the nobility around them pursued their own personal goals, but the unification of the country into a strong state was also in the interests of the Indian people. Now no one could invade India with impunity; after all, Chandragupta, as the Greeks claimed, had an army of 600 thousand infantry, 30 thousand horsemen and 9 thousand war elephants. Roads and rivers have become safe for communication. Debilitating internal wars, during which people died, cities and villages were destroyed, and crops were trampled, stopped. True, the Mauryas left most of the former kings and tribal leaders in their places, but the willfulness of the local rulers was greatly limited.

Mauryan state at the beginning of the 2nd century. BC e. fell apart because the individual parts of the empire never formed a lasting unified whole. India was again invaded from the northwest by conquerors greedy for other people's goods: the Greeks, who settled in Central Asia under Alexander the Great, the Scythians, and the Kushans. Only at the beginning of the 4th century. n. e., five centuries after the collapse of the Mauryan state, Magadha again managed to unite almost all of Northern India. This new state is called the “Gupta Empire” after the reigning dynasty.

Legends, confirmed by scientific data, say that during the times of the Mauryan and Gupta empires, India was a powerful and independent country, and the people achieved great success in the development of the economy and culture.

The Greeks who visited India back in the 4th-3rd centuries. before i. e., they were told with surprise that in this country a sweet-tasting white stone is mined, which melts when it is put in the mouth. It was sugar; Indians called it "sharkara". They were the first to learn how to grow sugar cane and extract sugar from it. The Greeks also said that Indians grow wool on trees, i.e. cotton. The Indians were the first to master the cotton culture. India was known in Europe as a supplier of various spices, incense, highly valued at that time, and durable and bright vegetable dyes.

The art of the ancient masters was great.

In the vicinity of Delhi (now the capital of the Indian Republic) there is an iron column 7 ½ m high and weighing 6 ½ tons. It was made at the beginning of the 5th century. n. e. Scientists still cannot explain how Indians, more than one and a half thousand years ago, were able to perform work that only a very few factories in Europe and America would have undertaken just 100 years ago. At the same time, iron is so High Quality that it does not rust at all, although in the hot and humid climate of India, iron objects usually deteriorate very quickly.

The high art of ancient Indian metalworkers is evidenced by large statues cast from copper, weapons that were known far beyond the borders of the country, tools, and silver utensils. Even then, India was famous for its high-quality cotton and silk fabrics.

Carpenters knew how to build multi-story wooden houses. Shipwrights created river and sea vessels, some of which could carry hundreds of passengers. Builders built dams and canals for artificial irrigation of fields.

Ancient cave temples and monasteries have been preserved in different parts of the country; There are especially many of them in Central India, in the Ajanta Mountains. Vast halls were carved into the rocks and decorated with carved columns and ornaments.

Colored paintings have been preserved on some walls, fascinating contemporary artists and art historians.

The ancient Indians conducted extensive trade by land and sea not only with their neighbors, but also with distant countries. The journey by sea to China was long and dangerous. The peoples of Europe at that time had not yet undertaken such voyages. India exported iron products, fabrics, ivory, precious stones, pearls, incense, and spices to other countries.

The demand for Indian goods in the Mediterranean countries was very great, and Indian merchants received a lot of gold in payment for them. Non-ferrous metals and products made from them, slaves, and horses were imported to India.

Cities were centers of crafts and trade.

Foreigners were surprised at their number, size, crowdedness and wealth. Thus, the largest city of ancient India, the capital of Magadha Pataliputra (now Patna), according to the Greeks, was about 15 km long and about 3 km wide.

In connection with the growing needs of everyday life and production, science also developed.

We use so-called Arabic numerals (European peoples borrowed them from the Arabs), but the Arabs themselves borrowed these numerals from the Indians. And not only numbers, but also a system for using them, in which each number changes its meaning depending on its place in the number (positional system). The Indians also introduced zero into the digital system. There is not a single achievement in the field of mathematics equal in significance to these inventions of unknown ancient Indian mathematicians.

European peoples borrowed algebra from the Arabs (the word “algebra” itself, as is known, is of Arabic origin). However, in this science, the teachers of the Arabs were Indians.

India is a multinational and multilingual country. And in ancient times, different tribes and peoples who inhabited India spoke different languages. However, there was a language called Sanskrit, which was not spoken, but all educated Indians knew it. Sanskrit played the same role in India as the Latin language in medieval Europe, that is, it was a means of cultural communication for various tribes and peoples. Works of fiction, epics, scientific works, and collections of laws were recorded on it. Some of the modern Indian languages 70-80% consist of words borrowed from Sanskrit. The grammar of this language, compiled by the Indian scientist Panini back in the 5th century, has reached us. BC e. This is the oldest grammar in the world.

In ancient India, like no other country of that time, the science of language - linguistics - was developed.

Ancient Indian literature is rich and diverse. Particularly famous was the poet and playwright (5th century AD), who occupies the same place in Indian literature as Shakespeare in English and Pushkin in Russian.

Collections of ancient Indian folk tales, stories and fables spread far beyond the borders of the country back in the Middle Ages and were translated into other languages. Under their influence, a ancient Greece a collection of fables known as Aesop's Fables, and in Arab countries the tales of One Thousand and One Nights.

The achievements of ancient times penetrated in many ways Indian culture to other countries. The labor experience, technical skills and art of Indian artisans and artists spread through trade. Foreign merchants, ambassadors and travelers who visited India spoke about the scientific achievements of Indians in their homeland. Some specially came to India, which was known as the land of sages, to enrich their knowledge. When the Indian religion, Buddhism, began to spread in the countries of Southeast Asia and the Far East, Sanskrit, Indian literature, and objects of art penetrated into these countries.

Mass migration of Indians began in the countries of Southeast Asia - Ceylon, Burma, Indonesia, etc. - in the first centuries of our era, so the influence of Indian culture on the language, religion, architecture, literature and art of the peoples of these countries turned out to be the strongest.

A great and beautiful culture was created by the hands of millions of Indian workers, but only a small part of the population of ancient India lived in happiness and contentment. Numerous slaves, who were the complete property of their masters, eked out a miserable, hopeless existence. And there was no equality among the free. They were divided into four groups: “Brahmins” - priests, “Kshatriyas” - warriors, “Vaishiyas” - peasants, artisans and merchants, and “Sudras” - servants and hired workers. From birth, an Indian belonged to a certain group: the children of a brahmana were brahmanas, a kshatriya - kshatriyas, etc. Such closed social groups are called castes. The lowest castes were Vaishyas and Shudras; only they paid taxes. The position of the Shudras was especially difficult and humiliating.

They were required to be only servants of members of the upper castes. It was supposed to cut off a Sudra's tongue if he spoke insolence to a Brahman, and cut off his hand if he hit a Brahman with it or just tried to hit him, etc.

The inequality of people was sanctified by religion - Brahmanism. The Indians believed that a person, in addition to the body, also has a soul. Only the body is mortal, and the soul of the deceased passes into the body of another living being. Using these ancient beliefs, the Brahmins created their own religious doctrine. He, they said, is forced to work hard for his master, to starve and be in eternal need, whose soul was previously in the body of a man who lived sinfully (and everything that was displeasing to slave owners and priests was considered sin). This means that slaves and the poor cannot complain that their lives are bad. This order, as the priests taught, was established by the gods themselves; The gods created royal power and castes. And everyone who seeks to change their situation for the better or does not obey the authorities violates the will of the gods.

Under King Ashoka, Buddhism, which had arisen even earlier, spread in India. Buddhism accepted everything that was basic in Brahmanism, but, in addition, it taught that life is evil, and to live means to suffer. There is no need to desire anything, strive for anything, and then there will be no actions for which future life I would have to answer. Then the soul will cease to be reborn for suffering on earth, will be saved from evil life and will reach a blissful state - “nirvana”. Achieving nirvana, Buddhism teaches, is the main goal of a believer; this can most successfully be achieved by becoming a monk.

It was beneficial for the ruling classes that the oppressed should think more about the “salvation of the soul” rather than about improving their lives, and therefore they always willingly helped the monks in the spread of Buddhism. So religion, along with the army, the court, spies, etc., helped the ruling elite to keep working people in obedience.

The ancient Indians thought of history as progressing from good to bad. This idea was reflected in the myth of the “four centuries”, with which we began our story about ancient India. And this is not surprising, since the true creators of the beautiful ancient Indian culture - workers, both free and slaves - saw only oppression, hard work and hardships, and the benefits of culture were enjoyed mainly by kings, nobles, rich people and priests.

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Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Kazakhstan

go spo komi republican college of culture

them. V.T. Chistaleva

test No. 1

By subject : Fundamentals of Philosophy

Subject: History of Ancient India

Student 3 correspondence course

Specialization Theater creativity

Filippova Nadezhda Alexandrovna

Address : Inta RK

st. Gorky, building 1, apartment 20

Place of work: SDK pst.

Yustydor

at TsNK and TNT GO "Inta" ».

Budget training

Date 2011

Winston Churchill said that calling India a nation is like calling the equator a nation. And India, like chemistry, stretches its hands wide into human affairs - no one can take its place in world culture. In our country, India has been known for a long time. Even 300 years ago, there was a special farmstead of Indian merchants in Astrakhan.

India is the seventh largest country on earth by area - 3.29 million square meters. km. It is the most populated country after China. Indians themselves call their country Bharat.

Since ancient times, the lotus flower has been revered in India. This is a symbol of Hinduism. He personifies purity and spiritual perfection. The gods are depicted sitting on flower thrones.

Another plant - tea - is business card India. An Eastern proverb says that a fresh drink from it is like a balm, and left overnight is like a poisonous snake. Tea cultivation in India began only in 1834, but there is a legend that Buddha asked for a drink and was given water into which the wind blew tea petals. Buddha really liked the drink...

Ancient state of India

In the south of Asia, beyond the Himalayan range, there is an amazing

country - India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However

modern India differs in size from the ancient country below it

same name. Ancient India was approximately equal in area to Egypt.

Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined.

This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. On

the Indus River flowed in the west, rains were relatively rare, but in the summer there were

large spills. Spacious steppes spread out here.

In the east, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers carried their waters to the Indian Ocean.

It always rained heavily here, and the entire land was covered with marshy swamps.

and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and bushes, where

Even during the day there is twilight. In the jungle there were tigers, panthers, elephants,

poisonous snakes and a huge variety of insects.

The central and southern parts of India in ancient times were

mountainous areas where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But

plenty of moisture was not always a good thing. Dense vegetation and swamps were

a great obstacle for ancient farmers armed with stone

and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appeared in India on

the less forested northwest of the country. The Indus Valley had another

advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which

facilitated communication and trade with them.

Traditionally, Indian society is divided into castes. It is known that even in the second millennium BC, the peoples who settled India were divided into four classes - “varnas”. Varnas are divided into

professional groups - “jatis”, which in European countries are usually called castes. Each caste is assigned a position in the hierarchical structure of society and has its own set of professions. Membership in a caste is hereditary, and marriages are permitted only within one's own caste. There are more than three thousand castes in the country. The castes have their own newspapers, mutual aid funds and even banks. Caste membership can be determined by the type of hairstyle, clothing, marks on the forehead, food and vessels for its preparation. Higher castes are forbidden to accept food from the hands of a person from a lower caste - it is believed that he defiles the food with his touch. For a minor offense, a person is temporarily expelled from the caste; for a serious offense, a person can be expelled forever.

The position of a widow is not enviable in traditional Indian society. According to custom, a woman belonging to one of the higher castes, having been widowed, has no right to marry again. She must wear only a white sari, must not wear jewelry or use incense. A widow has no right to be in the company of men, even if they are her sons. She must eat only flour soup and sleep on the bare floor. This woman’s life should be spent in prayer. Meet a widow - Bad sign.

Attracts attention ancient rite sati, according to which the widow is burned on the funeral pyre along with the body of her deceased husband. According to modern researchers, this custom became widespread around the year 500 and was observed on a regular basis until the beginning of the 19th century.

Initially, the ritual was considered the privilege of the wives of generals or rulers. A royal funeral could involve the burning of numerous victims. Thus, in the giant bonfire of one of the maharajas, three thousand wives and concubines died simultaneously. At the same time, sati is little known among representatives lower castes. Formally, this custom is voluntary, but in reality it is difficult to judge how strong the pressure from the community or relatives could be.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, in Indian territories under the rule of European powers, bans were introduced against the custom of sati. However, the ritual survived in India into the twentieth century. There is a known case of self-immolation of an eighteen-year-old childless widow, which occurred in 1987 in the state of Rajasthan. After this incident, first state and then federal authorities adopted additional legislation against sati. For attempting to perform the ritual, a woman faces up to one year in prison and a fine. Punishment awaits its instigators - they face a long prison term and a large fine. However, they can also count on the respect of others, the prison warden and fellow inmates. This custom still occurs today, mainly in rural areas. Authorities are trying to stop the practice

self-immolation, introducing severe punishments not only for participants in the ritual, but also for passive observers.

Traditionally, about 60 percent of castes in India are considered lower. Despite the adoption of a law prohibiting discrimination, there is still no talk of equality. For example, the Manganyar caste is not allowed to visit temples or take water from common wells. Members of this caste traditionally live in the Thar Desert. They are famous for the fact that all the men here are good blacksmiths and dashing horse thieves, and the women are fortune tellers. They dress very colorfully: bracelets, necklaces, earrings, saris, embroidered with silver and gold. The Manganyars make money by causing rain and persuading the land to produce a harvest. They are also excellent singers and musicians, singing at weddings and funerals. In songs they glorify Shiva and their ancestors of 10 - 15 generations. Children are taught to sing from the age of eight. The Langa caste are also singers, but they are superior to the Manganyars, since they are supported by the Maharaja.

The city of Delhi was destroyed seven times and mercilessly plundered, but it was rebuilt again. At the end of the 14th century, Timur betrayed him to fire and sword, and pyramids of the heads of murdered residents appeared on the streets. But the city has risen again! The next conqueror, Nadir Shah, was amazed by the rich palaces, on the roofs of which gold coins shone.

The city is believed to have been founded by the Pandava dynasty around 3000 BC. and first received the name Indraprastha. In 736, it was once again rebuilt and named Dhilli, later Dekhli.

In the 5th century, a seven-meter column with a diameter of 40 cm was installed in Delly. At the height of a human breast, it glistens from the touches of numerous pilgrims. According to legend, the king ordered a column to be installed on the head of a snake, which would first be buried in the ground. Many years later, his descendants wanted to check whether there really was a snake’s head under the column. The column was moved away - the dynasty collapsed! There has been no rust on the column for 1500 years. Various versions have been put forward as an explanation for this phenomenon. For a long time it was believed that the problem was in the composition of the metal from which the column was made. It has also been suggested that the column could have been constructed from meteorite iron. However, recent studies have shown that the reason is most likely due to Delhi's very dry air.

Delhi was first ruled by Indian princes, then by Muslim rulers. Therefore, mosques, mausoleums, palaces, and minarets appeared in the city. The Jama Masjid mosque stores relics of those times: a hair from Muhammad's beard, the imprint of his foot on marble, the remains of the prophet's sandal strewn with rose petals, and the main book of Muslims, written by his hand - the Koran.

Mumbai (Bombay) is called the gateway to India, the pearl of the Indian Ocean, the Indian Paris, as it is the capital of Indian fashion. Some say that this is not India at all, others that it is India in miniature. There are many houses of amazing beauty here, as if entirely wrapped in lace. Carved shutters on windows and verandas protect not heat, but coolness. Among

There are many fountains and there is not a single one similar. Water pours from the mouth of a tiger or lion, a jug in girl's hand or cliffs, the fountains are guarded by the gods of Assyria and Egypt, fairy-tale princes and nymphs. There are hanging gardens in which skilled gardeners and architects created green elephants and chariots in fancy vases... The Gateway to India was founded on the city's seafront in honor of the coronation visit of King George V in 1911. Construction work was completed only in 1926. After Indian independence, the last British ships sailed through this gate.

Mohenjo – Daro

On the territory of modern Pakistan, archaeologists have excavated one of the most ancient cities of Indian civilization - Mohenjo-Daro - (hill of the dead). It originated around 2600 BC. and lasted 900 years. Excavations showed that there was a high culture in Ancient India: a granary with ventilation was found, the streets of the city intersected at right angles, the width of the main street was 10 meters, which allowed the simultaneous movement of several bullock carts. The houses were built 7.5 m high. made of brick. The dwellings had brick baths, dirty water poured into jugs with small holes so that the water would seep into the ground. Some of the first public toilets and urban sewage systems known to archaeologists were discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. People made ploughshares, weapons, and axes from copper and bronze. Women wore short skirts with brooch and pearl belt, ivory combs, curly hairpins, silver jewelry. Men wore loincloths and tied their hair into straight hair with ribbons.

The city of Agra was once the capital of the Mughal Empire. Not far from it there is a beautiful mausoleum - a mosque - the Taj Mahal. This wonder of the world was built by order of the Emperor of the Great Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Arjumand Banu Begam, also known as Mumtaz Mahal - “Decoration of the Palace”. Although the Shah had a huge harem, he saw no one except her. His beautiful wife did not leave him even on military campaigns. But one day, having given birth to his 14th child, she died in her husband’s arms. For more than 20 years (1630 -1652), the Shah built a mausoleum for his beloved; 20 thousand people worked on the construction. At the base of this wonder of the world with a side of 95 m. in the corners there are 4 minarets, 5 domes, openwork grilles on the windows, the height of the mausoleum is 74 m. around it there is a garden, cypress trees, and a marble pond. Poets still praise the marble walls, agates and diamonds woven into the lattices and openwork trim. Previously, young men in love would rush down from the minarets of the Taj Mahal, proving their love to the girls who rejected them. To cool off the lovers, the entrances to the minarets were closed.

On the other bank of the river, the Shah dreamed of building for himself the same mausoleum, only lined with marble. The fate of the Shah is deplorable.

After mourning his beloved for a long time, he fell ill. His son came to power and imprisoned his father. The greatness of the Shah was boundless, his name plunged into

trembling, his gaze was more terrible than lightning. And he spent the last years of his life in prison, admiring the snow-white wonder of the world from the window. Wife's tomb inlaid precious stones, which glow as if alive, and the branches fairy trees, intertwined with flowers, decorate the tomb. Lapis lazuli, jades, and amethysts sing of love that has gained immortality.

The Indian village of Ellora in the state of Maharashtra has become famous throughout the world for its rock-cut temples. The creation of these structures dates back to the 6th-9th centuries. There are 34 of them in total. The most famous is cave No. 16 - the Kailasanatha temple, dedicated to the god Shiva. In its rocky recesses a copper plate was found with the inscription: “Oh, how could I do this without magic?” The base of the temple is 61 by 33 m. The eight-meter plinth is surrounded by three-meter sculptures of elephants and lions. The whiteness of the plaster is polished to a shine. The walls do not have a smooth surface; they can be mistaken for a moving mass of bodies. In one of the niches there is a statue of the demon Ravana; at night it is illuminated by the flickering lights of lamps, and the demon makes a magical impression on the audience. To build this temple in the rock, a trench was cut out from above, freeing itself from stone husks, gradually clearing everything unnecessary.

Economic life .

Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley was

agriculture. They grew wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in

world cotton and sugar cane. Livestock farming was well developed.

The Indians raised cows, sheep, pigs, and donkeys. The horse appeared later.

The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. Basic tools

made from copper. Knives, spear and arrowheads, hoes,

axes and much more. It was no secret to them art casting,

workshop processing of stone, alloys, among which occupied a special place

bronze. The Indians knew gold and lead. But at this time they do not have iron

Crafts were also developed. Important role spinning and weaving played a role.

The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They processed precious metals And

stones, ivory and shells.

Sea and land trade reached a high level. In 1950

archaeologists have found the first port in history to moor ships at low tide

The most active trade was with Southern Mesopotamia. Here from India

brought cotton jewelry. Barley, vegetables,

fruits, there were trade relations with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably Indians

exchanged with neighbors nomadic peoples and even built a city on

Amudarya River.

With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in

middle of the 2nd millennium BC e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged significantly behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of horses.

Only at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. e. India's new population

Indians - again switched to agriculture. Wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute crops appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley reaped especially large harvests.

Along with horses and cattle, the elephant occupied an important place in the economy. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle.

Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles.

Crafts are also being revived. Once again, pottery and weaving occupy a prominent place in the economy. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. They were named calico in honor of the goddess of arable land Sita. There were also simpler, cheaper fabrics.

Only trade remained at a low level. She limited herself

exchange of goods between communities.

Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such

crops like cotton, sugar cane. They

The largest animal in the world, the elephant, was tamed.

Now let's move beyond the cities with their amazing structures and turn to Indian animals.

The elephant is especially revered in India. For 5,500 years now, this animal has been woken up early, given a leisurely breakfast and a swim, then taken to work, and given a four-hour rest at noon. The elephant knows about 30 commands and shows touching zeal.

The population of Indian elephants is the largest - there are about 20 thousand of these animals. In India, wild elephants are actively domesticated, since raising them is expensive. The Indian government treats elephants very carefully. In India, the wealth of a feudal lord was determined by the number of elephants. All Indian temples are decorated with images of these animals. The god of wisdom and prudence, Ganesha, is a man with the head of an elephant. According to legend, when he was born, the gods rejoiced at his birth, but one god was ogling: as soon as he looked at the baby, his head came off. It was not possible to bring her back; her mother was inconsolable. Then they found the elephant's head, it grew back, and the baby remained alive.

In India there are animals that calmly roam the streets of villages and cities, no one dares to disturb them. It's about about the sacred cow Zebu. On

They have a large hump on their back. They easily tolerate heat and insect bites. Killing and eating them is prohibited by religion: killing a sacred cow is considered a greater sin in India than killing a person. Traditionally, the cow was a sacrifice for the god.

India has a special attitude towards snakes. A festival is held in their honor during the period of heavy rains. They appear in luxury hotel rooms and simple shacks. And no one can kill them - it’s a sin! On this day of the festival, snakes are brought from the forest to houses and sprinkled with flower pollen, fed with milk, ghee, honey, and fried rice. If " to the guest of honor" happens to die, his body is decorated with silk and burned on a sandalwood funeral pyre. On this day, snakes do not bite and tolerate human hospitality, and their charmers have a lot of work to do.

MYTHS

Indian culture is rich in myths. The poetic legend “Mahabharata”, which appeared in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, has been preserved. which contains more than 200 thousand poetic lines. It is a poetic encyclopedia of Indian mythology, history and philosophy. It talks about the descendants of Bharata, the king who is considered the founder of India.

The ancient myth “Ramayana” dates back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, but is still popular in India; its plot is played out at the annual autumn festival. It tells the adventures of Prince Rama and contains 48 thousand lines. This is what this poem is about...

There was a terrible drought, and the king, according to legend, began to plow the land with a golden plow to bring about the long-awaited rain. But on the first furrow he dug up a clay pot, in which he found a newborn girl. He named her Sita, which means furrow. When she turned 16, the time for marriage, the king appointed a test: Sita will go to the one who can pull the string of a huge bow. Rama won the competition. The wedding took place, but enemies force Rama to leave the throne for 14 years. He leaves the palace with his wife.

Ravana, a monster with ten heads, twenty arms and a terrible voice, falls in love with the beautiful Sita. He is very strong. Ravana sends a servant to Sita who can transform into animals, and he appears before her in the form of a young deer. Sita asks Rama to catch this beautiful animal. The husband cannot refuse her and gives chase. Ravana's trick succeeds: Sita is left alone and Ravana takes her away on a golden chariot drawn by green horses.

Rama, in order to return Sita, turns to the monkeys for help. The wisest of them, Hanuman was the son of the wind god and could fly, increase and decrease in size. It was he who reached the domain of Ravana and saw Sita surrounded by maidservants. When Sita was left alone, Hanuman told her: “Your husband is coming to the rescue!” Lady rejoice!”

And the battle began. From morning to midnight. Rama's last arrow pierced Ravana's stone shell and pierced into the very heart.

In the 11th century, the cult of Rama became the main religion of India, and history continued. Rama is the incarnation of the god Vishnu. He saved Sita, but doubted her loyalty. Then, as proof of her loyalty, she walked through the fire and remained unharmed. But even then Rama did not believe his wife. Sita left the palace and settled in a forest shack, where she gave birth to two sons. Many years later, Rama found her and recognized her as his children. But he doubts her again. And then Saint Sita says: “Oh, mother earth! If I am pure before Rama, accept me into your womb forever.” And the earth swallowed up Sita. In vain did Rama try to hold his beloved by the hair; it slipped out of his hand, leaving cuts on his palm. According to legend, human palms have been cut into thin lines ever since. The inconsolable Rama turned into Vishnu and went to heaven, where he was reunited with his wife.

Vishnu.

With his four hands, Vishnu holds a conch, disc, club and lotus. All of them are used by the Lord to maintain the Dharma of humanity. The conch calls a person to the righteous path, which directly leads to peace and perfection, divine liberation (Vishnupada). Many of us, fascinated by the available opportunity for worldly joy, refuse to listen to the quiet inner voice conscience, the voice of the Panchjanya conch. Therefore (also) He holds the mace, and we experience troubles and tragedies during our quiet existence - religious, social and state. If a person still does not hear the call of the conch, the wheel of time (chakra) destroys the entire universe. Summoning and punishment are only a way to lead a person to the highest goal, represented by the lotus in the hand of Vishnu.

Religions

The development of the Vedic religion, which took place under the significant influence of non-Aryan cults and traditions, led to the formation of Hinduism by the beginning of our era. Hinduism is still the religion of the vast majority of the population of the Indian Republic.

Hinduism is one of the world's oldest religions, and in terms of the number of followers it ranks third in the world after Christianity and Islam. This religion is most widespread in India and Nepal. Since Hinduism combines various directions and traditions, this religion does not have a single founder.

The three main deities of Hinduism: Brahma - the “supreme creator” - the creator of the universe. Shiva - “benevolent, merciful, good” - the god of cleansing destruction. Vishnu - “omnipresent, eternal” - the guardian of the universe.

One of the main concepts of Hinduism is reincarnation, or transmigration of souls. Only the body is subject to death and birth, but the soul, called atman, is immortal. The chain of rebirth involves reward for virtuous and evil deeds.

There are special believers in Hinduism - ascetics. To see the past, present and future, they take a vow of silence, do not wear clothes (they are replaced by the wind), starve, live in the cold and damp, eat the dung of sacred cows, can sleep on nails, clench their palms into a fist for years until the nails grow through the palm. During the reign of Catherine II, an Indian ascetic visited Russia. At the age of nine, he made a vow not to sit or lie on the ground for twelve years. He slept, tying himself with ropes to a pole or tree, and then could do without a leash. For the next twelve years, he began to walk with his hands clasped above his head, and then he could no longer open them - they had grown together. Legends say that ascetics managed to bring down rocks into the sea, cause and stop rain, and send famine and crop failure to their enemies. E. Parnov describes one ascetic this way... “... A shaggy creature overgrown with hair, frozen under a canopy. A small sharp trident, piercing his protruding tongue and lower lip, doomed him to eternal silence, and a trapezoid hanging from the ceiling, wrapped in a pillow, testified that the “saint” should neither sit nor lie down, but could only occasionally lean on his elbows. The neighboring peasant, with the satisfied gaze of the owner, looked at the figure of the fanatic, in whom there was nothing human left, and admired: “For 30 years now we have been feeding him and going after him. So it stands, all the time, silently... A great feat!

Buddha (translated from Sanskrit - “awakened” - this is the name in Buddhism for a being who has achieved enlightenment. This epithet is also applied to Siddhatka Gautama, an Indian spiritual teacher who lived in the 6th-5th centuries BC and achieved enlightenment. Gautama Buddha - a key figure in Buddhism. Memories of his life, discourses and monastic rules were passed down through oral tradition and were not transmitted and written down until 400 years later. In mythology, the Buddha was reborn 550 times.

Buddhism is a belief not in God, but in his salvation. The essence of Buddhist teaching is contained in the Buddha's preaching of the Four Noble Truths. According to the first, life, not only bad or unhappy, but all life, life in general, is evil and suffering. The second argues that the cause of life and new rebirths are desires - the thirst for life, pleasure, power, wealth. The third proclaims the possibility of salvation from the evils of life; the fourth declares the way to achieve this salvation through a state of absolute balance, suppression of all emotions, desires, etc.

The highest goal that every believer should strive for is the achievement of nirvana - the state of the spirit of a person freed from all earthly passions and attachments; after death such a person is no longer reborn.

Buddhist "salvation" therefore does not mean achieving a happy eternal life(in some unearthly conditions), as in other religions, but eternal deliverance from it.

It is fundamentally important that in the path of “salvation” prescribed by early Buddhism there was nothing about ritual, there was no appeal to the gods or to the Buddha himself. Ultimate salvation could only be achieved through personal effort. The existence of gods was recognized, however, the gods themselves are subject to rebirth and the law of karma. Therefore, Buddha who has achieved nirvana is higher than the gods. Thus, rituals, sacrifices, prayers turned out to be unnecessary; Priesthood turned out to be superfluous, the sacred nature of the Vedas was denied.

Another religion common in India is Sikhism. It was founded in Punjab by guru (spiritual teacher) Nanak (1469-1539). Sikhs believe in one God, an omnipotent Creator, whose real name is unknown to anyone. God is viewed in two aspects - as the Absolute and as God within every person. The religious center of Sikhism is Harimandir Sahib (golden temple). This is the main temple of the complex, founded in the 16th century in the middle of a sacred lake. In the city of Amritsar in the state of Punjab, Sikhs preach love and brotherhood to all people on earth.

Jainism is a religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in India around the 6th century BC. e. The founder of this teaching is Gino Mahavira. Jains believe in reincarnation. They preach the unchanging value of every life in all forms of its manifestation, as a result of which, of course, they are vegetarians. They drink water through a cloth so as not to swallow a small insect, they sweep the road so as not to crush an ant, and on cold nights they do not light a fire, which can kill moths flying into the flame. Janists take a vow of truthfulness, restraint, dispassion, and a strict prohibition of theft.

There are fire worshipers in India - the Parsis. They revere the four sacred elements: water, fire, earth and air, which is why they have a unique funeral rite. Since they consider the body of the deceased to be unclean, it cannot be given over to water, air, or earth. Parsis bury people in “towers of silence” - dagmas. It is a low tower with an external staircase. Inside there is a well, around which there are niches. This is where the dead are placed. The corpses are eaten by vultures, the bones fall into the well. Frequent rains gradually dissolve them, and everything disappears without a trace.

Art and architecture

About architecture and fine arts we get the opportunity to judge quite late. During the Vedic period, no large religious buildings were erected. The majestic palaces of Chandragupta and Ashoka reported by the Greeks were built of wood and have not survived. Known mainly are Buddhist monuments of stone architecture - cave temples and

monasteries, sometimes of enormous size, with complex architecture, as well as stupas - structures of Kurgan character, designed to store shrines.

In the Mauryan era, the first above-ground temples appeared,

first Buddhist and then Hindu. Early Hindu temples had flat roofs and were squat and massive. Only towards the end of the Gupta period do they rise in height and acquire a majestic appearance. The main element of the temple is a tower erected over a small dark sanctuary where idols or symbols of the deity were placed.

The first monuments of stone sculpture are also associated with Buddhism and date back to the Mauryan and post-Mauri eras. This is the famous carved fence around the Great Stupa in the city of Sanchi, reliefs of Bharhut, memorable columns with complex capitals (one of them, the Sarnath column with images of lions, became the coat of arms of the Indian Republic). In sculpture of the first centuries new era the largest were the Mathura and Gandhara schools.

The first, named after the city of Mathura, arose on a purely Indian basis and was a development of the traditions of the Mauryan period.

The second was named after Gandhara, a region in the extreme north-west of the country. Gandhara sculpture was a complex fusion of Indian and Central Asian traditions with a strong influence of Hellenistic art. In Mathura and Gandhara sculpture, Buddha began to be depicted for the first time and his traditional iconographic appearance developed.

The painting of Ancient India is known mainly from wall paintings (narrative and decorative) preserved in the Buddhist cave temples and monasteries of Ajanta. The oldest of them date back to the turn of the new era.

Culture

Many people know the figurine of the dancing god Shiva with long flowing hair studded with precious stones, a cobra in her hair, a necklace of skulls on her neck, a moon and the Ganges River in her hands, and bracelets or entwined snakes on her legs and arms. He has four arms and three eyes, the third eye being a symbol of the highest wisdom. It is believed that it depicts 108 dances.

Hindus believe that when Shiva dances, the world plunges into chaos and the stars fall randomly to the earth. At his temples there were dancers who knew how to sing and dance, and treated visitors subtly; they were beauties. The sacred books ordered them to know 28 gestures for one hand and 24 for both. They could depict a cobra before a jump, a deer wandering through the forest, or Krishna playing the flute. Indian dance technique developed two thousand years ago. Dances contain movement, facial expressions and music. Dances are timed to coincide with the harvest, the birth of a child, and the time of year.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIAN

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Languages ​​and writing of ancient India.

At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. India was a major power with

highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language was spoken

inhabitants of the Indus Valley. Their writing still remains a mystery to scientists.

The first Indian inscriptions date back to the 25th - 14th centuries. BC e. Indian

the letter, which has no similarity, has 396 hieroglyphic characters. Wrote

on copper tablets or clay shards, scratching written characters. The number of characters in one inscription rarely exceeds 10, and the largest number is 17. Unlike the language of the Indians, the language of the ancient Indians is well known to scientists. It is called Sanskrit. This word translated means “perfect.”

The gods and brahmins were considered the creators of Sanskrit and its guardians. Every person who considered himself an Aryan was required to know this language. “Strangers,” both Shudras and untouchables, had no right to study this language under pain of severe punishment.

Literature.

Nothing is known about Indian literature. But the literature of the ancient Indians -

this is a huge legacy for all humanity.

The oldest works of Indian literature are the Vedas,

written between 1500 and 1000 BC e. Vedas (literally - wisdom) -

sacred books in which everything important to the ancients was written down

Indians knowledge. Their truthfulness and usefulness have never been disputed. The entire spiritual life of the ancient Indians was created on the basis of the Vedas. Therefore, Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. called Vedic culture.

In addition to the Vedas, Indian culture has created many diverse

works. All of them were written in Sanskrit. Many of them are included in

treasury of world literature. The first place in this series belongs to

the great poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana".

The Mahabharata tells about the struggle of the sons of King Pandu for the right

rule the kingdom. The Ramayana tells the story of the life and exploits of the prince

Frames. The poems describe the life of ancient Indians, their wars, beliefs, customs and adventures.

In addition to great poems, Indians created wonderful fairy tales, fables, and myths

and legends. Many of these works, translated into modern languages, and are not forgotten to this day.

Philosophy

Indian thinkers made great contributions to the development of philosophy. The oldest monuments of religious and philosophical thought - the Upanishads - were created at the end of the Vedic period. The ultimate goal of man in the Upanishads is recognized as the merging of his soul with the World Soul through mystical “meaning”,

the feeling of their triumph, expressed by the famous formula: “then you are” (Sanskrit: “tat tvam asi”).

The ideas of the Upanishads influenced most religious teachings and philosophical systems ancient and medieval India.

The six most important systems of philosophy and logic, recognized as orthodox from the point of view of Hinduism at the beginning of the new era, as well as Buddhist and Jain philosophy, were based on the theory of transmigration of souls and the law of karma. Each of them was based on a special theory of the path to achieving “salvation,” which was thought of as liberation from bodily shackles.

Ancient Indian philosophers developed the ideas of constant variability of the world and the atomic structure of the universe. Of utmost importance were the study of the problem of the sources of correct knowledge (perception, inference, analogy, evidence of authorities), the development of a system for interpreting texts and logical argumentation.

Familiarity with the Upanishads is noticeable among a number of European thinkers of the 19th (especially A. Schopenhauer) and 20th centuries, and the study of classical Indian philosophy and logic turns out to be unexpectedly fruitful for modern scientific and literary creativity.

In addition to idealistic and dualistic philosophical concepts, there was also a materialistic direction in ancient India, represented by the Charvaka or Lokayata school. The followers of Charvaka recognized matter as the only reality, and sensory perception as the only source of knowledge. They considered the whole world to consist of basic elements - air, fire, water and earth. The Charvaks denied the existence of the Vedic gods, the immortal soul, and rejected the doctrines of the transmigration of souls and the law of karma.

To summarize, we can say that we don’t know much about India. Although in the history of this ancient state there are still many blank spots that will someday be revealed to us. And everyone will learn about the greatness of Ancient India. World literature will receive priceless works of Indian authors. Archaeologists will excavate new cities. Historians will write interesting books. And we will learn a lot of new things. We will pass on our knowledge to the future generation without loss.

Conclusion

In the historical development of ancient Indian society and statehood, general patterns and features of the historical development of ancient Eastern states. The formation of ancient Indian civilization was unique and complex. Its outbreaks arose very early, back in the 3rd millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley. For almost a millennium, an original social structure and statehood functioned in contact with the peoples of Mesopotamia. After the desolation of the main centers of ancient civilization and the invasion of the Aryan tribes, a general

decline in socio-economic and cultural level. Destruction of the initial statehood and class structure.

The Aryan tribes that penetrated India in the course of social development borrowed a lot from the socio-economic and cultural experience of their more civilized predecessors. This was predetermined fast pace historical development of ancient Indian tribes in the 1st millennium BC. e. and the complex synthesis and originality of the emerging statehood and culture, which absorbed the local institutions and traditions of the Indo-Iranian world.

Due to the constant settlement of the Aryans along the Ganges Valley, the center of social and cultural development of Ancient India moved from the Indus Valley to the Ganges Valley. The largest cities and state formations appear. A huge state emerges, uniting almost the entire territory of Ancient India.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. Ancient India had some contacts with Iranian tribes, southern Central Asia and Mesopotamia. However, before the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the process of its social and cultural development took place in a certain isolation, which predetermined the originality and originality of the ancient Indian society and state. This originality appeared primarily in the special social structure of ancient India. In India, a system of rural communities with a unique and complex internal structure developed, which were not only the main social unit of ancient Indian society, but also the administrative and political unit of ancient Indian statehood, which created the preconditions for the despotic form of the Indian monarchy, which never developed during the ancient period.

From the turn of the 4th – 3rd centuries. BC e. India enters into close political contacts with the Eastern Hellenistic monarchies and state formations in Central Asia. Before the new unification under the auspices of the Gupta dynasty, India is experiencing a process of political fragmentation and isolation individual parts, which was opposed by a certain unity of Indian culture. Its high level contributed to the fact that the conquerors of certain regions of India fell under powerful local influence. But communication with the conquerors and their traditions enriched the process of historical creativity, creating additional incentives for them.

Originality, the high level of Indian civilization, the consciousness of cultural unity, opposing political fragmentation and the power of foreign conquerors, ensured the constant development and continuity of Indian culture from the early stages of its development throughout antiquity until modern times. One of the first world religions arose in India - Buddhism, which spread from India to Central, East, and Southeast Asia, along with which the cultural achievements of the ancient Indians penetrated there. In a number of areas of spiritual life - epic poetry, philosophy, linguistics and aesthetics, medicine and mathematics -

they created masterpieces that were firmly included in the treasury of universal human culture.

In my opinion, Indian philosophy is an attractive, mysterious exotic, medical and physiological gymnastics, namely the breathing exercises of yoga. The main value of ancient Indian philosophy lies in its appeal to the inner world of man. It opens up a world of possibilities moral personality. No philosophy has had such a strong impact on the West as Indian philosophy.

List literature

L. N. Tolstoy “Reading Circle”, Volume II “History of the Ancient East”

G.A Ivashchenko – “India”

E. Kostyukova - Around the world 1995. No. 5.

Encyclopedia for children - Art vol.7.

Encyclopedia for children - Religion vol. 6.

I explore the world - “Countries and Peoples”

O.V. Perzashkevich and A.A. Prokhorova - “Countries of the Ancient East”

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