Indian antiquities. Culture of Ancient India

Ancient India occupied the Hindustan Peninsula in southern Asia.

The territory of India is crossed from north to south by two great rivers of Asia - the Indus and the Ganges, which originate from the Himalayan mountains. In ancient times, this territory was covered with jungle, in which large numbers of predatory animals and birds lived.

The centers of ancient Indian civilization were the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Diro. Archaeological excavations at the sites where these cities stood have shown that they were built according to a preliminary plan. The streets were straight and consisted of two and three-story houses. Houses were built from baked bricks. The cities consisted of two parts - upper and lower. Craftsmen's workshops, shopping centers, and bazaars were located on the city streets. There were granaries and water pipes here. During the excavations, over 400 signs were found carved on stone slabs in the Dravidian language.
In the 2nd millennium BC. the city was destroyed, and therefore the inhabitants left it.
Around the end of the 2nd millennium, Aryan tribes appeared in the Indus Valley. Their main occupation was animal husbandry. They were ruled by people from nobles - rajas. Having mixed with the local Dravidians, the Aryans settled down and began farming.
In the 1st millennium, slave-owning states began to emerge in India. In the 3rd century. BC. A single centralized state emerged in India. This state reached its greatest prosperity under King Ashoka, who ruled the country for 36 years. Under Ashoka, the establishment of state control over the spiritual life of his subjects begins. The king actively promoted the spread of Buddhism. During the reign of Ashoka, roads and irrigation canals were built, culture developed, and writing spread.
The social system of ancient Indian society was characterized by the varna system. The four Varnas (castes, i.e. closed groups of people) represented the main classes of society: brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Brahmins (priests) and kshatriyas (military aristocracy) led the country. Vaishas (farmers, traders and some artisans) and Shudras (mostly inferior, dependent artisans and landowners) were mainly engaged in manual labor and created material wealth for society. The ancient Indians achieved great success in architecture and construction. During the reign of King Ashoka, a majestic royal palace, building material served as a stone.
The life and way of life of the ancient Indians is beautifully described in epic poems"Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". They glorify the best qualities of a person - good manners and honesty.
Indians brought to the world new system recording numbers. Their discovery was “zero,” meaning emptiness. The concepts of “number”, “sine”, “root” were established in mathematics. These figures were borrowed by the Arabs and from them came to Europe. Therefore, now these numbers are called Arabic.

N. Vinogradova, O. Prokofiev

The culture of India is one of the oldest cultures of mankind, continuously developing over several millennia. During this time, numerous peoples inhabiting the territory of India created highly artistic works of literature and art. Many of these works belong to the ancient period of Indian history, spanning the period of time from the 3rd millennium BC. 5th century AD Geographically, India is divided into southern India - the Hindustan Peninsula - and northern India, which occupies the basin of the Indus and Ganges rivers and adjacent areas. In the northern part of India, in the fertile valleys of large rivers, the culture of Ancient India mainly developed.

The culture of Ancient India began to take shape already in the 3rd millennium BC, during the period of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of class society. As in other countries of the Ancient East, in India the process of formation of the slave system was slow. Remnants of primitive communal relations in India survived until the Middle Ages.

The art of Ancient India in its development was connected with other artistic cultures Ancient world: from Sumer to China. In the visual arts and architecture of India (especially in the first centuries AD), features of a connection with art appeared Ancient Greece, as well as with the art of Central Asia; the latter, in turn, adopted many of the achievements of Indian culture.

The first works of Indian art known to us date back to the Neolithic period. Archaeological finds, made in the Indus Valley, discovered ancient cultures dating back to 2500 - 1500 BC. BC.; the most important of them was discovered in the settlements of Mohenjo-Daro (in Sindh) and Harappa (in Punjab) and belongs to Bronze Age. Society of that time was at the level of early class relations. The discovered monuments indicate the development of handicraft production, the presence of writing, as well as trade relations with other countries.

Excavations begun in 1921 revealed cities with a strict street layout that ran parallel from east to west and from north to south. Cities were surrounded by walls, buildings were built 2-3 floors high, made of baked brick, plastered with clay and plaster. The ruins of palaces, public buildings and pools for religious ablutions have been preserved; the drainage system of these cities was the most advanced in the ancient world.

Bronze castings, jewelry and applied arts found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are distinguished by great craftsmanship. Numerous seals from Mohenjo-Daro with skillful carvings indicate the similarity of the Indus Valley culture with the culture of Mesopotamia during the time of Sumer and Akkad, with which, apparently, Ancient India was connected by trade relations. The images carved on the seals are extremely reminiscent of the Sumerian mythological hero Gilgamesh fighting beasts. On the other hand, they already showed many iconographic features that were later developed in Indian art. Thus, one of the seals depicts a three-faced deity, whose head is crowned with steeply curved horns. Around him are depicted a deer, a rhinoceros, a buffalo, an elephant and other animals considered sacred. This many-faced deity is a prototype of the Brahmanical Shiva in one of his guises as the patron of animals. It is assumed that the female figures found in the excavations represented the goddess of fertility, whose image was subsequently associated with the Brahman “Yakshini” - the spirits of fertility.

The images of animals on the seals are made very subtly and with great observation: a mountain goat with long horns turning its head abruptly, a heavily walking elephant, a majestically standing sacred bull, etc. Unlike animals, the images of people on the seals are conventional.

Two figurines depicting: one, apparently, a priest (found in Mohenjo-Daro) and the other, a dancer (found in Harappa), are also characteristic of ancient artistic culture. The figurine of a priest, probably intended for cult purposes, is made of white soapstone and executed with a great degree of conventionality. The clothing covering the entire body is decorated with shamrocks, which were possibly magical signs. The face with very large lips, a conventionally depicted short beard, a receding forehead and oblong eyes lined with pieces of shells, is reminiscent of Sumerian sculptures dating back to the same period. The figure of a dancer from Harappa, made of gray slate, the male torso of red stone and individual sculpted heads found in Mohenjo-Daro are distinguished by their great plasticity and softness of modeling, conveying free and rhythmic movement. These features connect the art of this time with Indian sculpture of subsequent periods.

The ceramic products found in Mohenjo-Daro are very diverse. Shiny polished vessels were covered with ornaments that combined animals and plant motifs: conventionally executed images of birds, fish, snakes, goats and antelopes among plants. Usually the painting was done with black paint on a red background. Multi-colored ceramics were less common.

The culture of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa died in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. as a result of the invasion of the Indus Valley by the Aryan tribes, who were at a lower stage of development and mixed with the indigenous population of the country. The subsequent period is known to us mainly from the oldest literary monument of India - the Vedas, the creation of which dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. In hymns addressed to the gods, the Vedas convey religious and philosophical ideas, depict the life and way of life of the Aryans who inhabited the territory of Punjab and the tribes surrounding them. The gods described in the Vedas personified natural phenomena; descriptions of nature in Vedic hymns are filled with deep poetic feeling. People talk to the nature they animate, endowing it with divine qualities. “From the middle of the airy sea come the younger sisters of the ocean, pure, never resting; lightning-fast Indra-tur paved the way for them; May these divine waters have mercy on me,” says one of the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest part of the Vedas. The Vedas contain some information about the architecture of that time. The villages of Indian tribes consisted of wooden buildings that were round in plan with a hemispherical roof and were planned like the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa; their streets intersected at right angles and were oriented along the four cardinal points.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the growth of productive forces in connection with the use of iron tools accelerated the development of slave relations in Ancient India. States arose in the form of slave-owning despotisms characteristic of the Ancient East, in which supreme power was concentrated in the hands of the ruler, and land was considered state property. The basis of agriculture was patriarchal small communities built on a combination of crafts and agriculture; in the 1st millennium BC slave labor was also used in these communities. However, in India, slavery did not reach the developed forms characteristic of ancient states, due to the stability of the primitive communal way of life. The latter undoubtedly contributed to the constancy and continuity of traditions both in religion and in art.

In northern India, the largest state was Magadha, which owned almost the entire Ganges valley. At this time, the ideology of Brahmanism, which differed from the Vedic one in a more clearly expressed class character, was established and became dominant. The Brahman religion, which arose at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, sanctified the division of society into varnas - groups that differed in their position in society, and asserted the privileges of priests and military nobility.

The Brahmins used and supplemented the main circle of deities that existed in ancient beliefs. These deities: Brahma - the creator, Vishnu - the protector and Shiva - the destroyer, the god Indra - the patron of royal power with a host of other gods, spirits and geniuses - became permanent images in the subsequent art of India.

Literary sources describe something dating back to the 1st millennium BC. construction of cities divided into four parts according to the division of the population into varnas. The buildings in the cities were mainly wooden; little stone was used. The following description in the Mahabharata can give an idea of ​​the development of architecture of this time: “It [the stadium for games and competitions] was surrounded on all sides country palaces, skillfully built, high, like the top of Mount Kailash. The palaces were equipped with pearl nets [instead of windows] and decorated with floors of precious stones, which were connected to stairs that were easy to climb, and were furnished with seats and covered with carpets... They had hundreds of spacious doors. They shone with boxes and seats. Finished in many parts with metal, they resembled the peaks of the Himalayas.”

The most important monuments of Indian artistic culture of the 1st millennium BC. are epic works"Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", which most fully and vividly embodied ancient Indian mythology, which was the basis of Indian art for many centuries.

In the epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" realistic descriptions of the nature and life of the ancient Indians are closely intertwined with incredible fantastic adventures and amazing feats of countless mythological heroes. Gods, spirits, demons, endowed with extraordinary strength and power, inhabit the rich tropical nature, full of fabulous abundance, and personify its powers. In the mountains, forests and seas live poisonous Nagas - half-snakes - half-humans, giant elephants and turtles, tiny dwarfs with superhuman strength, fantastic monster deities like Garuda - a giant bird born of a woman. The extraordinary feats of Garuda are described in the Mahabharata as follows: “And he saw fire from everywhere. Shining brightly, it covered the sky on all sides with its rays. It was terrible and, driven by the wind, it seemed like it was going to burn the sun itself. Then the noble Garuda, having created ninety times ninety mouths, quickly drank many rivers with the help of those lips and returned there with terrible speed. And the punisher of the enemies, who had wings instead of a chariot, filled the rivers with blazing fire.”

The rich nature of India is described in myths and legends with vivid imagery. “The king of the mountains shuddered from the gusts of wind... and, covered with bent trees, it rained flowers. And the peaks of that mountain, sparkling with precious stones and gold and adorning the great mountain, scattered in all directions. Numerous trees, broken by that branch, shone with golden colors, like clouds pierced by lightning. And those trees, strewn with gold, uniting with the rocks as they fell, seemed there as if colored by the rays of the sun" (Mahabharata).

Both Garuda and Naga, and numerous heroes of the ancient Indian epic, such as, for example, the five Pandava brothers, born by the wives of King Pandu from the gods, with their hyperbolic strength and often fantastic appearance, found their diverse reflection in the art of India.

Works of fine art from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. not preserved. But a fairly complete picture of the art of Ancient India is given by monuments starting from the period of the Maurya dynasty (322 - 185 BC). In India, repelling the Greco-Macedonian conquest, a powerful slave state was created, occupying most of the country (with the exception of the southernmost part of the Deccan), from Kabul and Nepal in the north to the Tamil states in the south. The unification of the country into one large centralized state was begun by Chandragupta (about 322 - 320 BC) and completed by Ashoka (272 - 232 BC).

This period is characterized by the construction of cities and roads. According to descriptions from literary sources, the wooden buildings of the rulers were distinguished by great splendor. The palace of King Ashoka, the most powerful of the rulers of the Maurya dynasty, was located in the capital of Magadha, Pataliputra, and was a wooden building of several floors, standing on a stone foundation and having 80 sandstone columns. The palace was richly decorated with sculpture and carvings. An idea of ​​its façade can be obtained from a relief made around the 1st century. AD, kept in the Mathura Museum. On three floors, one above the other, there were huge halls, lavishly decorated with paintings, precious stones, gold and silver images of plants and animals, etc. A long row of keel-shaped arches stretched along the facade, alternating with balconies on pillars. Gardens with fountains and pools descended in terraces from the palace to the Ganges.

Pataliputra, according to the Greek historian (of Roman times) Arrian, who retold the unpreserved work of Megasthenes, was the largest and richest city in India at that time. Around the city there was a wide moat and a wooden wall with 570 towers and 64 gates more than 20 km long. The houses were mostly wooden, two- and three-story.

During the reign of Ashoka, the state achieved significant economic and cultural prosperity. Foreign and domestic trade developed greatly, and relations were established with the countries of southern India, Egypt and Syria. This time is characterized by a significant strengthening of slave relations. The number of slaves increased and the slave trade grew. Huge wealth was concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite.

The protest against the oppression of the despotic state was reflected in the emergence of various philosophical and religious teachings that opposed Brahmanism. One of these teachings was Buddhism, which, according to legend, arose in the 6th century. BC. and became widespread in the 3rd century. BC. According to legend, the founder of this teaching, Sidhartha Gautama, was the son of an influential prince who lived in northeastern India in the 6th century. BC. Seeing the suffering of people, at the age of 29 he left the palace, leaving his wife and son, and began to preach a new teaching calling for universal equality of people, submission to fate and promising salvation in the afterlife. Through long wanderings, suffering and reincarnation, Gautama achieved nirvana (that is, the cessation of reincarnation and liberation from suffering) and began to be called Buddha, that is, “enlightened.” Buddhism became widespread among the broad masses. At the same time, he also had support among the ruling classes. For the slave-owning military nobility, it became a weapon in the fight against the old Brahman priesthood, which claimed an exclusive position in the state, supported tribal fragmentation in the country and interfered with the development of socio-economic relations. Under King Ashoka, Buddhism was declared the state religion.

The emergence of Buddhism led to the emergence of stone religious buildings that served to propagate its ideas. Under Ashoka, numerous temples and monasteries were built, Buddhist moral precepts and sermons were carved out. These religious buildings made extensive use of already established architectural traditions. The sculptures that decorated the temples reflected ancient legends, myths and religious beliefs; Buddhism absorbed almost the entire pantheon of Brahman deities.

One of the main types of Buddhist religious monuments were stupas. The ancient stupas were hemispherical structures made of brick and stone, devoid of internal space, in appearance dating back to the most ancient burial hills. The stupa was erected on a round base, along the top of which a circular walk was made. At the top of the stupa a cubic “house of God” or a reliquary made of precious metal (gold, etc.) was placed. Above the reliquary rose a rod topped with descending umbrellas - symbols noble birth Buddha. The stupa symbolized nirvana. The purpose of the stupa was to store sacred relics. Stupas were built in places associated, according to legend, with the activities of Buddha and Buddhist saints. The earliest and most valuable monument is the stupa at Sanchi, built under Ashoka in the 3rd century. BC, but in the 1st century. BC. expanded and surrounded by a stone fence with 4 gates. The total height of the stupa in Sanchi is 16.5 m, and to the end of the rod 23.6 m, the diameter of the base is 32.3 m. Laconicism and monumentality of heavy and powerful forms are characteristic of both this monument and, in general, the religious architecture of the Maurya period. The stupa at Sanchi is built of brick and externally faced with stone, on which a layer of plaster was originally applied with engraved reliefs of Buddhist content. At night the stupa was illuminated with lamps.

Close in shape to the stupa in Sanchi Tuparama-Dagoba, built in the 3rd century. BC. in Anuradhapura on the island of Ceylon, where art close to it developed in parallel with India. The Ceylon stupas, called dagoba, had a slightly more elongated bell-shaped shape. Tuparama-Dagoba is a massive stone structure with a high, pointed upward stone spire.

The stone fence around the stupa in Sanchi was created like an ancient wooden one, and its gates were oriented along the four cardinal points. The stone gates in Sanchi are completely covered with sculpture; there is almost no place where the stone remains smooth. This sculpture resembles wood and ivory carving, and it is no coincidence that the same folk craftsmen worked as stone, wood and bone carvers in Ancient India. The gate consists of two massive pillars carrying three crossbars crossing them at the top, located one above the other. On the last upper crossbar there were figures of guardian geniuses and Buddhist symbols, for example a wheel - a symbol of Buddhist preaching. The figure of Buddha was not yet depicted during this period.

The scenes decorating the gate are dedicated to the Jatakas - legends from the life of Buddha, which reworked the myths of Ancient India. Each relief is a whole big news story, in which everything is depicted with detail and care. characters. The monument, like the sacred books, was supposed to illuminate as fully as possible the cult it served. Therefore, all the events related to the life of the Buddha are narrated in such detail. Living images made in sculpture are not only religious symbols, but embody the versatility and richness of Indian folk fantasy, examples of which have been preserved for us in literature by the Mahabharata. Individual reliefs on the gate are genre scenes telling about the life of the people. Along with Buddhist subjects, ancient deities of India are also depicted. On the northern gate in the upper stripe there is a scene of elephants worshiping a sacred tree. Heavy figures of elephants are slowly approaching the sacred tree from both sides. Their trunks seem to swing, twist and reach towards the tree, creating a smooth rhythmic movement. Integrity and mastery of compositional design, as well as a living sense of nature, are characteristic of this relief. Lush large flowers and creeping plants are carved on the pillars. Legendary monsters (Garuda, etc.) are placed next to images of real animals, mythological scenes and Buddhist symbols. The figures are presented either in flat relief, sometimes in high relief, sometimes barely visible, sometimes in volume, which creates a rich play of light and shadow. Massive figures of elephants, standing four on each side, like Atlanteans, carry the heavy mass of the gate.

The sculptural figures of girls swinging on branches - “yakshini”, spirits of fertility - placed in the side parts of the gate are unusually poetic. Art during this period made great strides forward from primitive and conventional ancient forms. This is manifested primarily in incomparably greater realism, plasticity and harmony of forms. The whole appearance of the Yakshini, their rough and large arms and legs, decorated with numerous massive bracelets, strong, round, very high breasts, strongly developed hips, emphasize the physical strength of these girls, as if drunk with the juices of nature, elastically swinging on the branches. The branches that the young goddesses grab with their hands bend under the weight of their bodies. The movements of the figures are beautiful and harmonious. These female images, endowed with vital, folk features, are constantly found in the myths of Ancient India and are compared with a flexible tree or a young, vigorous shoot, since they embody the powerful creative forces of deified nature. A sense of elemental power is inherent in all images of nature in Mauryan sculpture.

The second type of monumental religious buildings were stambhas - monolithic stone pillars, usually completed with a capital topped with a sculpture. Edicts and Buddhist religious and moral injunctions were carved on the pillar. The top of the pillar was decorated with a lotus-shaped capital bearing sculptures of symbolic sacred animals. Such pillars are more early periods known from ancient images on seals. The pillars erected under Ashoka are decorated with Buddhist symbols and, according to their purpose, should fulfill the task of glorifying the state and promoting the ideas of Buddhism. Thus, four lions, connected by their backs, support a Buddhist wheel on a Sarnath pillar. The Sar Nath capital is made of polished sandstone; all images made on it reproduce traditional Indian motifs. On the abacus there are relief figures of an elephant, horse, bull and lion, symbolizing the cardinal points. The animals on the relief are depicted vividly, their poses are dynamic and free. The figures of lions at the top of the capital are more conventional and decorative. Being official symbol power and royal grandeur, they differ significantly from the reliefs at Sanchi.

During the reign of Ashoka, the construction of Buddhist cave temples began. Buddhist temples and monasteries were carved directly into rock masses and sometimes represented large temple complexes. The austere, majestic premises of the temples, usually divided by two rows of columns into three naves, were decorated with round sculpture, stone carvings and paintings. Inside the temple there was a stupa located in the depths of the chaitya, opposite the entrance. Several small cave temples have survived from Ashoka's time. The architecture of these temples, as well as other stone buildings of the Maurya period, was influenced by the traditions of wooden architecture (mainly in the processing of facades). This is the entrance to one of the most ancient cave temples of Lomas Rishi in Barabara, built around 257 BC. On the facade, the keel-shaped arch above the entrance, the projections of the beams and even the openwork lattice carving are reproduced in stone. At Lomas Rishi, above the entrance, in a narrow space of the belt, located in a semicircle, there is a relief image of elephants worshiping stupas. Their heavy figures with rhythmic and soft movements are reminiscent of the reliefs of the gates in Sanchi, created two centuries later.

Further development of the interior, still poorly developed in the Lomas Rishi temple, led to the creation of large cave temples - chaityas in the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. The most significant are the chaityas in Bhaja, Kondana, Ajanta Nazik. In them the early type of cave temple crystallized, which found its best expression in the chaitya at Karli.

Initially, the Chaitya borrowed individual elements of wooden architecture, which was reflected not only in the repetition architectural forms, but also in inserted wooden parts. At the same time, the nature of the room carved into the rocks, the peculiar connection between sculpture and architecture gave rise to a completely new type of architecture, which existed in India for about a thousand years.

The most significant artistically is the chaitya in Karli of the 1st century. BC. . The majestic interior of the chaitya is decorated with two rows of columns. Octagonal monolithic columns with plump faceted capitals are completed with symbolic sculptural groups of kneeling elephants with male and female figures seated on them. The light entering through the keel-shaped window illuminates the chaitya. Previously, the light was scattered by rows of wooden ornamental gratings, which further enhanced the atmosphere of mystery. But even now, speaking in the twilight, the columns seem to be approaching the viewer. The current corridors are so narrow that there is almost no space left behind the columns. The walls of the vestibule in front of the entrance to the inner chamber of the chaitya are decorated with sculpture. At the foot of the walls there are massive figures of sacred elephants, executed in very high relief. Having passed through this part of the temple, which seemed to initiate the story of the life of Buddha and prepare a certain prayerful mood, pilgrims found themselves in the mysterious, dim space of the sanctuary with shiny walls and floors, polished like glass, in which reflections of light were reflected. The Chaitya at Karli is one of the finest architectural structures of India from this period. It clearly demonstrated the originality of ancient art and the characteristic features of iconic Indian architecture. The sculpture of cave temples usually serves as a harmonious complement to the architectural details of the facade, capitals, etc. A striking example of the decorative sculpture of cave temples is the aforementioned design of the chaitya capitals, which forms a kind of frieze over a number of columns of the hall.

The next period in the history of Indian art covers the 1st - 3rd centuries. AD and is associated with the rise of the Indo-Scythian state of Kushan, which occupied the northern part of central India, Central Asia and the territory of Chinese Turkestan. During this period, India conducted extensive trade and established close cultural relations with the Western world. Literary sources describe a large number of different goods and luxury items that these countries exchanged among themselves. The art of Gandhara (the present-day territory of Punjab and Afghanistan), which is most closely associated with the culture of the ancient world, has unique features.

The Buddhist subjects of Gandhara sculptures and sculptural reliefs that decorated the walls of monasteries and temples are very diverse and occupy a special place in Indian art. Iconographic features, compositional techniques and images developed in Gandhara, which later became widespread in the countries Far East and Central Asia.

The image of Buddha in the form of a man was new, which had not been seen before in Indian art. At the same time, in the image of Buddha and other Buddhist deities, the idea of ​​an ideal personality was embodied, in whose appearance physical beauty and the sublime are harmoniously combined spiritual state peace and clear contemplation. The sculpture of Gandhara organically merged some features of the art of Ancient Greece with the rich, full-blooded images and traditions of ancient India. An example is the relief of the Calcutta Museum depicting Indra's visit to the Buddha in the Bodhgaya cave. As in a similar scene on the Sanchi reliefs, Indra and his retinue approach the cave, folding their hands in prayer; the narrative genre scene around the figure of Buddha also has a character inherent in earlier sculptures in India. But, unlike the composition in Sanchi, the central place in the Calcutta relief is occupied by full of peace and a majestic figure of Buddha sitting in a niche, with his head surrounded by a halo. The folds of his clothes do not hide his body and resemble clothes greek gods. Various animals are depicted around the niche, symbolizing the solitude of the hermitage. The significance of the image of the Buddha is emphasized by the immobility of the pose, the severity of the proportions, and the lack of connection between the figure and the surroundings.

In other images, Gandhara artists interpreted the image of a human deity even more freely and vitally. Such, for example, is the statue of Buddha from the Berlin Museum, made of bluish slate. The figure of the Buddha is wrapped in a robe reminiscent of a Greek himation and descending in wide folds to his feet. The Buddha's face with regular features, a thin mouth and a straight nose expresses calmness. There is nothing in his face or posture that would indicate the cultic nature of the statue.

Even less connected with the religious traditional form is the knocking statue from Gadda (Afghanistan), depicting a genius with flowers. The genius with a thin hand holds the hem of a garment filled with delicate flower petals. Soft folds of fabric envelop his body, leaving his chest, adorned with a necklace, bare. Heavy, large curls of hair frame a rounded face with thin eyebrows and an expressive, deep and spiritual look. The whole figure of the genius is full of harmony, imbued with light and free movement.

Among the monuments of the Kushan period, a special place belongs to portrait statues, in particular sculptures of rulers. Statues of rulers were often placed outside architectural structures, as free-standing monuments. These statues recreate the characteristic features of their appearance and accurately reproduce all the details of their clothing. Among such portrait statues is the figure of Kanishka (who ruled the Kushan kingdom in 78 - 123 AD), found in the Mathura district. The king is depicted in a tunic reaching to the knees and belted with a belt; Longer clothing is worn on top of the tunic. On the feet are soft boots with ties. Sometimes individual cult images were given portrait features, as can be seen in the statue of Avalokiteshvara.

The heroes of the ancient Indian epic, just as before, continue to occupy a significant place in the art of this period. But, as a rule, they are endowed with other features. Their images are more sublime; their figures are distinguished by harmony and clarity of proportions.

The broad connection of Indian culture with the cultures of other countries is manifested not only in the art of Gandhara. The same features characterize the monuments of the Mathura school, which coexisted with Gandhara art. As an example of such monuments, one can cite a sculpture from the 2nd century. AD, depicting the snake king Naga. His naked body is unusually plastic, his strong chest is straightened, his entire torso is in strong but smooth movement. The soft bandage around the hips, falling in a wide loop, forms a series of deep folds, as if flying apart from strong movement. The powerful figure of the snake king combines the harmony of Greek sculpture with the traditionally Indian emphasis on richness, plasticity of forms and the transmission of a smooth rhythm of movement that is continuous in nature.

In the architecture of India, dating back to the 1st - 3rd centuries. AD, changes occur towards more decorative forms. Brick becomes the building material. The stupa takes on a more elongated shape, losing its former monumentality. It is usually built on a high cylindrical platform with stairs and decorated with sculptures of Buddha. The platform and stupa, as well as the surrounding fence, are covered with decorative carvings and numerous bas-relief images on themes taken mainly from the Jatakas - legends of the Buddha. One of the outstanding examples of architecture of this period was the famous stupa in Amaravati (2nd century). The stupa has not survived, but it can be judged by a number of reliefs of the fence depicting the stupa. Reliefs on Buddhist subjects are distinguished by the bold dynamics of compositional techniques and the realism of individual figures. A striking example is the surviving fragments of relief on the fence of the stupa.

The last major unification of India during the slave period occurred in the 4th century. AD in connection with the emergence of a powerful state of the Gupta dynasty (320 - mid-5th century AD). With the unification of the country, a new rise in culture began in India. During the Gupta period, feudal relations began to emerge; there has been a transition from varnas to a more rigid caste system, which received its final development in the era of feudalism. Significant changes have also occurred in the religious ideology of India. Buddhism adopted the Brahmanical doctrine of the innate belonging of people to various varnas and castes. The importance of Brahmanism increased again, justifying the division of society into castes and gradually absorbing Buddhism. New religion served as a powerful means of strengthening the emerging feudal system and contributed to the enslavement and enslavement of the people. During the period of its power, the Gupta state occupied a vast territory: its possessions included Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab, Nepal, etc. Neighboring countries were also directly dependent. Large funds flowing from taxes and trade relations with other countries were spent on the construction of palaces and temples, on the promotion of science, which reached great prosperity during the Gupta period; it was final stage the development of literature and art of a slave-owning society, which at the same time reflected the formation of new aesthetic views.

The Gupta period saw the emergence of significant works of literature closely associated with the excellence of the old art of India. The greatest Indian poet of this time, Kalidasa, created the wonderful poem “Meghaduta”, full of deep humanity, the drama “Sakuntala” and other works where the joyful beating of life and a living sense of nature are felt. The creation of one of the most outstanding monuments of the artistic culture of Ancient India - the paintings of the Ajanta temples - also dates back to this time.

During the Gupta period, work was completed on the architectural treatise “Manasara”, which collected and recorded traditional rules past centuries. The layout of cities reflected the caste division: the lower caste settled far beyond the city fence.

In religious architecture, stupas and cave temples are still created, but other above-ground structures are also becoming widespread. Similar stone buildings dating back to the 4th - 5th centuries are small and slender in proportion. The best example is temple No. 17 in Sanchi, distinguished by its special grace and harmony. Another type of temple is characterized by a keeled or flat stepped roof. The smooth walls are decorated with pilasters and stone carvings. This is the temple in Aihole, built around 450.

A special type of brick tower-shaped temple also appears in northern India. An example of this kind of building is the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya or the Temple of the “Great Enlightenment” (built around the 5th century and later heavily rebuilt), dedicated to Buddha and representing a kind of reworking of the stupa form. Before the reconstruction, the temple looked like a high truncated pyramid, divided from the outside into nine decorative tiers. At the top there was a “khti” reliquary, topped with a spire with symbolic umbrellas descending upward. The base of the tower was a high platform with a ladder. The tiers of the temple were decorated with niches, pilasters and sculptures depicting Buddhist symbols. The interior of the temple is almost undeveloped. But on the outside, each tier is divided into a number of decorative niches; information has also been preserved about the bright coloring of individual parts. In general, in the architecture of the late 5th - 6th centuries. There is an increase in decorativeness, and there is a certain overload of external walls with sculptural decor and small carvings. However, at the same time, the clarity of architectonics is still preserved, which was mostly lost in the architecture of feudal India.

The desire for lavish luxury and refinement, anticipating the future feudal art of India, appears in fine arts. Official religious requirements and strict canons have already left the mark of abstract idealization and convention on it, especially in the sculptural images of Buddha. Such, for example, is a statue from the museum in Sarnath (5th century AD), distinguished by virtuosity in stone processing and frozen perfect beauty. The Buddha is depicted sitting with his hand raised upward in a ritual gesture of instruction - “mudra”. On his face with heavy eyelids lowered down is a thin, impassive smile. A large openwork halo, supported on both sides by perfume, frames his head. The pedestal depicts Buddha's followers flanking the symbolic wheel of the law. The image of Buddha is subtle and cold, it does not have that living warmth that is generally characteristic of the art of Ancient India. The Sarnath Buddha is very different from the Gandharan images in that it is more abstract and dispassionate.

The huge copper statue of Buddha from Sultangaj, dating back to the 5th century, is interpreted in the same spirit. A standing figure with regular but dry facial features seems motionless and frozen. This figure, executed in a generalized and schematic manner, lacks the vital expressiveness and dynamism of early Indian sculptures. The large figure of a seated Buddha in Anuradhapura (Ceylon) of the 4th - 5th centuries is distinguished by greater simplicity and humanity. The two-meter statue is installed directly in the open air. The monumentality and simplicity of the overall plastic solution are in remarkable harmony with the subtle psychological interpretation of the image, expressing deep peace of mind and wisdom.

One of the best artistic ensembles that were created in the period from the 3rd century. BC. and until the 7th century. AD There were Buddhist Ajanta temples located in central India (present-day Bombay province). The most prominent of them were created during the Gupta period. Ajanta was a kind of monastery-university where monks lived and studied, and served as a place of pilgrimage not only for Indians, but also for Buddhists from many countries, including the Chinese. The Ajanta temples (29 caves in total) are carved into the almost vertical cliffs of a picturesque valley above the Waghora River bending below.

The facades of the cave temples, dating back to the Gupta period, are lavishly decorated with sculpture. Countless Buddha statues, executed in high relief, fill the niches of the walls. The space between the large sculptures is covered with carvings and images of the Buddha's disciples and companions. In addition to Buddhist subjects, in Ajanta temples there are sculptures on traditional subjects. These include the image of the snake king Nagaraj, placed in a niche in one of the interior rooms of temple No. 19 (6th century). The king is represented sitting next to his wife. His heavy and massive figure occupies a central place in the composition. The head, wearing a jeweled crown, is surrounded by a traditional halo consisting of seven cobras. The body is covered with jewelry. He sits in a lively, free pose, looking thoughtfully into space. Nearby is the figure of the queen, depicted as small and less majestic in comparison; this sculpture, like other monumental monuments of Ajanta, is made with great plastic skill. Placed in niches or simply near the walls, large figures of deities and spirits, goddesses with steeply curved hips and huge breasts, protruding from the darkness of the temple, were perceived by the viewer as formidable and powerful forces of a mysterious and fabulous nature. In the sculptural monuments of Ajanta, one can see the development of past traditions both in the content and in the interpretation of images, but here these images appear much more mature in skill, freer and more perfect in form.

The interiors of the Ajanta temples are covered almost entirely with monumental paintings. In these paintings, the masters who worked on them expressed with great force the richness, fabulousness and poetic beauty of their artistic imagination, which managed to embody living human feelings and various phenomena of real life in India. The paintings cover the entire ceiling and walls. Their subjects are legends from the life of Buddha, intertwined with ancient Indian mythological scenes. Images of people, flowers and birds, animals and plants are painted with great skill. From the rough and powerful images of the Ashoka period, art evolved to spirituality, softness and emotionality. The image of Buddha, given many times in his reincarnations, is surrounded by many genre scenes that are essentially secular in nature. The paintings are full of the most vivid and direct observations and provide rich material for studying the life of Ancient India.

Cave Temple No. 17 depicts Buddha meeting his wife and son. His white-robed figure stands in a sacred white lotus flower. The Buddha's face is calm and thoughtful, in his hands is a beggar's cup. Above him is a genius holding an umbrella - a symbol of royal origin, from which openwork light white flowers hang over the figure of Buddha.

The conventionality of the image is manifested in the fact that the figure of Buddha - the “Great Teacher” - is shown to be huge in comparison with the figures of his wife and son, who are depicted small in front of him, ordinary people looking up at him. This painting is characterized by simplicity, harmony and calm clarity. The figures of the wife and son are filled with direct human experience and spiritual warmth. There are other genre images in this temple. This is a series of everyday and mythological scenes. Eight paintings located near the central door show people in their home life. One of these paintings depicts a young boy and girl sitting on the floor. A young man brings a flower to a girl. The naked bodies of both are unusually plastic and voluminous. The artist convincingly showed the physical beauty of the elastic, full of strength and soft harmony of the human body and the gentle and lively expressions of faces.

An excellent example of the skill of the Ajanta painters is the famous figure of the bowed girl from Temple No. 2, full of grace, elegance and tender femininity. The face of the Bodisattva (the future Buddha who came to earth to save people) in the painting of grotto No. 1 is marked with spirituality. The Bodisattva in a high headdress occupies the main place in the composition. His face, with soft light shadows emphasizing the volume of his forms, is inclined towards his left shoulder. The oblong eyes are downcast, the eyebrows are raised high. In his hands he holds a sacred lotus flower. Both the face and posture express deep thoughtfulness. The Bodisattva, like most of the deities of Ajanta paintings, is strewn with flowers and strewn with jewelry. His image is unusually poetic and refined.

The painting in temple No. 17 depicts Indra flying, accompanied by musicians and celestial apsara maidens. The feeling of flight is conveyed by blue, white and pinkish clouds swirling against a dark background, among which Indra and his companions soar. The feet, hands and hair of Indra and the beautiful celestial maidens are decorated with jewels. The artist, striving to convey the spirituality and exquisite grace of the images of deities, depicted them with elongated half-closed eyes, outlined by thin lines of eyebrows, with a tiny mouth and a soft, rounded and smooth oval face. Indra and the heavenly maidens hold flowers in their thin curved fingers. Compared to the somewhat conventional and idealized figures of the gods, the servants and musicians in this composition are depicted in a more realistic manner, with lively, rough and expressive faces. The bodies of the people are painted in warm brown paint, only Indra is depicted as white-skinned. Dense and juicy dark green foliage of plants and bright spots of flowers give a major sonority to the color. A significant decorative role in Ajanta painting is played by the line, which sometimes runs clearly and clearly, sometimes softly, but invariably gives volume to the bodies. The beautiful sensual and tender female images of Ajanta find an analogy in the dramas of the brilliant poet and playwright of the Gupta period - Kalidasa.

Mythological, vivid and imaginative perception of nature, combined with storytelling in genre scenes (albeit on religious subjects) are characteristic of these paintings. Genre-based interpretation of religious subjects indicates a desire to connect ancient mythology with reality.

The paintings of the Sigiriya temples in Ceylon are closest in nature to the paintings of Ajanta. These paintings were created in rock caves at the end of the 5th century. They differ from the Ajanta paintings in being slightly more refined and sophisticated. The paintings depict celestial apsara maidens with their maidservants. Their half-naked bodies are decorated with necklaces and jewelry, and fancy headdresses are on their heads. Soft shadows convey the volumes of fragile moving female figures, although shown among the clouds, are completely earthly in their entire appearance.

The first large rock sculptures (in Udayagiri, 5th century, and other places) depicting Shiva and other deities of the Brahman religion date back to the time of the Gupta. These sculptures showed the pomp, clutter and heaviness already inherent in the art monuments of the time of feudalism in the 6th - 7th centuries. which finally replaced slave-owning relations in India.

Characteristics for everything ancient period Indian art is the strength and stability of folk traditions, always breaking through numerous religious layers both in the choice of subjects and in the content of many artistic images. In architecture, the basic elements of wooden folk architecture dating back to ancient times have been firmly preserved for a long time. In sculpture and painting, based on folk fantasy, humanized images of gods and heroes are created, full of charm, harmony and beauty, which have become traditional.

In the ancient art of India it is already possible to trace the division of art into a more official direction, subject to canonical rules, acquiring over time features of dryness and rigidity, and a realistic direction, genre-based in its aspirations, distinguished by humanity and vitality. This second direction received its most vivid expression in the Ajanta paintings.

Indian culture is one of the most original and unique. Its originality lies primarily in richness and diversity of religious and philosophical teachings. The famous Swiss writer G. Hesse notes on this matter: “India is a country of a thousand religions, the Indian spirit is distinguished among other peoples by its specifically religious genius.” In this, Indian culture has no equal. That is why, already in ancient times, India was called “the land of the sages.”

The second feature of Indian culture is related to its appeal to the Universe, her immersion in the mysteries of the universe. Indian writer R. Tagore emphasized: “India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the Universe.”

The third important feature of Indian culture, which outwardly seems to contradict the previous one, is its orientation into the human world, self-immersion into the depths of the human soul. A striking example of this is the famous philosophy and practice of yoga.

The unique uniqueness of Indian culture also consists of its amazing musicality and danceability.

Another important feature is in the special reverence of love by Indians - sensual and physical, which they do not consider sinful.

The originality of Indian culture is largely due to the characteristics of the Indian ethnic group. Numerous multilingual tribes and nationalities took part in its formation - from local Dravidians to newcomer Aryans. In essence, the Indian people are superethnos, which includes several independent peoples.

The culture of Ancient India existed approximately from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. and until the 6th century. AD Modern name“India” appeared only in the 19th century. In the past, it was known as the “country of the Aryans”, “the land of the Brahmins”, “the land of the sages”.

The history of Ancient India falls into two large periods. The first is time Harappan civilization, formed in the Indus River valley (2500-1800 BC). Second period - Aryan - covers all subsequent Indian history and is associated with the arrival and settlement of Aryan tribes in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers.

Harappan civilization, which had its main centers in the cities of Harappa (modern Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro (“Hill of the Dead”), reached a high level of development. This is evidenced by those few large cities that were distinguished by their harmonious layout and had an excellent drainage system. The Harappan civilization had its own writing and language, the origins of which remain a mystery. In artistic culture it developed especially successfully small plastic: small figurines, reliefs on signets. Vivid examples of this plastic art are the bust of a priest (18 cm) from Mohenjo-Daro and the torso dancing man(10 cm) from Harapia. Having experienced a high rise and prosperity, the Harappan culture and civilization gradually declined, caused by climate change, river floods and especially epidemics.

After the decline of the Harappan civilization, Aryan tribes came to the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. The Aryans were nomads, but... Having settled on Indian soil, they became farmers and cattle breeders. They mixed with the local population and at the same time new blood as if they breathed new life into the Indian ethnic group.

With the advent of the Aryans, a new beginning begins in Indian history and culture. Indo-Aryan period. About the main part of this period, the main source of information is created by the arias Veda(from the verb “to know”, “to know”). They are a collection of religious texts - hymns, chants and magic formulas. The main content of the Vedas is a story about the complex and painful process of self-assertion of the Aryans in a new place of life, about their struggle with local tribes.

They are written in Vedic language - oldest form Sanskrit. The Vedas are composed of four parts:

• Rigveda(religious hymns);
• Samaveda(chants);
• Yajurveda(sacrificial formulas):
• Ltharvaveda(magic spells and formulas).

Vedic literature also includes comments Vedas - Brahmanas and Upanishads.

The Vedas form the basis of all subsequent spiritual culture of India: theology, philosophy and science. They contain information about all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. In particular, they report the division of Indian society into four varnas:

• brahmins (priests);
• kshatriyas (warriors);
• Vaishyas (farmers, artisans, traders);
• Shudras (slaves and prisoners of war).

These four varnas were later supplemented by numerous castes (more than two thousand), which have survived to this day.

Starting from the Vedas, a unique mosaic of religions has been formed in India. The first of them was Vedism- the religion of the Vedas themselves. It is characterized by polytheism and anthropomorphism. The main one among all the deities was Indra - the thunder god, a powerful warrior, patron of the Aryans in their struggle with local tribes. In the Rig Veda, most of the hymns are dedicated to him. He is followed by: Varuna - the god of the sky and space: Surya - the god of the sun; Vishnu - personifying the rotation of the Sun; Agni - god of fire, etc.

At the new - epic - stage (1st millennium BC) Vedism is transformed into Brahmanism. It represents a more harmonious doctrine of the world, in which the former multitude of gods is reduced to Trinity. The absolute and indefinite essence - Brahman - manifests itself in the Trimurgi, or in the triune deity: Brahma - the creator of the world; Vishnu is the protector of the world; Shiva is the destroyer of the world.

In the second half I thousand BC Brahmanism turns into Hinduism, which assimilates many Indian beliefs - from pagan to Buddhism. Hinduism is the most widespread religion in India, comprising more than 80% of believers. It exists in the form of two main directions: Vaishnavism And Saivism. At the same time, today an independent branch of Hinduism is Krishnaism. The inclusion of various cults in Hinduism is carried out through the concept of avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu. According to this concept, Vishnu descends into the world. transforming into various images. There are ten such avatars, of which the seventh, eighth and ninth are the main ones. In them, Vishnu takes the forms of Rama, Krishna and Buddha.

The sacred scripture of Hinduism is "Bhagavadgita"(The Song of the Lord) is one of the parts of the Mahabharata. The basis of Hinduism is the doctrine of the eternal transmigration of souls ( samsara), occurring in accordance with law of retribution (karma) for everything you've done in life.

In VI V. BC. appears in India Buddhism- one of the sins of world religions. Its creator was Siddhartha Gautama, who at the age of forty reached a state of enlightenment and received the name Buddha(enlightened).

In the 3rd century. BC. Buddhism achieved its greatest influence and spread, displacing Brahmanism. But from the middle of the 1st millennium AD. his influence gradually declines, and at the beginning of the millennium AD. he dissolves into Hinduism. Its further life as an independent religion takes place outside of India - in China, Japan and other countries.

The basis of Buddhism constitutes the doctrine of the “four noble truths”: there is suffering; its source is desire: salvation from suffering is possible; there is a path to salvation, to liberation from suffering. The path to salvation lies through renunciation of worldly temptations, through self-improvement, through non-resistance to evil. The highest state is nirvana and means salvation. Nirvana(extinction) is a borderline state between life and death, meaning complete detachment from the outside world, the absence of any desires, complete satisfaction, inner enlightenment. Buddhism promises salvation to all believers, regardless of belonging to a particular varna or caste.

There are two directions. The first - Hinayana (small vehicle) - involves complete entry into Nirvana. The second - Mahayana (big vehicle) - means getting as close as possible to Nirvana, but refusing to enter it for the sake of helping and saving others.

Simultaneous Buddhism in India arises Jainism, which is close to Buddhism, but survived the fight against Hinduism because it accepted the division into varnas and castes. It also contains the concept of nirvana, but the main one is principle of ahimsa - non-infliction of harm to all living things.

In the 16th century emerged from Hinduism as an independent religion Sikhism, who opposed the hierarchy of varnas and castes, for the equality of all believers before God.

For religious life Indians are characterized by the preservation of the earliest forms of religion - fetishism and totemism, as evidenced by worship of many animals. The sacred ones include cows and bulls of the Zebu breed (which, unlike cows, are used in household work). Special attention Indians pay attention to monkeys. They live in thousands in temples, receiving food and care from people. Cobras are even more popular.

There is a real snake cult in India. Magnificent temples are built for them, legends are formed about them and stories are written. The snake embodies perpetual motion. Indians place the snake sign on both sides of the front door of their home. Every year, at the end of July, the Snake Festival is solemnly celebrated. They are treated to milk and honey, sprinkled with pollen, and jasmine and red lotus flowers are placed in their holes. In gratitude for such attention, snakes do not bite on this day. Some animals are traditionally associated with certain gods whom they represent: the cow with Krishna, the cobra with Shiva, the goose with Brahma.

Play an important role in the life of Indians castes, of which there are more than two thousand. They were formed on the basis of four varna and exist since early Middle Ages. The lowest among them is the untouchable caste. Its members perform the most dirty and humiliating work. They are prohibited from entering not only high-caste temples, but even the kitchen. They also cannot use the things of the higher castes.

Currently, the role of castes in political life is legally limited. However, in Everyday life this role remains significant, especially in family and marital relations. As a rule, marriages are concluded within castes and most often without taking into account the opinions of future spouses. Among the upper and middle castes, weddings take place in the bride's house and are distinguished by pomp and luxury. In the lower castes, a bride price is required.

In addition, other areas of culture reached a high level in Ancient India. First of all, this applies to philosophy. Among the so-called orthodox ones, i.e. Recognizing the authority of the Vedas, there are six philosophical schools: Vaisheshika, Vedanta, Yoga, Mimamsa, Nyaya and Samkhya. Some of them are close to each other. In particular, the content Vedanta And mimansas constitute reflections on the ways of human liberation, problems public life. Atomistic doctrine Vaisesikas had much in common with logic and theory of knowledge nyai. which eventually led to their merger. At the heart of dualistic philosophy sanyahya there is a problem of two opposite principles of the world - matter and spirit. The school gives preference to the spirit, exploring the possibilities and ways of liberating it.

All the philosophical concepts touched upon are closely related and intertwined with any religion. To one degree or another, these trends take place in philosophical thought modern India and retain their influence. However, the most famous and famous is philosophical school of yoga, which was founded by Patanjali. Yoga is based on the idea of ​​a deep connection between human psychophysiology and the cosmos. Its goal is to achieve the state of nirvana, liberation from the law of karma.

The means to achieve this goal is a system of special efforts and exercises - both physical and spiritual-intellectual. The first are intended for the body, they include certain exercises for mastering special poses - asanas, as well as breathing exercises. The second are aimed at bringing you into a state of self-absorption and concentration. Meditation plays an exceptional role in this.

Along with philosophy, ancient India successfully developed the science. Indians achieved the most significant successes in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and linguistics. Indian mathematicians the value of pi was known, they created a decimal number system using zero. Everyone knows Arabic numerals most likely invented by the Indians. The mathematical terms “digit”, “sine”, “root” are also of Indian origin. Indian astronomers made a guess about the rotation of the Earth around its axis. Indian has reached a high level medicine, who created the science of longevity (Ayurveda). Indian surgeons performed 300 types of operations using about 120 surgical instruments. Linguistics owes its birth primarily to Indian scientists.

Artistic culture of ancient India

Artistic culture has reached an equally high level, where a special place is occupied by literature. The most ancient literary monument is the Vedas. The beginning of their creation dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. Somewhat later, in the 1st millennium BC, two more great literary monuments appeared - the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The main content of the first is a dispute over power between the brothers Kauravas and Pandavas, which ended in a multi-day battle between them, in which the Pandavas won. The main characters of the events are Arjuna and his charioteer and mentor Krishna, whose teachings form a separate part of the monument - the Bhagavad Gita.

Of the later literary monuments, the Panchatantra (Pentateuch, III-IV centuries AD) deserves special mention - a collection of fairy tales, fables, parables and moralizing stories. Special mention The work of the poet and playwright Kalidasa also deserves recognition. The drama “I Pakuntala”, as well as the poems “The Messenger Cloud” and “The Birth of Kumara” brought him worldwide fame.

As for ancient Indian architecture, then its development has some peculiarities. The fact is that no monuments of the material culture of Ancient India, including architectural ones, that existed before the 3rd century. BC, have not survived and have not survived to this day. This is explained by this. that at that time the main building material was wood, which did not stand the test of time. Only in the 3rd century. BC. The use of stone began in construction, and since that time many architectural structures have been preserved. Since the dominant religion during this period was Buddhism, the main monuments are Buddhist buildings: stupas, stambhas, cave temples.

Buddhist stupas are round brick structures with a diameter of 36 m and a height of 16 m. According to legend, relics of Buddha were kept in the stupas. The most famous of them was “Great Stupa No. 1”, surrounded by a fence with a gate. Stambhas are monolithic columns about 15 m high, on top of which there is a figure of a sacred animal, and the surface is covered with inscriptions of Buddhist content.

Cave temples were usually part of a complex of buildings along with monasteries. The most famous temple is the complex in Ajanta, which unites 29 caves. This temple is also interesting because it contains beautiful examples of ancient Indian painting. The Ajanta murals depict scenes from the life of Buddha, mythological stories, as well as scenes from social life: dance, royal hunt, etc.

Indian culture cannot be imagined without music, dance and theater, which are organically fused with each other. Vocalmusic Indians understand it as the beginning and end of all arts. The ancient treatise “Natyashastra” is devoted to the peculiarities of music, canons and dance techniques. It says: “Music is the tree of nature itself, its flowering is dance.” Origins dance and theater are found in the cult rituals and games of ancient Indian tribes. The creator of dance is considered to be Shiva, who is called Nataraja (king of dance). Like a dancer, although in to a lesser extent, Krishna is also known. However, most of the classical and folk dances dedicated specifically to Krishna and Rama.

The culture of Ancient India occupies an exceptional place in world culture. Being Eastern, it had a huge influence on Western culture. Many of its monuments and achievements form an organic part of other cultures.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

S Ш No. 43

Abstract on the topic:

"ANCIENT INDIA"

Students of class 10 "B"

Kutuzova Elena

Mogilev, 2002

Bibliography :

1.G.I. Dovgyalo “What is History?”

2. O.V. Perzashkevich and A.A. Prokhorov "Countries of the Ancient East"

Minsk

"People's Asveta"

1996
Content:

1. References…………………………………………2page

3. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………...4page

4. THE ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA…………………………….5page

4.1. Location and nature of Ancient India…………..5 pages

4.2. Formation of states in Ancient India.………………6page

4.3. Economic life. ……………………………………...page 7

5. CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA …………………………………9 page

5.1. Languages ​​and writing of ancient India. …………………..page 9

5.2. Literature. …………………………………………….……page 9

5.3. Religion of Ancient India.…………………………………...10 pages

6. INTERESTING ABOUT INDIA…………………………………………11page

6.1. Excavations at Mahenjo-Daro……………………..………………page 11

6.2. Indian social structure according to ancient laws...12 pages

7. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………13page

Introduction

India is an ancient country approximately 8 thousand years old. The amazing Indian people lived on its territory. Which were divided into several social classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and writing. Their writings cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day.

The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They made thin chintz fabric. They domesticated the largest animal in the world, the elephant.

They revered and believed in different gods. Animals were deified. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods.

This is a very interesting state and people.

Ancient state of India

Location and nature of Ancient India .

In the south of Asia, beyond the Himalayan range, is located amazing country- India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However, modern India differs in size from ancient country under the same name. Ancient India was approximately equal in area to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined.

This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. In the west, the Indus River flowed; it rained relatively rarely, but in the summer there were large floods. Spacious steppes spread out here.

In the east, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers carried their waters to the Indian Ocean. It always rained heavily here, and the entire land was covered with marshy swamps and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and bushes, where twilight reigns even during the day. In the jungle there were tigers, panthers, elephants, poisonous snakes and great amount various insects.

In ancient times, the central and southern parts of India were mountainous areas where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But the abundance of moisture was not always a good thing. Dense vegetation and swamps were a great obstacle for ancient farmers, armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appeared in India in the less forested north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

Formation of states in Ancient India .

While scientists have little information about social order and culture of Indian cities. The fact is that the writing of the ancient Indians has not yet been deciphered. But today it is known that in the 3rd and first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley there was a single state with two capitals. This Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-daro on South. Residents were divided into several social classes. It is not known exactly who ruled the state. But they played a big role priests.

With the decline of the Indus state, the social organization also disintegrated. Writing was forgotten.

Appearing in the middle II millennium BC e., the Aryans brought with them their public organization. It was based on the division of society into “our own” (Aryans) and "strangers" (dasov). Using the right of conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society.

There was also division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into three classes - varnas. The first and highest varna was brahmins - priests, teachers, guardians of culture. Second varna - kshatriyas. It was composed military nobility. To the third varna - vaishyas- included farmers, artisans and traders. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the fourth varna appeared - Shudras. It means "servant". This varna included everyone non-Aryans. They were obliged to serve the first three varnas. The lowest position was occupied "untouchables". They did not belong to any of the varnas and were obliged to do the dirtiest work.

With the development of crafts, population growth and the complication of social life, in addition to varnas, additional division by profession. This division is called division by caste.

And a person fell into a certain varna, like a caste, by right of birth. If you are born in a brahmana family, you are a brahmana; if you are born in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior of every Indian.

Further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms led by rajas. (In ancient Indian “raja” means “king”.)

At the end of the 4th century. BC e. A powerful empire is formed in India. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its greatest power under Chandragupta's grandson Ashok (263-233 BC).

Thus, already in the 3rd - early 2nd millennium BC. e. There was a state in India. It was not only not inferior in its development, but at times surpassed Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the decline of the Indus culture and the arrival of the Aryans, the social structure of ancient Indian society became more complex. Its culture was created by the Aryans with the participation of the local population. At this time, a caste system took shape. A mighty empire arose. Changing ancient Indian culture has survived to this day.

Economic life.

Already in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley was agriculture. Wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane were grown.

Livestock farming was well developed. The Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, and elephants. The horse appeared later.

The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools were made of copper. Knives, spear and arrow tips, hoes, axes and much more were smelted from it. Artistic casting, masterful stone processing, and alloys, among which bronze occupied a special place, were no secret to them. The Indians knew gold and lead. But at that time they did not know iron.

Crafts were also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They processed precious metals and stones, ivory and shells.

Sea and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first port in history for ships to moor at low tide.

The most active trade was with Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, and fruits were brought to India. There were trade relations with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably, the Indians exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River.

With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged significantly behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of horses.

Only at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute crops appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley reaped especially large harvests.

Along with horses and cattle, the elephant occupied an important place in the economy. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle.

Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles.

Crafts are also being revived. Once again, pottery and weaving occupy a prominent place in the economy. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. They were named after the goddess of arable land Sita chintz. There were also simpler, cheaper fabrics.

Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities.

Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugarcane. They domesticated the largest animal in the world, the elephant.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIAN

Languages ​​and writing of ancient India.

At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. India was a major power with a highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language the inhabitants of the Indus Valley spoke. Their writing still remains a mystery to scientists.

Ancient Indian civilization is one of the most ancient and original civilizations of the East. The history of this country dates back thousands of years.

Historical data reports that India was inhabited in ancient times in the Indus River valley. The ancient people who laid the foundation for a great civilization were called Indians. From an early time, science and culture developed in India, and writing arose. The ancient Indians achieved a high level of agriculture, which led to the rapid development of society. They grew sugar cane, weaved the finest fabrics, and engaged in trade.

The beliefs of the Indians were as diverse as their culture. They revered various gods and the Vedas, deified animals and worshiped brahmans - keepers of sacred knowledge, who were equated with living deities.

Due to its many achievements, India was of great historical importance even in ancient times.

Geographical location and nature

India is located in southern Asia. In ancient times, it occupied a vast territory, bordered in the north by the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world. India is divided into southern and northern parts, which differ greatly in their development. This division is due natural conditions these areas separated by a mountain range.

Southern India occupies the fertile lands of the peninsula, rich in flat landscapes and rivers. The central territory of the peninsula is characterized by an arid climate, as the mountains hold back moist winds from the oceanic expanses.

Northern India is located on the mainland and includes deserts and semi-desert lands. In the west of Northern India flows the Indus River and large rivers flowing into it. This made it possible to develop agriculture here and irrigate arid areas using canals.

In the east flows the Ganges River and many of its tributaries. The climate of this area is humid. Due to the high rainfall in these areas, it was convenient to grow rice and cane. In ancient times, these places were dense forests inhabited by wild animals, which created many difficulties for the first farmers.

The geographical conditions of India are completely different - snow-capped mountains and green plains, impenetrable humid jungles and hot deserts. The animal and plant worlds are also very diverse and contain many unique species. It was these features of climate and territorial location that significantly influenced further development Ancient India in some areas, and an almost complete slowdown in progress in other, hard-to-reach areas.

The emergence of the state

Scientists know little about the existence and structure ancient state Indians, because written sources from that period have never been deciphered. Only the location of the centers of ancient civilization - the large cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa - has been accurately established. These could have been the capitals of the first ancient state entities. Archaeologists have found sculptures, remains of buildings and religious buildings, which gives an idea of ​​the high level of development of society of that time.

In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Aryan tribes came to the territory of Ancient India. Indian civilization began to disappear under the onslaught of invading conquerors. Writing was lost, and the established social system collapsed.

The Aryans extended their social division to the Indians and applied the class system - varnas. The highest position was occupied by brahmins or priests. The kshatriya class consisted of noble warriors, and the vaishyas were peasants and traders. The Shudras occupied a fairly low position. The name of this varna meant “servant” - this included all non-Aryans. The most difficult work went to those who were not part of any class.

Already later start a division into castes was formed depending on the type of activity. Caste was determined at birth and determined the norms of behavior of each member of society.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. rulers - kings or rajas - arise on the territory of India. The first strong powers are being formed, which has a positive impact on the development of the economy, trade relations, statehood and culture. Already by the end of the 4th century. BC e. a strong empire was formed, which began to attract not only traders, but also armies of conquerors led by Alexander the Great. Macedonian failed to capture Indian lands, but the long-term contact of different cultures favorably influenced the course of their development.

India becomes one of the largest and most powerful states of the East, and the culture that was formed at that time, having undergone some modifications, has reached our time.

Economic life and activities of Indians

Having settled on fertile lands near the Indus River, the ancient Indians immediately mastered agriculture and grew many commercial crops, grains, and gardening. The Indians learned to tame animals, including cats and dogs, and raised chickens, sheep, goats and cows.

Various crafts were widespread. Ancient craftsmen were engaged in weaving, jewelry work, carvings on ivory and stones. Iron had not yet been discovered by the Indians, but they used bronze and copper as materials for tools.

Large cities were busy trading centers, and trade was carried out both within the country and far beyond its borders. Archaeological finds suggest that already in ancient times sea routes were established, and on the territory of India there were ports for connections with Mesopotamia and other eastern countries.

With the arrival of the Aryans, who were nomads and lagged behind the Indus civilization in development, a period of decline began. Only in the 2nd–1st millennia BC. e. India gradually began to revive, returning to agricultural activity.

In the river valleys, Indians begin to develop rice farming and grow legumes and cereals. The appearance of horses, which were unknown to local residents before the arrival of the Aryans, played an important role in the development of the economy. Elephants began to be used in cultivating and clearing land for planting. This greatly simplified the task of fighting the impenetrable jungle, which at that time occupied almost all areas suitable for agriculture.

Forgotten crafts - weaving and pottery - are beginning to revive. Having learned to mine iron, the metallurgical industry received a big boost. However, trade still did not reach the required level and was limited to exchanges with nearby settlements.

Ancient writing

The Indian civilization was so developed that it had its own special language. The age of the found tablets with writing samples is estimated at thousands of years, but until now scientists have not been able to decipher these ancient signs.

The language system of the ancient Indian people is very complex and diverse. It has about 400 hieroglyphs and signs - rectangular figures, waves, squares. The first examples of writing have survived to this day in the form of clay tablets. Archaeologists also discovered inscriptions on stones made using sharp stone objects. But the content of these ancient records, behind which there is a language that existed in ancient times, cannot be deciphered even with the use of computer technology.

The language of the ancient Indians, on the contrary, has been well studied by specialists in this field. They used Sanskrit, which provided the basis for the development of many Indian languages. Brahmins were considered the guardians of the language on earth. The privilege of studying Sanskrit extended only to the Aryans. Those who were in the lower classes of society did not have the right to learn to write.

Literary heritage

The ancient Indians left behind only a few scattered examples of writing that could not be analyzed and deciphered. Indians, on the contrary, created immortal written masterpieces. The most significant literary works The Vedas, the poems “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, as well as mythological tales and legends that have survived to our time, are considered. Many texts written in Sanskrit greatly influenced the ideas and forms of later works.

The Vedas are considered the oldest literary source and religious book. It sets out the basic knowledge and wisdom of the ancient Indians, the chanting and glorification of the gods, descriptions of rituals and ritual songs. The influence of the Vedas on spiritual life and culture was so strong that an entire thousand-year period in history was called the Vedic culture.

Along with the Vedas, the philosophical literature, whose task was to explain natural phenomena, the appearance of the Universe and man from a mystical point of view. Such works were called Upanishads. Under the guise of riddles or dialogues, the most important ideas in the spiritual life of people were described. There were also texts that were educational in nature. They were devoted to grammar, astrological knowledge and etymology.

Later, works of literature of an epic nature appeared. The poem "Mahabharata" is written in Sanskrit and tells about the struggle for the royal throne of the ruler, and also describes the life of Indians, their traditions, travel and wars of that time. The Ramayana is considered a later epic and describes life path Prince Rama. This book illustrates many aspects of the life, beliefs and ideas of the ancient Indian people. Both of these works are of great literary interest. Under the general plot of the narrative, the poems combined many myths, fables, fairy tales and hymns. They had a significant influence on the formation of the religious ideas of the ancient Indians, and were also of great importance in the emergence of Hinduism.

Religious Beliefs of Indians

Scientists have little data about the religious beliefs of the ancient Indians. They revered the mother goddess, considered the bull a sacred animal and worshiped the god of cattle breeding. The Indians believed in other worlds, transmigration of souls and deified the forces of nature. At the excavations of ancient cities, the remains of pools were found, which makes it possible to assume the worship of water.

The beliefs of the ancient Indians were formed during the era of Vedic culture into two majestic religions - Hinduism and Buddhism. The Vedas were considered sacred and remained a storehouse of sacred knowledge. Along with the Vedas, they revered the Brahmans, who were the embodiment of the gods on earth.

Hinduism evolved from Vedic beliefs and underwent significant changes over time. The worship of the three main gods - Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva - comes to the fore. These deities were considered the creators of all earthly laws. The formed beliefs also absorbed pre-Aryan ideas about the gods. Descriptions of the six-armed god Shiva included the ancient Indian beliefs in a herder god who was depicted as having three faces. This assimilation of beliefs is characteristic of Judaism.

Already at the beginning of our era, the most important literary source appeared in Hinduism, considered sacred - “Bhagavad-Gita”, which means “Divine Song”. Relying on the caste division of society, religion became national for India. It not only describes divine laws, but is also intended to shape the lifestyle and ethical values ​​of its followers.

Much later Buddhism arose and was formed as a separate religion. The name comes from the name of its founder and means “enlightened one.” There is no reliable information about the biography of the Buddha, but the historicity of his personality as the founder of the religion is not disputed.

Buddhism does not involve the worship of a pantheon of gods or a single god, and does not recognize deities as the creators of the world. The only saint is considered to be the Buddha, that is, the one who has achieved enlightenment and “liberated”. At first, Buddhists did not build temples and did not attach much importance to rituals.

Followers believed that eternal bliss could only be achieved by living a correct life. Buddhism assumed the equality of all people by birth, regardless of caste, and moral principles behavior largely determined the life path of followers. The literary sources of Buddhism were written in Sanskrit. They explained the laws philosophical system his teachings, the meaning of man and the path of his development.

Having originated in the vastness of India, Buddhism was very soon supplanted by Judaism, but was able to spread and firmly take root in the neighboring countries of the East.