Silver age of Russian culture, education and science. The Silver Age of Russian Culture - a hypermarket of knowledge

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Federal Agency for Railway Transport

Ural State Transport University

Essay

On the topic of: " silver Age Russian culture"

Checked by: Evteev I.A.

Completed: Art. groups MT-114

Blinnikova D.A.

Ekaterinburg 2015

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The “Silver Age” occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This controversial time of spiritual search and wandering significantly enriched all types of arts and philosophy and gave birth to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of the new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. Traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - failed to cope with their functions, and the modern age was born.

However, they sometimes say that the “Silver Age” is a Westernizing phenomenon. Indeed, he chose as his reference points the aestheticism of Oscar Wilde, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, and the superman of Nietzsche. The “Silver Age” found its ancestors and allies in various European countries and in different centuries: Villon, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Novalis, Shelley, Calderon, Ibsen, Maeterlinck, d'Annuzio, Gautier, Baudelaire, Verhaeren.

In other words, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries there was a reassessment of values from the perspective of Europeanism. But in the light new era, which was the complete opposite of the one it replaced, national, literary and folklore treasures appeared in a different light, brighter than ever. Truly, it was the most creative era in Russian history, a canvas of the greatness and impending troubles of holy Russia.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897, the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia average level literacy rate was 21.1%: men - 29.3%, women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. In relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied in secondary school. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes).

In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education issued a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education V Russian Empire"for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912 in Russia there were 16 higher technical educational institutions, in addition to private higher education institutions. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased noticeably - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education for women received further development, and in 1911 women’s right to higher education was legally recognized.

The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses operated. In the 1890s there were 100 newspapers and approximately 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores in the cities.

In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers are A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices: Suvorin’s “cheap library” and Sytin’s “library for self-education.”

The process of enlightenment was intensive and successful, and the number of the reading public grew rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the 19th century. there were approximately 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo public reading rooms, and already in 1914 in Russia there were about 76 thousand different public libraries.

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 Russia already had 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new ones were produced feature films. In 1911-1913 V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

Humanitarian sciences experienced big influence processes taking place in natural science. Humanities scientists like V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, S.A. Vengerov and others worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and spiritual, the establishment of a “new” religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but also of all culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. Soloviev. His system is an experience of synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, “and it is not Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and with them enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought” (V.V. Zenkovsky). Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society; moreover, he brought Russian thought to universal spaces.

This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky and others largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, and ethics not only in Russia, but also in the West.

Literature

Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was ideological quest intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin.

In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works by A.M. Gorky reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent uniqueness of economic development and ideological and social struggle.

At the end of the 19th century, when, in the context of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was overwhelmed by the mood of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in the culture of the 19th-20th centuries, marked by a renunciation of citizenship and immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motifs of this direction became the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that emerged at the turn of the 20th century.

Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to wonderful poetry, and the most significant direction was symbolism. For symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism the main reason for the decline of literature, and proclaimed “symbols” and “mystical content” as the basis of new art. Along with the demands of “pure” art, the Symbolists professed individualism; they were characterized by the theme of “spontaneous genius,” close in spirit to Nietzsche’s “superman.”

It is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “junior” symbolists. “The Elders”, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. “Younger” Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov, brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore.

The symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the enduring popularity of poetry in this direction becomes clear. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest and captivating artistry creative manner experienced not only by the Acmeists and Futurists who replaced the Symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.

By 1910, “symbolism completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilev), it was replaced by Acmeism. The participants of the acmeist group were N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist calls for the “ideal”, the return of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests and a tendency towards aestheticism. A. Blok, with his characteristic heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of Acmeism: “... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general.” However, the Acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, as evidenced by the psychologism of A. Akhmatova’s first collections and the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. Essentially, the Acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but rather a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship. silver age symbolism enlightenment

At the same time, another modernist movement arose - futurism, which split into several groups: “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”, “Centrifuge”, “Gilea”, the participants of which called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtulians, i.e. people from the future.

Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game,” the futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. Unlike the Symbolists with their idea of “life building”, i.e. transforming the world through art, the futurists focused on the destruction of the old world. What the futurists had in common was the denial of traditions in culture and a passion for form-creation. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the Steamship of Modernity” became scandalous.

The groups of Acmeists and Futurists, which arose in polemics with symbolism, in practice turned out to be very close to it in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and primary attention to form.

There were bright individuals in the poetry of this time who could not be attributed to a specific movement - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.

Peasant poets like N. Klyuev occupied a special place in the literature of the turn of the century. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motifs with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their creativity. “Klyuev is popular because it combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic melody of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelshtam). At the beginning of his career, S. Yesenin was close to peasant poets, especially Klyuev, who combined the traditions of folklore and classical art in his work.

Architecture

In the works of F.O. Shekhtel embodied to the greatest extent the main development trends and genres of Russian modernism. The formation of style in the master’s work proceeded in two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style, and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, the asymmetrical principle of planning was applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetrical projections of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernism of likening an architectural structure to an organic form. The decorative decoration of the mansion uses such characteristic Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze encircling the entire building with floral ornament. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interlacing of stained glass windows, in the design of balcony bars and street fencing. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. The furniture and decorative details of the building's interiors form a single whole with the overall design of the structure - to transform the domestic environment into a kind of architectural spectacle, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies, features of constructivism emerged in a number of Shekhtel’s buildings, a style that would take shape in the 20s.

In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially clearly, in particular in the work of one of the creators of Russian modernism, L.N. Kekusheva A.V. worked in the neo-Russian style. Shchusev, V.M. Vasnetsov and others. In St. Petersburg, modernism was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism.

In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Painting

In the historical paintings of A.V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. Creativity M.V. Nesterov presented a version of a retrospective landscape through which the high spirituality of the heroes was conveyed.

I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air painting, continued the lyrical direction in landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of a “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which is characterized by a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of all earthly things.

K.A. Korovin is the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists to consciously rely on the French impressionists, increasingly moving away from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even dramatism, trying to convey one or another state of mind with the music of color. He created a series of landscapes that were not complicated by any external plot-narrative or psychological motives. In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense style of painting, especially in the still lifes that the artist loved. With all his art, the artist affirmed the intrinsic value of purely pictorial tasks; he made people appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “study quality” of the painting manner. Korovin's canvases are a “feast for the eyes.”

The central figure of turn-of-the-century art is V.A. Serov. His mature works, with impressionistic luminosity and the dynamics of a free brushstroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to “poetic realism” (D.V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a keen sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of the paintings of the 80-90s to the conventions of modernism in historical compositions.

The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is reality transformed into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so different from the surrounding one. Borisov-Musatov’s art is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow, the feelings experienced by many people of that time, “when society was yearning for renewal, and many did not know where to look for it.” His style developed from impressionistic light-air effects to a pictorial and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Borisov-Musatov's creativity is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena.

Far from modern themes, “dreamy retrospectivism” is the main theme of the association of St. Petersburg artists “World of Art”. Rejecting academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the “Mirskusniks” searched for an artistic image in the past.

The second generation of “World of Art” students included B.M. Kustodiev, a gifted author of ironic stylization of folk popular prints, Z.E. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism.

The merit of the “World of Art” was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, printmaking, new criticism, and extensive publishing and exhibition activities.

Artists of the “Jack of Diamonds” association (1910-1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the techniques of Russian popular print and folk toys, solved the problems of identifying the materiality of nature, constructing a form with color. The initial principle of their art was the affirmation of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put in first place. The materialized, “still life” principle was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre - portraiture.

“Lyrical Cubism” by R.R. Falka was distinguished by his peculiar psychologism and subtle color-plastic harmony. School of excellence, completed at the school by such outstanding artists and teachers as V.A. Serov and K.A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders " Jack of Diamonds» I. I. Mashkova, M. F. Larionova, A.V. Lentulov determined the origins of Falk’s original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”.

Since the mid-10s an important component fine style The “Jack of Diamonds” was futurism, one of the techniques of which was the “montage” of objects or parts thereof, taken from different points and at different times.

Primitivistic tendency associated with the assimilation of stylistics children's drawing, signs, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work of M.F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the “Jack of Diamonds. The fantastic and irrational paintings of M.Z. are close to both folk naive art and Western expressionism. Chagall. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life in Chagall’s canvases is akin to Gogol’s stories. The unique creativity of P.N. came into contact with the primitivist line. Filonova.

Conclusion

The attempt to “modernize” culture associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin was unsuccessful. Its results were less than expected and gave rise to new contradictions. The increase in tension in society occurred faster than responses to emerging conflicts were found. Contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures intensified, which was also expressed in contradictions in economic forms, interests and motives for people’s creativity, and in the political life of society.

Deep social transformations were required in order to provide space for the cultural creativity of the people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society and its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage, private support and financing of significant public, cultural events. Nothing could radically transform the cultural appearance of the country. The country found itself in a period of unstable development and found no other way out other than social revolution.

The canvas of the “Silver Age” turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and unique. It was a creative space full of sunshine, bright and life-giving, thirsting for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the “silver” and not the “golden age,” perhaps it was the most creative era in Russian history.

Bibliography

1. http://ricolor.org/.

2. http://www.yaklass.ru/.

3. https://ru.wikipedia.org.

4. http://www.hist.msu.ru/.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Slavophiles and Westerners

The abolition of serfdom and the development of bourgeois relations in the countryside exacerbated contradictions in the development of culture. They are revealed, first of all, in the discussion that has gripped Russian society and in the formation of two directions: “Western” and “Slavophile”. The stumbling block that did not allow the disputants to reconcile was the question: along what path is Russian culture developing? According to the “Western”, that is, bourgeois, or it preserves its “Slavic identity”, that is, it preserves feudal relations and the agrarian nature of culture.
The reason for highlighting the directions was the “Philosophical Letters” of P. Ya. Chaadaev. He believed that all the troubles of Russia were derived from the qualities of the Russian people, which were supposedly characterized by: mental and spiritual backwardness, underdeveloped ideas about duty, justice, law, order, and the absence of an original “idea.” As the philosopher believed, “the history of Russia is “ negative lesson"to the world." A.S. Pushkin gave him a sharp rebuke, declaring: “For nothing in the world I would not want to change the Fatherland or have a different history other than the history of our ancestors, the way God gave it to us.”
Russian society divided into “Slavophiles” and “Westerners”. The “Westerners” included V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, M. A. Bakunin and others. The “Slavophiles” were represented by A. S. Khomyakov, K. S. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin.
The “Westerners” were characterized by a certain set of ideas that they defended in disputes. This ideological complex included: denial of the originality of the culture of any people; criticism of Russia's cultural backwardness; admiration for Western culture, its idealization; recognition of the need for modernization, “modernization” of Russian culture, as a borrowing of Western European values. Westerners considered the European to be the ideal person - a businesslike, pragmatic, emotionally restrained, rational being, distinguished by “healthy egoism.” Characteristic of the “Westerners” was also a religious orientation towards Catholicism and ecumenism (the fusion of Catholicism with Orthodoxy), as well as cosmopolitanism. In terms of political sympathies, the “Westerners” were republicans; they were characterized by anti-monarchist sentiments.
In essence, the “Westerners” were supporters of industrial culture - the development of industry, natural science, technology, but within the framework of capitalist, private property relations.
They were opposed by the “Slavophiles”, distinguished by their complex of stereotypes. They were characterized by a critical attitude towards European culture; its rejection as inhumane, immoral, unspiritual; absolutization in it of the features of decline, decadence, decomposition. On the other hand, they were distinguished by nationalism and patriotism, admiration for the culture of Russia, the absolutization of its uniqueness and originality, and the glorification of the historical past. The “Slavophiles” pinned their expectations on the peasant community, viewing it as the custodian of everything “sacred” in culture. Orthodoxy was considered the spiritual core of culture, which was also viewed uncritically, and its role in the spiritual life of Russia was exaggerated. Accordingly, anti-Catholicism and a negative attitude towards ecumenism were asserted. Slavophiles were distinguished by a monarchical orientation, admiration for the figure of the peasant - the owner, the “master”, and a negative attitude towards workers as a “ulcer of society”, a product of the decomposition of its culture.
Thus, the “Slavophiles”, in essence, defended the ideals of an agrarian culture and took protective, conservative positions.
The confrontation between the “Westerners” and the “Slavophiles” reflected the growing contradiction between agrarian and industrial cultures, between two forms of property - feudal and bourgeois, between two classes - the nobility and capitalists. But hidden contradictions also worsened within capitalist relations - between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The revolutionary, proletarian direction in culture stands out as independent and, in fact, will determine the development of Russian culture in the twentieth century.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897, the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia the average literacy rate was 21.1%: men - 29.3%, women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. In relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied in secondary school. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes).
In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased noticeably - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education for women received further development, and in 1911 women’s right to higher education was legally recognized.
Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - work courses, educational workers' societies and folk houses– original clubs with a library, assembly hall, tea room and trading post.
The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses operated. In the 1890s there were 100 newspapers and approximately 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores in the cities.
In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers are A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices: Suvorin’s “cheap library” and Sytin’s “library for self-education.”
The process of enlightenment was intensive and successful, and the number of the reading public grew rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the 19th century. there were approximately 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo public reading rooms, and already in 1914 there were about 76 thousand different public libraries in Russia.
An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 Russia already had 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign but also domestic films. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were produced. In 1911-1913 V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations.

The science

The 19th century brings significant successes in the development of domestic science: it claims equality with Western European science, and sometimes even superiority. It is impossible not to mention a number of works by Russian scientists that led to world-class achievements. D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic system of chemical elements in 1869. A. G. Stoletov in 1888-1889 establishes the laws of the photoelectric effect. In 1863, I. M. Sechenov’s work “Reflexes of the Brain” was published. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology. P. N. Yablochkov creates an electric arc light bulb, A. N. Lodygin creates an incandescent light bulb. A. S. Popov invents radiotelegraph. A. F. Mozhaisky and N. E. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of aviation with their research in the field of aerodynamics, and K. E. Tsiolkovsky is known as the founder of astronautics. P.N. Lebedev is the founder of research in the field of ultrasound. I. I. Mechnikov explores the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of new sciences - biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology - were laid by V.I. Vernadsky. And this is not a complete list of people who have made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed by scientists at the beginning of the century is becoming clear only now.
The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in natural science. Humanities scientists like V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, S.A. Vengerov and others worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and spiritual, the establishment of a “new” religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but also of all culture.
The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. Soloviev. His system is an experience of synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, “and it is not Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and with them enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought” (V.V. Zenkovsky). Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society; moreover, he brought Russian thought to universal spaces.
This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, G.P. Fedotov, P.A. Florensky and others largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, and ethics not only in Russia, but also in the West.

Spiritual quest

During the “Silver Age” people are looking for new foundations for their spiritual and religious life. All kinds of mystical teachings are very widespread. The new mysticism willingly sought its roots in the old, in the mysticism of the Alexander era. Just as a hundred years earlier, the teachings of Freemasonry, Skoptchestvo, the Russian schism and other mystics became popular. Many creative people of that time took part in mystical rituals, although not all of them fully believed in their content. V. Bryusov, Andrei Bely, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, N. Berdyaev and many others were fond of magical experiments.
Theurgy occupied a special place among the mystical rites that spread at the beginning of the twentieth century. Theurgy was conceived “as a one-time mystical act, which must be prepared by the spiritual efforts of individuals, but, once accomplished, irreversibly changes human nature as such” (A. Etkind). The subject of the dream was a real transformation of each person and the entire society as a whole. In a narrow sense, the tasks of theurgy were understood in almost the same way as the tasks of therapy. We also find the idea of the need to create a “new man” in such revolutionary figures as Lunacharsky and Bukharin. A parody of theurgy is presented in the works of Bulgakov.
The “Silver Age” is a time of opposition. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a huge influence on the formation of the ideas of the “Silver Age,” believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since “death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space.” Theurgy was ultimately supposed to lead to victory over death.
In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding him,” Solovyov believed. The understanding of love and death brings together the Russian culture of the “Silver Age” and psychoanalysis. Freud recognizes the main internal forces, affecting a person - libido and thanatos, respectively sexuality and the desire for death.
Berdyaev, considering the problem of gender and creativity, believes that a new natural order must come in which creativity will win - “the gender that gives birth will be transformed into the gender that creates.”
Many people sought to break out of everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their consistency and expediency. The lives of creative people were rich and full of experiences. However, the consequence of such an accumulation of experiences was often profound emptiness. Therefore, the fates of many people of the “Silver Age” are tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave birth to a beautiful and original culture.

Literature

Realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological quest of the intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday worries, and young writers I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin.
In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works by A.M. Gorky reflected a broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent uniqueness of economic development and ideological and social struggle.
At the end of the 19th century, when, in the context of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was overwhelmed by the mood of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in the culture of the 19th-20th centuries, marked by a renunciation of citizenship and immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motifs of this direction became the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that emerged at the turn of the 20th century.
Russian literature of the early 20th century gave rise to wonderful poetry, and the most significant direction was symbolism. For symbolists who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism the main reason for the decline of literature, and proclaimed “symbols” and “mystical content” as the basis of new art. Along with the demands of “pure” art, the Symbolists professed individualism; they were characterized by the theme of “spontaneous genius,” close in spirit to Nietzsche’s “superman.”
It is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “junior” symbolists. “The Elders”, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis in poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. “Younger” Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, S. Solovyov, brought philosophical and theosophical quests to the fore.
The symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about a world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of style, the enduring popularity of poetry in this direction becomes clear. The influence of symbolism with its intense spiritual quest and captivating artistry of creative manner was experienced not only by the Acmeists and Futurists who replaced the Symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.
By 1910, “symbolism completed its circle of development” (N. Gumilev), it was replaced by Acmeism. The participants of the acmeist group were N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist calls for the “ideal”, the return of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration of being” (N. Gumilyov). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual quests and a tendency towards aestheticism. A. Blok, with his characteristic heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of Acmeism: “... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea about Russian life and the life of the world in general.” However, the Acmeists did not put all their postulates into practice, as evidenced by the psychologism of A. Akhmatova’s first collections and the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. Essentially, the Acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but rather a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship.
At the same time, another modernist movement arose - futurism, which split into several groups: “Association of Ego-Futurists”, “Mezzanine of Poetry”, “Centrifuge”, “Gilea”, the participants of which called themselves Cubo-Futurists, Budtulians, i.e. people from the future.
Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: “art is a game,” the futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. Unlike the Symbolists with their idea of “life building”, i.e. transforming the world through art, the futurists focused on the destruction of the old world. What the futurists had in common was the denial of traditions in culture and a passion for form-creation. The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the Steamship of Modernity” became scandalous.
The groups of Acmeists and Futurists, which arose in polemics with symbolism, in practice turned out to be very close to it in that their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and primary attention to form.
There were bright individuals in the poetry of this time who could not be attributed to a specific movement - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.
Peasant poets like N. Klyuev occupied a special place in the literature of the turn of the century. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motifs with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their creativity. “Klyuev is popular because it combines the iambic spirit of Boratynsky with the prophetic melody of an illiterate Olonets storyteller” (Mandelshtam). At the beginning of his career, S. Yesenin was close to peasant poets, especially Klyuev, who combined the traditions of folklore and classical art in his work.

Theater and music

The most important event in the social and cultural life of Russia at the end of the 19th century. there was an opening in Moscow art theater in 1898, founded by K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko. In the production of plays by Chekhov and Gorky, new principles of acting, directing, and performance design were formed. An outstanding theatrical experiment, enthusiastically greeted by the democratic public, was not accepted by conservative critics, as well as representatives of symbolism. V. Bryusov, a supporter of the aesthetics of conventional symbolic theater, was closer to the experiments of V.E. Meyerhold, the founder of metaphorical theater.
In 1904, the V.F. Theater arose in St. Petersburg. Komissarzhevskaya, whose repertoire reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. Director's creativity E.B. Vakhtangov was marked by the search for new forms, his productions of 1911-12. are joyful and spectacular. In 1915, Vakhtangov created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater, which later became a theater named after him (1926). One of the reformers of the Russian theater, founder of the Moscow Chamber Theater AND I. Tairov strove to create a “synthetic theater” with a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire, and to develop actors of virtuoso skill.
Development best traditions musical theater is associated with the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi theaters, as well as with the private opera of S. I. Mamontov and S. I. Zimin in Moscow. The most prominent representatives of the Russian vocal school, world-class singers were F.I. Shalyapin, L.V. Sobinov, N.V. Nezhdanov. Reformers ballet theater became choreographer M.M. Fokin and ballerina A.P. Pavlova. Russian art received worldwide recognition.
Outstanding composer N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov continued to work in his favorite genre of fairy tale opera. The highest example of realistic drama was his opera The Tsar's Bride (1898). He, being a professor of composition at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, trained a whole galaxy of talented students: A.K. Glazunov, A.K. Lyadov, N.Ya. Myaskovsky and others.
In the works of composers of the younger generation at the turn of the 20th century. there was a shift away from social issues, increased interest in philosophical and ethical problems. Most full expression this was found in the work of the brilliant pianist and conductor, outstanding composer S. V. Rachmaninov; in the emotionally intense music of A.N., with sharp features of modernism. Scriabin; in the works of I.F. Stravinsky, which harmoniously combined interest in folklore and the most modern musical forms.

Architecture

The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. made a real revolution in construction. New types of buildings, such as banks, shops, factories, and train stations, occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the establishment of the Art Nouveau style!
In the works of F.O. Shekhtel embodied to the greatest extent the main development trends and genres of Russian modernism. The formation of style in the master’s work proceeded in two directions – national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style, and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, the asymmetrical principle of planning was applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetrical projections of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernism of likening an architectural structure to an organic form. The decorative decoration of the mansion uses such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral patterns that encircles the entire building. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interlacing of stained glass windows, in the design of balcony bars and street fencing. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. The furniture and decorative details of the building's interiors form a single whole with the overall design of the structure - to transform the domestic environment into a kind of architectural spectacle, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.
With the growth of rationalistic tendencies, features of constructivism emerged in a number of Shekhtel’s buildings, a style that would take shape in the 1920s.
In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially clearly, in particular in the work of one of the creators of Russian modernism, L.N. Kekusheva A.V. worked in the neo-Russian style. Shchusev, V.M. Vasnetsov and others. In St. Petersburg, modernism was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism.
In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was liberated from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic and figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, lumpy texture, dynamic forms, permeated with air and light.
The very first consistent representative of this trend was P.P. Trubetskoy, refuses impressionistic modeling of the surface, and enhances the overall impression of oppressive brute force.
The wonderful monument to Gogol in Moscow by sculptor N.A. is also alien to monumental pathos. Andreev, subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, “fatigue of the heart,” so in tune with the era. Gogol is captured in a moment of concentration, deep thought with a touch of melancholy gloominess.
An original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A.S. Golubkina, who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of awakening the human spirit. The female images created by the sculptor are marked by a feeling of compassion for people who are tired, but not broken by life's trials.

Painting

At the turn of the century, instead of the realistic method of directly reflecting reality in the forms of this reality, the priority of artistic forms that reflected reality only indirectly was established. The polarization of artistic forces at the beginning of the 20th century and the polemics of multiple artistic groups intensified exhibition and publishing (in the field of art) activities.
Genre painting lost its leading role in the 90s. In search of new themes, artists turned to changes in the traditional way of life. They were equally attracted by the theme of the split of the peasant community, the prose of stultifying labor and the revolutionary events of 1905. The blurring of the boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical theme led to the emergence of the historical genre. A.P. Ryabushkin was not interested in global historical events, but in the aesthetics of Russian life in the 17th century, the refined beauty of ancient Russian patterns, and emphasized decorativeness. The artist’s best paintings are marked by penetrating lyricism and a deep understanding of the unique way of life, characters and psychology of the people of pre-Petrine Rus'. Ryabushkin’s historical painting is a country of ideal, where the artist found relief from “ leaden abominations» modern life. Therefore, historical life on his canvases appears not as a dramatic, but as an aesthetic side.
In the historical paintings of A.V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. Creativity M.V. Nesterov presented a version of a retrospective landscape through which the high spirituality of the heroes was conveyed.
I.I. Levitan, who brilliantly mastered the effects of plein air painting, continued the lyrical direction in landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of a “conceptual landscape” or “mood landscape”, which is characterized by a rich range of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of all earthly things.
K.A. Korovin is the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists to consciously rely on the French impressionists, increasingly moving away from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even dramatism, trying to convey one or another state of mind with the music of color. He created a series of landscapes that were not complicated by any external plot-narrative or psychological motives. In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense style of painting, especially in the still lifes that the artist loved. With all his art, the artist affirmed the intrinsic value of purely pictorial tasks; he made people appreciate the “charm of incompleteness”, the “study quality” of the painting manner. Korovin’s canvases are a “feast for the eyes.”
The central figure of turn-of-the-century art is V.A. Serov. His mature works, with impressionistic luminosity and the dynamics of a free brushstroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Wanderers to “poetic realism” (D.V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a keen sense of beauty and the ability for sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of the paintings of the 80-90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions.
One after another, two masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, creating a sublime world in their works - M.A. Vrubel and V.E. Borisov-Musatov. The central image of Vrubel’s work is the Demon, who embodied the rebellious impulse that the artist himself experienced and felt in his best contemporaries. The artist's art is characterized by a desire to pose philosophical problems. His thoughts about truth and beauty, about the high purpose of art are sharp and dramatic, in his inherent symbolic form. Gravitating towards the symbolic-philosophical generalization of images, Vrubel developed his own pictorial language - a broad stroke of “crystalline” shape and color, understood as colored light. The colors, sparkling like gems, enhance the feeling of special spirituality inherent in the artist’s works.
The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is reality transformed into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so different from the surrounding one. Borisov-Musatov’s art is imbued with sad reflection and quiet sorrow, the feelings experienced by many people of that time, “when society was yearning for renewal, and many did not know where to look for it.” His style developed from impressionistic light-air effects to a pictorial and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Borisov-Musatov’s creativity is one of the most striking and large-scale phenomena.
Far from modern themes, “dreamy retrospectivism” is the main theme of the association of St. Petersburg artists “World of Art”. Rejecting academic-salon art and the tendentiousness of the Wanderers, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the “Mirskusniks” searched for an artistic image in the past. For such open rejection modern reality The “Mir Iskusstiki” were criticized from all sides, accusing them of fleeing to the past - passeism, decadence, and anti-democracy. However, the emergence of such an artistic movement was not an accident. “The World of Art” was a unique response of the Russian creative intelligentsia to the general politicization of culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. and excessive journalisticism of fine art.
Creativity N.K. Roerich is drawn to pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity. The basis of his painting has always been landscape, often directly from nature. The features of Roerich's landscape are associated both with the assimilation of the experience of the Art Nouveau style - the use of elements of parallel perspective to combine in one composition various objects, understood as pictorially equivalent, and with a passion for the culture of ancient India - the opposition of earth and sky, understood by the artist as a source of spiritualism.
The second generation of “World of Art” students included B.M. Kustodiev, a gifted author of ironic stylization of folk popular prints, Z.E. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism.
The merit of the “World of Art” was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, printmaking, new criticism, and extensive publishing and exhibition activities.
Moscow participants in the exhibitions, opposing the Westernism of the “World of Art” with national themes and graphic stylistics with an appeal to the plein air, established the exhibition association “Union of Russian Artists”. In the depths of the "Union" the Russian version of impressionism and the original synthesis of the everyday genre with architectural landscape.
The artists of the “Jack of Diamonds” association (1910-1916), turning to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as the techniques of Russian popular prints and folk toys, solved the problems of identifying the materiality of nature and constructing forms with color. The initial principle of their art was the affirmation of the subject as opposed to spatiality. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - was put in first place. The materialized, “still life” element was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre – portraiture.
“Lyrical Cubism” by R.R. Falka was distinguished by his peculiar psychologism and subtle color-plastic harmony. School of excellence, completed at the school by such outstanding artists and teachers as V.A. Serov and K.A. Korovin, in combination with the pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the “Jack of Diamonds” I.I. Mashkov, M.F. Larionova, A.V. Lentulov determined the origins of Falk’s original artistic style, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous “Red Furniture”.
From the mid-1990s, futurism became an important component of the visual style of “Jack of Diamonds,” one of the techniques of which was the “montage” of objects or parts thereof, taken from different points and at different times.
The primitivist tendency associated with the assimilation of the stylistics of children's drawings, signs, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work of M.F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the “Jack of Diamonds. The fantastic and irrational paintings of M.Z. are close to both folk naive art and Western expressionism. Chagall. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with everyday details of provincial life in Chagall’s canvases is akin to Gogol’s stories. The unique creativity of P.N. came into contact with the primitivist line. Filonova.
The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art date back to the 10s of the last century; V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. became true theorists and practitioners. Malevich. At the same time, the work of K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, who declared a continuous connection with Old Russian icon painting, testified to the vitality of the tradition. The extraordinary diversity and inconsistency of artistic quests, numerous groups with their own programmatic guidelines reflected the tense socio-political and complex spiritual atmosphere of their time.

Conclusion

The “Silver Age” became precisely the milestone that predicted future changes in the state and became a thing of the past with the advent of the blood-red year of 1917, which changed human souls beyond recognition. And no matter how much they wanted to assure us of the opposite today, everything ended after 1917, with the beginning of the civil war. There was no “Silver Age” after that. In the twenties, inertia still continued (the heyday of imagism), because such a wide and powerful wave as the Russian “Silver Age” was, could not move for some time before collapsing and breaking. If most of the poets, writers, critics, philosophers, artists, directors, composers, whose individual creativity and common work created the “Silver Age,” were alive, the era itself was over. Each of its active participants realized that, although people remained, the characteristic atmosphere of the era, in which talents grew like mushrooms after rain, had come to naught. What was left was a cold lunar landscape without atmosphere and creative individuals - each in a separate closed cell of his creativity.
The attempt to “modernize” culture associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin was unsuccessful. Its results were less than expected and gave rise to new contradictions. The increase in tension in society occurred faster than responses to emerging conflicts were found. Contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures intensified, which was also expressed in contradictions in economic forms, interests and motives for people’s creativity, and in the political life of society.
Deep social transformations were required in order to provide space for the cultural creativity of the people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society and its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage, private support and financing of significant public and cultural events did not help either. Nothing could radically transform the cultural appearance of the country. The country found itself in a period of unstable development and found no other way out other than social revolution.
The canvas of the “Silver Age” turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and unique. It was a creative space full of sunshine, bright and life-giving, thirsting for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the “silver” and not the “golden age,” perhaps it was the most creative era in Russian history.

1. A. Etkind “Sodom and Psyche. Essays on the intellectual history of the Silver Age", M., ITs-Garant, 1996;
2. Vl. Soloviev, “Works in 2 volumes,” vol. 2, Philosophical heritage, M., Mysl, 1988;
3. N. Berdyaev “Philosophy of freedom. The meaning of creativity", From domestic philosophical thought, M., Pravda, 1989;
4. V. Khodasevich “Necropolis” and other memories”, M., World of Art, 1992;
5. N. Gumilyov, “Works in three volumes”, vol. 3, M., Fiction, 1991;
6. T.I. Balakin “History of Russian culture”, Moscow, “Az”, 1996;
7. S.S. Dmitriev “Essays on the history of Russian culture early. XX century", Moscow, "Enlightenment", 1985;
8. A.N. Zholkovsky “Wandering dreams. From the history of Russian modernism", Moscow, "Sov. Writer", 1992;
9. L.A. Rapatskaya “Artistic culture of Russia”, Moscow, “Vlados”, 1998;
10. E. Shamurin “Main trends in pre-revolutionary Russian poetry”, Moscow, 1993.

§ 12. Culture and religion of the Ancient World

Section III history of the Middle Ages, Christian Europe and the Islamic world in the Middle Ages § 13. The Great Migration of Peoples and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in Europe

§ 14. The emergence of Islam. Arab conquests

§15. Features of the development of the Byzantine Empire

§ 16. The Empire of Charlemagne and its collapse. Feudal fragmentation in Europe.

§ 17. Main features of Western European feudalism

§ 18. Medieval city

§ 19. The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. The Crusades, the Schism of the Church.

§ 20. The emergence of nation states

21. Medieval culture. Beginning of the Renaissance

Topic 4 from ancient Rus' to the Muscovite state

§ 22. Formation of the Old Russian state

§ 23. The Baptism of Rus' and its meaning

§ 24. Society of Ancient Rus'

§ 25. Fragmentation in Rus'

§ 26. Old Russian culture

§ 27. Mongol conquest and its consequences

§ 28. The beginning of the rise of Moscow

29. Formation of a unified Russian state

§ 30. Culture of Rus' at the end of the 13th - beginning of the 16th century.

Topic 5 India and the Far East in the Middle Ages

§ 31. India in the Middle Ages

§ 32. China and Japan in the Middle Ages

Section IV history of modern times

Topic 6 the beginning of a new time

§ 33. Economic development and changes in society

34. Great geographical discoveries. Formations of colonial empires

Topic 7: countries of Europe and North America in the 16th - 18th centuries.

§ 35. Renaissance and humanism

§ 36. Reformation and Counter-Reformation

§ 37. The formation of absolutism in European countries

§ 38. English revolution of the 17th century.

§ 39, Revolutionary War and American Formation

§ 40. French Revolution of the late 18th century.

§ 41. Development of culture and science in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Age of Enlightenment

Topic 8 Russia in the 16th - 18th centuries.

§ 42. Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible

§ 43. Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

§ 44. Economic and social development of Russia in the 17th century. Popular movements

§ 45. The formation of absolutism in Russia. Foreign policy

§ 46. Russia in the era of Peter’s reforms

§ 47. Economic and social development in the 18th century. Popular movements

§ 48. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the mid-second half of the 18th century.

§ 49. Russian culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries.

Topic 9: Eastern countries in the 16th-18th centuries.

§ 50. Ottoman Empire. China

§ 51. Countries of the East and the colonial expansion of Europeans

Topic 10: countries of Europe and America in the 19th century.

§ 52. Industrial revolution and its consequences

§ 53. Political development of the countries of Europe and America in the 19th century.

§ 54. Development of Western European culture in the 19th century.

Topic II Russia in the 19th century.

§ 55. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century.

§ 56. Decembrist movement

§ 57. Domestic policy of Nicholas I

§ 58. Social movement in the second quarter of the 19th century.

§ 59. Foreign policy of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

§ 60. Abolition of serfdom and reforms of the 70s. XIX century Counter-reforms

§ 61. Social movement in the second half of the 19th century.

§ 62. Economic development in the second half of the 19th century.

§ 63. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

§ 64. Russian culture of the 19th century.

Topic 12 Eastern countries during the period of colonialism

§ 65. Colonial expansion of European countries. India in the 19th century

§ 66: China and Japan in the 19th century.

Topic 13 International relations in modern times

§ 67. International relations in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

§ 68. International relations in the 19th century.

Questions and tasks

Section V history of the XX - early XXI centuries.

Topic 14 The world in 1900-1914.

§ 69. The world at the beginning of the twentieth century.

§ 70. Awakening of Asia

§ 71. International relations in 1900-1914.

Topic 15 Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century.

§ 72. Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

§ 73. Revolution of 1905-1907.

§ 74. Russia during the period of Stolypin reforms

§ 75. Silver age of Russian culture

Topic 16 first world war

§ 76. Military actions in 1914-1918.

§ 77. War and society

Topic 17 Russia in 1917

§ 78. February Revolution. From February to October

§ 79. October Revolution and its consequences

Topic 18 countries of Western Europe and the USA in 1918-1939.

§ 80. Europe after the First World War

§ 81. Western democracies in the 20-30s. XX century

§ 82. Totalitarian and authoritarian regimes

§ 83. International relations between the First and Second World Wars

§ 84. Culture in a changing world

Topic 19 Russia in 1918-1941.

§ 85. Causes and course of the Civil War

§ 86. Results of the Civil War

§ 87. New economic policy. Education of the USSR

§ 88. Industrialization and collectivization in the USSR

§ 89. Soviet state and society in the 20-30s. XX century

§ 90. Development of Soviet culture in the 20-30s. XX century

Topic 20 Asian countries in 1918-1939.

§ 91. Turkey, China, India, Japan in the 20-30s. XX century

Topic 21 World War II. Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people

§ 92. On the eve of the World War

§ 93. First period of World War II (1939-1940)

§ 94. Second period of World War II (1942-1945)

Topic 22: the world in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.

§ 95. Post-war world structure. Beginning of the Cold War

§ 96. Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the twentieth century.

§ 97. USSR in the post-war years

§ 98. USSR in the 50s and early 6s. XX century

§ 99. USSR in the second half of the 60s and early 80s. XX century

§ 100. Development of Soviet culture

§ 101. USSR during the years of perestroika.

§ 102. Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.

§ 103. Collapse of the colonial system

§ 104. India and China in the second half of the twentieth century.

§ 105. Latin American countries in the second half of the twentieth century.

§ 106. International relations in the second half of the twentieth century.

§ 107. Modern Russia

§ 108. Culture of the second half of the twentieth century.

§ 75. Silver age of Russian culture

The concept of the Silver Age.

The turning point in the life of Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, associated with the transition to an industrial society, led to the destruction of many values and age-old foundations of people's lives. It seemed that not only the world around us was changing, but also ideas about good and evil, beautiful and ugly, etc.

The understanding of these problems affected the sphere of culture. The flowering of culture during this period was unprecedented. It covered all types creative activity, gave birth to a galaxy of brilliant names. This cultural phenomenon of the late XIX - early XX centuries. received the name of the Silver Age of Russian culture. It is also characterized by the greatest achievements, which again confirmed Russia's advanced positions in this field. But culture is becoming more complex, the results of creative activity are more contradictory.

Science and technology.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. The main headquarters of Russian science was the Academy of Sciences with a developed system of institutes. Universities with their scientific societies, as well as All-Russian congresses of scientists, played a significant role in the training of scientific personnel.

Research in the fields of mechanics and mathematics has achieved significant success, which has made it possible to develop new fields of science: aeronautics and electrical engineering. Research played a significant role in this N.E. Zhukovsky, the creator of hydro- and aerodynamics, works on the theory of aviation, which served as the basis for aviation science.

In 1913, the first domestic aircraft “Russian Knight” and “Ilya Muromets” were created at the Russian-Baltic Plant in St. Petersburg. In 1911 . G. E. Kotelnikov designed the first backpack parachute.

Proceedings V. I. Vernadsky formed the basis of biochemistry, biogeochemistry and radiogeology. He was distinguished by his breadth of interests, the formulation of deep scientific problems and the anticipation of discoveries in a wide variety of fields.

Great Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlov created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, in which he gave a materialistic explanation of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. In 1904, I. P. Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of digestive physiology. Four years later (1908) he was awarded this prize I. I. Metsnikov for research into problems of immunology and infectious diseases.

"Milestones".

Soon after the revolution of 1905 -1907. Several famous publicists (N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, P.B. Struve, A.S. Izgoev, S.L. Frank, B.A. Kistyakovsky, M.O. Gershenzon) published the book “Milestones. Collection of articles about the Russian intelligentsia."

The authors of Vekhi believed that the revolution should have ended after the publication of the Manifesto on October 17, as a result of which the intelligentsia received the political freedoms they had always dreamed of. The intelligentsia was accused of ignoring the national and religious interests of Russia, suppressing dissent, disrespecting the law, and inciting the darkest instincts among the masses. The Vekhi people argued that the Russian intelligentsia was alien to its people, who hated it, and would never understand it.

Many publicists, primarily supporters of the cadets, spoke out against the Vekhovites. Their works were published by the popular newspaper “Novoe Vremya”.

Literature.

Russian literature includes many names that have gained worldwide fame. Among them I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin and M. Gorky. Bunin continued the traditions and preached the ideals of Russian culture of the 19th century. For a long time, Bunin's prose was rated much lower than his poetry. And only “The Village” (1910) and “Sukhodol” (1911), one of the themes of which was the social conflict in the village, made people talk about him as a great writer. Bunin's stories and tales, such as “Antonov Apples” and “The Life of Arsenyev”, brought him world fame, which was confirmed by the Nobel Prize.

If Bunin's prose was distinguished by rigor, precision and perfection of form, and the author's outward dispassion, then Kuprin's prose revealed the spontaneity and passion characteristic of the writer's personality. His favorite heroes were people who were spiritually pure, dreamy, and at the same time weak-willed and impractical. Often love in Kuprin’s works ends in the death of the hero (“Garnet Bracelet”, “Duel”).

The work of Gorky, who went down in history as the “petrel of the revolution,” was different. He had the powerful temperament of a fighter. New, revolutionary themes and new, previously unknown literary heroes appeared in his works (“Mother”, “Foma Gordeev”, “The Artamonov Case”). In his early stories (“Makar Chudra”) Gorky acted as a romantic.

New directions in literature and art.

The most important and largest movement in literature and art of the 90s of the 19th and early 20th centuries. was symbolism, the recognized ideological leader of which was a poet and philosopher V. S. Soloviev. Scientific knowledge of the world

Symbolists opposed the construction of the world in the process of creativity. Symbolists believed that the higher spheres of life cannot be known in traditional ways; they are accessible only through knowledge of the secret meanings of symbols. Symbolist poets did not strive to be understood by everyone. In their poems they addressed selected readers, making them their co-authors.

Symbolism contributed to the emergence of new movements, one of which was Acmeism (from the Greek . Akme- blooming power). The recognized head of the direction was N. S. Gumilev. The Acmeists proclaimed a return from the polysemy of images and metaphor to the objective world and the exact meaning of the word. Members of the Acmeist circle were A.A.Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam. According to Gumilyov, Acmeism was supposed to reveal the value of human life. The world must be accepted in all its diversity. Acmeists used different cultural traditions in their creativity.

Futurism was also a kind of offshoot of symbolism, but it took the most extreme aesthetic form. For the first time, Russian futurism declared itself in 1910 with the release of the collection “Tank of Judges” (D.D. Burlyuk, V.V. Khlebnikov and V.V. Kamensky). Soon the authors of the collection, together with V. Mayakovsky and A. Kruchenykh, formed a group of cubo-futurists. The futurists were poets of the street - they were supported by radical students and the lumpen proletariat. Most of the futurists, in addition to poetry, also engaged in painting (the Burliuk brothers, A. Kruchenykh, V.V. Mayakovsky). In turn, futurist artists K. S. Malevich and V. V. Kandinsky wrote poetry.

Futurism became the poetry of protest, seeking to destroy the existing order. At the same time, the Futurists, like the Symbolists, dreamed of creating art that could transform the world. Most of all they feared indifference to them and therefore took advantage of any occasion for a public scandal.

Painting.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Such prominent Russian painters of the second half of the last century, such as V. I. Surikov, the Vasnetsov brothers, and I. E. Repin, continued their creative activity.

At the end of the century, K. A Korovin and M. A Vrubel came to Russian painting. Korovin’s landscapes were distinguished by bright colors and romantic elation, a sense of air in the painting. The brightest representative of symbolism in painting was M.A. Vrubel. His paintings are like a mosaic, molded from sparkling pieces. The color combinations in them had their own semantic meanings. Vrubel's plots amaze with fantasy.

Significant role in Russian art of the early twentieth century. the movement played World of Art", which arose as a peculiar reaction to the movement of the Itinerants. The ideological basis of the works of the “miriskusniks” was the depiction not of the harsh realities of modern life, but of the eternal themes of world painting. One of the ideological leaders of the “World of Art” was A. N. Benois, who had versatile talents. He was a painter, graphic artist, theater artist, and art historian.

The activities of the “World of Art” were contrasted with the creativity of young artists grouped in the organizations “Jack of Diamonds” and “Youth Union”. These societies did not have their own program; they included symbolists, futurists, and cubists, but each artist had his own creative personality.

Such artists were P. N. Filonov and V. V. Kandinsky.

Filonov gravitated towards futurism in his painting technique. Kandinsky - to the latest art, often depicting only the outlines of objects. He can be called the father of Russian abstract painting.

Not so were the paintings of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, who preserved the national traditions of painting in his canvases, but gave them a special form. Such are his paintings “Bathing the Red Horse,” reminiscent of the image of St. George the Victorious, and “Girls on the Volga,” where the connection with Russian realistic painting of the 19th century is clearly visible.

Music.

The largest Russian composers of the early twentieth century were A.I. Scriabin and S.V. Rachmaninov, whose work, excited and upbeat in nature, was especially close to wide public circles during the period of intense anticipation of the revolution of 1905-1907. At the same time, Scriabin evolved from romantic traditions to symbolism, anticipating many innovative trends of the revolutionary era . The structure of Rachmaninov's music was more traditional. It clearly shows the connection with the musical heritage of the past century. In his works, the state of mind was usually combined with pictures of the outside world, poetry of Russian nature, or images of the past.

The first decade of the 20th century went down in the history of Russian culture under the name "Silver Age". It was a time of unprecedented flourishing of all types of creative activity, the birth of new trends in art, the emergence of a galaxy of brilliant names that became the pride of not only Russian but also world culture.

Artistic culture of the turn of the century - important page V cultural heritage Russia. Ideological inconsistency and ambiguity were inherent not only in artistic movements and trends, but also in the work of individual writers, artists, and composers. This was a period of renewal of various types and genres of artistic creativity, rethinking, “general revaluation of values,” in the words of M. V. Nesterov. The attitude towards the legacy of the revolutionary democrats became ambiguous even among progressive-minded cultural figures. The primacy of sociality in the Wandering movement was seriously criticized by many realist artists.

In Russian artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. became widespread « decadence» , denoting such phenomena in art as the rejection of civil ideals and faith in reason, immersion in the sphere of individualistic experiences. These ideas were an expression of the social position of part of the artistic intelligentsia, which tried to “escape” the complexities of life into the world of dreams, unreality, and sometimes mysticism. But even in this way she reflected in her work the crisis phenomena of the then social life.

Decadent moods captured figures of various artistic movements, including realistic ones. However, more often these ideas were inherent in modernist movements.

Concept "modernism"(French toe1erpe - modern) included many phenomena of literature and art of the twentieth century, born at the beginning of this century, new in comparison with the realism of the previous century. However, even in the realism of this time, new artistic and aesthetic qualities appear: the “framework” of a realistic vision of life is expanding, a search is underway for ways of personal self-expression in literature and art. The characteristic features of art are synthesis, an indirect reflection of life, in contrast to the critical realism of the 19th century with its inherent concrete reflection of reality. This feature of art is associated with the wide spread of neo-romanticism in literature, painting, music, and the birth of a new stage realism.

At the beginning of the 20th century. there were many literary trends. This is symbolism, and futurism, and even the ego-futurism of Igor Severyanin. All these directions are very different, have different ideals, pursue different goals, but they agree on one thing: to work on the rhythm, the word, to bring the playing of sounds to perfection.

At the same time, the voice of the representatives of realism of the new generation began to sound, protesting against the main principle of realistic art - the direct image of the surrounding world. According to the ideologists of this generation, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, is capable of not only “displaying”, but also “transforming” the existing world, creating a new reality.

Chapter 1.Education

The modernization process included not only fundamental changes in the socio-economic and political spheres, but also a significant increase in literacy and educational level of the population. To the credit of the government, they took this need into account. Government spending on public education since 1900 to 1915 increased more than 5 times.

The main focus was on primary schools. The government intended to introduce universal elementary education. However, school reform was carried out inconsistently. Several types have survived primary school, the most common were parochial ones (in 1905 there were about 43 thousand of them). The number of zemstvo primary schools increased (in 1904 there were 20.7 thousand, and in 1914 - 28.2 thousand). More than 2.5 million students studied in primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, and in 1914. - already about 6 million.

The restructuring of the secondary education system began. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools grew. In gymnasiums, the number of hours allocated to the study of natural and mathematical subjects increased. Graduates of real schools were given the right to enter higher technical educational institutions, and after passing the exam Latin language to the physics and mathematics faculties of universities.

On the initiative of entrepreneurs, commercial (7-8-year) schools were created, which provided general education and special training. In them, unlike gymnasiums and real schools, joint education of boys and girls was introduced. In 1913 55 thousand people, including 10 thousand girls, studied in 250 commercial schools, which were under the patronage of commercial and industrial capital. The number of secondary specialized educational institutions has increased: industrial, technical, railway, mining, land surveying, agricultural, etc.

The network of higher educational institutions has expanded: new technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk. A university was opened in Saratov, new technical universities appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, Tomsk. To ensure the reform of primary schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, pedagogical institutes, as well as over 30 higher women's courses, which laid the foundation for mass access of women to higher education. By 1914 there were about 100 higher educational institutions, in which approximately 130 thousand people studied. Moreover, over 60% of students did not belong to the nobility. Higher State Officials were trained in privileged educational institutions - lyceums.

However, despite advances in education, 3/4 of the country's population remained illiterate. Due to high tuition fees, middle and high schools were inaccessible to a significant part of the population. 43 kopecks were spent on education. per capita, while in England and Germany - about 4 rubles, in the USA - 7 rubles. (in terms of our money).

Chapter 2.The science

Russia's entry into the era of industrialization was marked by successes in the development of science. At the beginning of the 20th century. the country made a significant contribution to world scientific and technological progress, which was called the “revolution in natural science,” since the discoveries made during this period led to a revision of established ideas about the world around us.

Physicist P. N. Lebedev was the first in the world to establish general patterns, inherent in wave processes of various natures (sound, electromagnetic, hydraulic, etc.), made other discoveries in the field of wave physics. He created the first physical school in Russia.

A number of outstanding discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction were made by N. E. Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky’s student and colleague was the outstanding mechanic and mathematician S. A. Chaplygin.

At the origins of modern cosmonautics stood a nugget, a teacher at the Kaluga gymnasium K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903. he published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal.

The outstanding scientist Vernadsky V.I. gained worldwide fame thanks to his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, and radiology. His teachings on the biosphere and noosphere laid the foundation for modern ecology. The innovation of the ideas he expressed is fully realized only now, when the world finds itself on the brink of an environmental catastrophe.

Research in the field of biology, psychology, and human physiology was characterized by an unprecedented surge. Pavlov I.P. created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his research in the physiology of digestion. In 1908 Nobel Prize received by biologist I. I. Mechnikov for his works on immunology and infectious diseases.

The beginning of the 20th century - the heyday of the Russian historical science. The largest specialists in the field of national history were V. O. Klyuchevsky, A. A. Kornilov, N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky, S. F. Platonov. Problems general history Vinogradov P.G., Vipper R.Yu., Tarle E.V. studied. The Russian school of Oriental studies became world famous.

The beginning of the century was marked by the appearance of works by representatives of original Russian religious and philosophical thought (Berdyaev N.A., Bulgakov N.I., Solovyov V.S., Florensky P.A., etc.). A large place in the works of philosophers was occupied by the so-called Russian idea - the problem of the originality of Russia's historical path, the uniqueness of its spiritual life, and the special purpose of Russia in the world.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scientific and technical societies were popular. They united scientists, practitioners, amateur enthusiasts and existed on contributions from their members and private donations. Some received small government subsidies. The most famous were: the Free Economic Society (it was founded back in 1765), the Society of History and Antiquities (1804), the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature (1811), Geographical, Technical, Physicochemical, Botanical, Metallurgical, several medical, agricultural, etc. These societies not only served as centers of scientific research, but also widely disseminated scientific and technical knowledge among the population. A characteristic feature of the scientific life of that time were congresses of naturalists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, archaeologists, etc.

Chapter 3.Literature

The most revealing image "Silver Age" appeared in literature. On the one hand, the writers’ works maintained stable traditions of critical realism. Tolstoy in his last works of art raised the problem of individual resistance to ossified norms of life (“The Living Corpse”, “Father Sergius”, “After the Ball”). His appeal letters to Nicholas II and journalistic articles are imbued with pain and anxiety for the fate of the country, the desire to influence the authorities, block the road to evil and protect all the oppressed. The main idea of Tolstoy's journalism is the impossibility of eliminating evil through violence. During these years Anton Pavlovich Chekhov created the plays “Three Sisters” and “ The Cherry Orchard”, which reflected the important changes taking place in society. Socially sensitive subjects were also favored by young writers. Ivan Alekseevich Bunin studied not only the external side of the processes taking place in the village (stratification of the peasantry, the gradual withering away of the nobility), but also the psychological consequences of these phenomena, how they influenced the souls of the Russian people (“Village”, “Sukhodol”, cycle “ peasant stories). Kuprin A.I. showed the unsightly side of army life: the lack of rights of soldiers, the emptiness and lack of spirituality of the “gentlemen officers” (“Duel”). One of the new phenomena in literature was the reflection in it of the life and struggle of the proletariat. The initiator of this topic was Maxim Gorky (“Enemies”, “Mother”).

The lyrics of the “Silver Age” are diverse and musical. The epithet “silver” itself sounds like a bell. The Silver Age is a whole constellation of poets. Poets - musicians. The poems of the “Silver Age” are the music of words. In these verses there was not a single extra sound, not a single unnecessary comma, not a single point placed out of place. Everything is thoughtful, clear and musical.

In the first decade of the 20th century, a whole galaxy of talented “peasant” poets came to Russian poetry - Sergei Yesenin, Nikolai Klyuev, Sergei Klychkov.

The founders of a new direction in art were symbolist poets who declared war on the materialistic worldview, arguing that faith and religion are the cornerstone human existence and art. They believed that poets are endowed with the ability to connect with the transcendental world through artistic symbols. Initially, symbolism took the form of decadence. This term meant a mood of decadence, melancholy and hopelessness, and pronounced individualism. These features were characteristic of the early poetry of Balmont K.D., Alexander Blok, Bryusov V.Ya.

After 1909 comes new stage in the development of symbolism. It is painted in Slavophile tones, demonstrates contempt for the “rationalistic” West, and foreshadows the death of Western civilization, represented, among other things, by official Russia. At the same time, he turns to spontaneous popular forces, to Slavic paganism, tries to penetrate the depths of the Russian soul and sees in Russian folk life the roots of the “rebirth” of the country. These motifs sounded especially vividly in the works of Blok (the poetic cycles “On the Kulikovo Field”, “Motherland”) and A. Bely (“Silver Dove”, “Petersburg”). Russian symbolism has become a global phenomenon. It is with him that the concept of “Silver Age” is primarily associated.

Opponents of the Symbolists were the Acmeists (from the Greek “acme” - the highest degree of something, blooming power). They denied the mystical aspirations of the Symbolists and proclaimed the intrinsic value of real life, called for returning words to their original meaning, freeing them from symbolic interpretations. The main criterion for assessing the creativity of acmeists (Gumilyov N. S., Anna Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam)

impeccable aesthetic taste, beauty and refinement of artistic expression.

Russian artistic culture of the early 20th century was influenced by avant-gardeism that originated in the West and embraced all types of art. This trend has included various artistic directions, who announced their break with traditional cultural values and proclaimed the ideas of creating “new art”. Prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde were the futurists (from the Latin “futurum” - future). Their poetry was distinguished by increased attention not to the content, but to the form of poetic construction. The futurists' programmatic settings were oriented towards defiant anti-aestheticism. In their works they used vulgar vocabulary, professional jargon, the language of documents, posters and posters. Collections of Futurist poems bore characteristic titles: “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc. Russian futurism was represented by several poetic groups. The most prominent names were gathered by the St. Petersburg group “Gilea” - V. Khlebnikov, D. D. Burlyuk, Vladimir Mayakovsky, A. E. Kruchenykh, V. V. Kamensky. The collections of poems and public performance I. Severyanina

The futurists especially succeeded in this. Futurism completely abandoned the old literary traditions, “old language”, “old words”, proclaimed a new form of words, independent of content, i.e. a new language was literally invented. Working on words and sounds became an end in itself, while the meaning of poetry was completely forgotten. Take, for example, V. Khlebnikov’s poem “Perverten”:

Horses, trampling, monk.

But it’s not speech, it’s black.

Let's go young, down with copper.

The rank is called with a sword on the back.

How long does hunger last?

The spirit of the crow's paws fell and the spirit of the crow fell...

There is no meaning in this poem, but it is remarkable in that each line is read from left to right, and from right to left.

New words appeared, were invented, and were composed. From just one word “laughter” an entire poem, “The Spell of Laughter,” was born:

Oh, laugh, you laughers!

That they laugh with laughter, that they laugh with laughter,

Oh, laugh merrily!

Oh, the laughter of mockers - the laughter of clever laughers!

Oh, make these mocking laughers laugh!

Smeivo, smeivo,

Laugh, laugh, laugh, laugh,

Laughers, laughers.

Oh, laugh, you laughers!

Oh, laugh, you laughers.

Glava 4.Painting

Similar processes took place in Russian painting. Representatives of the realistic school held strong positions, and the Society of Itinerants was active. Repin I. E. graduated in 1906. grandiose painting “Meeting of the State Council”. In revealing the events of the past, V.I. Surikov was primarily interested in the people as a historical force, creativity in man. The realistic foundations of creativity were also preserved by M. V. Nesterov.

However, the trendsetter was the style called “modern”. Modernist quests affected the work of such major realist artists as K. A. Korovin, V. A. Serov. Supporters of this direction united in the “World of Art” society. They took a critical position towards the Peredvizhniki, believing that the latter, performing a function not inherent in art, harmed painting. Art, in their opinion, is an independent sphere of activity, and it should not depend on social influences. Over a long period (from 1898 to 1924) the “World of Art” included almost all the major artists - Benois A. N., Bakst L. S., Kustodiev B. M., Lansere E. E., Malyavin F. A. ., Roerich N.K., Somov K.A.. “The World of Art” left a deep mark on the development of not only painting, but also opera, ballet, decorative art, art criticism, exhibition business. In 1907 An exhibition entitled “ Blue Rose", in which 16 artists took part (Kuznetsov P.V., Sapunov N.N., Saryan M.S., etc.). These were seeking youth, striving to find their individuality in the synthesis of Western experience and national traditions. Representatives of the “Blue Rose” were associated with symbolist poets, whose performances were a modern attribute of vernissages. But symbolism in Russian painting has never been a single direction. He included, for example, such different artists in their style as M. A. Vrubel, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin and others.

A number of the greatest masters - Kandinsky V.V., Lentulov A.V., Chagall M. Z., Filonov P.N. and others - went down in the history of world culture as a representative of unique styles that combined avant-garde trends with Russian national traditions.

Chapter 5.Sculpture

Sculpture also experienced a creative upsurge. Her awakening was largely due to the tendencies of impressionism. P. P. Trubetskoy achieved significant success on the path of renewal. His sculptural portraits of Tolstoy, Witte, Chaliapin and others became widely known. An important milestone in Russian history monumental sculpture became a monument to Alexander III, opened in St. Petersburg in October 1909. It was conceived as a kind of antipode to another great monument - “The Bronze Horseman” by E. Falcone.

The combination of impressionism and modernist tendencies characterizes the work of A. S. Golubkina. At the same time, the main feature of her works is not the display of a specific image, but the creation of a generalized phenomenon: “Old Age” (1898), “Walking Man” (1903), “Soldier” (1907 ) “Sleepers” (1912), etc.

S.T. Konenkov left a significant mark on Russian art. His sculpture embodied the continuity of the traditions of realism in new directions. He went through a passion for the work of Michelangelo (“Samson”), Russian folk wooden sculpture(“Lesovik”), peredvizhniki traditions (“Stonebreaker”), traditional realistic portrait (“A.P. Chekhov”). And with all this, Konenkov remained a master of bright creative individuality. In general, the Russian sculptural school was little affected by avant-garde trends and did not develop such a complex range of innovative aspirations characteristic of painting.

Chapter 6.Architecture

In the second half of the 19th century, new opportunities opened up for architecture. This was due to technological progress. The rapid growth of cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, and changes in public life required new architectural solutions. Not only in capitals, but also in provincial cities train stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and bank buildings were built. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions, and estates continued. The main problem of architecture was the search for a new style. And just like in painting, the new direction in architecture was called “modern”. One of the features of this direction was the stylization of Russian architectural motifs - the so-called neo-Russian style.

The most famous architect, whose work largely determined the development of Russian, especially Moscow Art Nouveau, was F. O. Shekhtel. At the beginning of his work, he relied not on Russian, but on medieval Gothic models. The mansion of manufacturer S.P. Ryabushinsky (1900-1902) was built in this style. Subsequently, Shekhtel more than once turned to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. In this regard, the building of the Yaroslavl Station in Moscow (1902-1904) is very indicative. In subsequent activity, the architect is increasingly moving closer to the direction called “rationalistic modernism,” which is characterized by significant simplification architectural forms and designs. The most significant buildings reflecting this trend were the Ryabushinsky Bank (1903), the printing house of the newspaper “Morning of Russia” (1907).

At the same time, along with the architects " new wave“Significant positions were held by fans of neoclassicism (I.V. Zholtovsky), as well as by masters who used the technique of mixing different sculptural styles (eclecticism). The most indicative of this was the architectural design of the Metropol Hotel building in Moscow (1900), built according to the design of V. F. Walcott.

Chapter 7.Music, ballet, theater, cinema

The beginning of the 20th century is the time of the creative rise of the great Russian composer-innovators A. N. Scriabin. I. F. Stravinsky, S. I. Taneyev, S. V. Rachmaninov. In their creativity they tried to go beyond the traditional classical music, create new musical forms and images. Musical performing culture has also achieved significant flourishing. The Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding opera singers F. I. Shalyapina, A. V. Nezhdanova, L. V. Sobinova, 3. Ershova.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian ballet has taken leading positions in the world choreographic art. The Russian school of ballet relied on academic traditions the end of the 19th century, to the stage productions of the outstanding choreographer M. I. Petipa that have become classics. At the same time, Russian ballet has not escaped new trends. Young directors A. A. Gorsky and M. I. Fokin, in contrast to the aesthetics of academicism, put forward the principle of picturesqueness, according to which not only the choreographer-composer, but also the artist became full-fledged authors of the performance. The ballets of Gorsky and Fokin were staged in walkie-talkies by K. A. Korovin, A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, N. K. Roerich.

The Russian ballet school of the “Silver Age” gave the world a galaxy of brilliant dancers - Anna Pavlova, T. Karsavina, V. Nijinsky and others.

A notable feature of the culture of the early 20th century. became the works of outstanding theater directors. K. S. Stanislavsky, the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving the most important tasks of acting transformation. V. E. Meyerhold conducted searches in the field of theatrical conventions, generalization, the use of elements of folk farce and

theater of masks

E. B. Vakhtangov preferred expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the tendency to combine various types of creative activity became more and more clear. At the head of this process was the “World of Art,” which united not only artists, but also poets, philosophers, and musicians. In 1908-1913. S. P. Diaghilev organized “Russian Seasons” in Paris, London, Rome and other capitals of Western Europe, presented by ballet and opera performances, theatrical painting, music, etc.

In the first decade of the 20th century in Russia, following France, a new art form appeared - cinema. In 1903 The first “electric theaters” and “illusions” appeared, and by 1914 about 4 thousand cinemas had already been built. In 1908 The first Russian feature film “Stenka Razin and the Princess” was shot, and in 1911 the first full-length film “The Defense of Sevastopol” was shot. Cinematography developed rapidly and became very popular. In 1914 There were about 30 domestic film companies in Russia. And although the bulk of film production consisted of films with primitive melodramatic plots, world-famous filmmakers appeared: director Ya. A. Protazanov, actors I. I. Mozzhukhin, V. V. Kholodnaya, A. G. Koonen. The undoubted merit of cinema was its accessibility to all segments of the population. Russian films created mainly as film adaptations classical works, became the first sign in the formation of “mass culture” - an indispensable attribute of bourgeois society.

Conclusion

How much new the “Silver Age” of poetry brought to the music of words, what a huge amount of work was done, how many new words and rhythms were created, it seems that music and poetry were united. This is true, because... Many poems of the poets of the “Silver” Age were set to music, and we listen and sing them, laugh and cry over them. . .

Much of the creative upsurge of that time entered into the further development of Russian culture and is now the property of all Russian cultural people. But then there was the intoxication of creativity, novelty, tension, struggle, challenge.

In conclusion, with the words of N. Berdyaev, I would like to describe all the horror, all the tragedy of the situation in which the creators of spiritual culture, the flower of the nation, found themselves, the best minds not only Russia, but also the world.

“The misfortune of the cultural renaissance of the early 20th century was that in it the cultural elite was isolated in a small circle and cut off from the broad social trends of the time. This had fatal consequences in the character that the Russian revolution took...Russian people of that time lived on different floors and even in different centuries. The cultural renaissance did not have any broad social radiation.... Many supporters and exponents of the cultural renaissance remained leftists, sympathized with the revolution, but there was a cooling towards social issues, there was an absorption in new problems of a philosophical, aesthetic, religious, mystical nature that remained alien to people, actively participating in the social movement... The intelligentsia committed an act of suicide. In Russia before the revolution, two races were formed, as it were. And the fault was on both sides, that is, on the figures of the Renaissance, on their social and moral indifference...

The schism characteristic of Russian history, the schism that grew throughout the 19th century, the abyss that unfolded between the upper, refined cultural layer and broad circles, popular and intellectual, led to the fact that the Russian cultural renaissance fell into this opening abyss. The revolution began to destroy this cultural renaissance and persecute the creators of culture... Workers of Russian spiritual culture, for the most part, were forced to move abroad. In part, this was retribution for the social indifference of the creators of spiritual culture.”

Bibliography

1. Berdyaev N. Self-knowledge, M., 1990,

2. Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G., Domestic history, history of the state and peoples of Russia, M, 2003.

3. Zaichkin I. A., Pochkov I. N., Russian history from Catherine the Great to Alexander II,

4. Kondakov I.V., Culture of Russia, “KDU”, 2007.

5. Sakharov A.N., History of Russia

The main focus was on primary schools. The government intended to introduce universal primary education in the country. However, school reform was carried out inconsistently. Several types of primary schools have survived, the most common being parish schools (in 1905 there were about 43 thousand of them). The number of zemstvo primary schools has increased. In 1904 there were 20.7 thousand, and in 1914 - 28.2 thousand. In 1900, more than 2.5 million students studied in the primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, and in 1914 - already about 6 million

The restructuring of the secondary education system began. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools grew. In gymnasiums, the number of hours allocated to the study of natural and mathematical subjects increased. Graduates of real schools were given the right to enter higher technical educational institutions, and after passing the Latin language exam - to the physics and mathematics faculties of universities.

On the initiative of entrepreneurs, commercial 7-8-year schools were created, which provided general education and special training. In them, unlike gymnasiums and real schools, joint education of boys and girls was introduced. In 1913, 55 thousand people, including 10 thousand girls, studied in 250 commercial schools, which were under the patronage of commercial and industrial capital. The number of secondary specialized educational institutions has increased: industrial, technical, railway, mining, land surveying, agricultural, etc.

The network of higher educational institutions has expanded: new technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk. A university was opened in Saratov. To ensure the reform of primary schools, pedagogical institutes were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as over 30 higher courses for women, which laid the foundation for mass access of women to higher education. By 1914, there were about 100 institutions of higher education, with approximately 130 thousand students. Moreover, over 60% of students did not belong to the nobility.

However, despite advances in education, 3/4 of the country's population remained illiterate. Due to high tuition fees, secondary and higher schools were inaccessible to a significant part of the Russian population. 43 kopecks were spent on education. per capita, while in England and Germany - about 4 rubles, in the USA - 7 rubles. (in terms of our money).

Silver age of Russian culture, education and science. The Silver Age of Russian Culture - a hypermarket of knowledge

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Education and enlightenment

The science

Literature

Architecture

Painting

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. http://ricolor.org/.

2. http://www.yaklass.ru/.

3. https://ru.wikipedia.org.

4. http://www.hist.msu.ru/.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Slavophiles and Westerners

Education and enlightenment

The science

Spiritual quest

Literature

Theater and music

Architecture

Sculpture

Painting

Conclusion

§ 75. Silver age of Russian culture