Realism years of existence. Realism in literature
Realism
Realism (material, real) is an artistic movement in art and literature, which was established in the first third of the 19th century. The origins of realism in Russia were I. A. Krylov, A. S. Griboyedov, A. S. Pushkin (realism appeared in Western literature somewhat later, its first representatives were Stendhal and O. de Balzac).
Features of realism. The principle of life's truth, which guides the realist artist in his work, striving to give the most complete reflection of life in its typical properties. The fidelity of the depiction of reality, reproduced in the forms of life itself, is the main criterion of artistry.
Social analysis, historicism of thinking. It is realism that explains the phenomena of life, establishes their causes and consequences on a socio-historical basis. In other words, realism is unthinkable without historicism, which presupposes an understanding of a given phenomenon in its conditionality, development and connection with other phenomena. Historicism is the basis of the worldview and artistic method of a realist writer, a kind of key to understanding reality, allowing one to connect the past, present and future. In the past, the artist looks for answers to pressing questions of our time, and interprets modernity as the result of previous historical development.
Critical portrayal of life. Writers deeply and truthfully show the negative phenomena of reality, focusing on exposing the existing order. But at the same time, realism is not devoid of life-affirming pathos, because it is based on positive ideals - patriotism, compassion the masses, the search for a positive hero in life, faith in the inexhaustible possibilities of man, the dream of a bright future for Russia (for example, “ Dead Souls"). That is why in modern literary criticism, instead of the concept of “critical realism,” which was first introduced by N. G. Chernyshevsky, they most often speak of “classical realism.” Typical characters in typical circumstances, that is, characters were depicted in close connection with the social environment that raised them and formed them in certain socio-historical conditions.
The relationship between the individual and society is the leading problem posed by realistic literature. The drama of these relationships is important for realism. As a rule, the focus of realistic works is on extraordinary individuals, dissatisfied with life, “breaking out” of their environment, people who are able to rise above society and challenge it. Their behavior and actions become the subject of close attention and study for realist writers.
The versatility of the characters: their actions, actions, speech, lifestyle and inner world, the “dialectic of the soul,” which is revealed in the psychological details of its emotional experiences. Thus, realism expands the possibilities of writers in the creative exploration of the world, in the creation of a contradictory and complex personality structure as a result of subtle penetration into the depths of the human psyche.
Expressiveness, brightness, imagery, precision of the Russian literary language, enriched with living elements, colloquial speech, which realist writers draw from the popular Russian language.
A variety of genres (epic, lyrical, dramatic, lyric-epic, satirical), in which all the richness of the content of realistic literature is expressed.
Reflection of reality does not exclude fiction and fantasy (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Sukhovo-Kobylin), although these artistic means do not determine the main tone of the work.
Typology of Russian realism. The question of the typology of realism is associated with the disclosure of known patterns that determine the dominance of certain types of realism and their replacement.
In many literary works there are attempts to establish typical varieties (trends) of realism: Renaissance, educational (or didactic), romantic, sociological, critical, naturalistic, revolutionary-democratic, socialist, typical, empirical, syncretic, philosophical-psychological, intellectual, spiral-shaped, universal, monumental... Since all these terms are rather arbitrary (terminological confusion) and there are no clear boundaries between them, we propose to use the concept of “stages of development of realism”. Let us trace these stages, each of which takes shape in the conditions of its time and is artistically justified in its uniqueness. The complexity of the problem of the typology of realism is that typologically unique varieties of realism not only replace each other, but also coexist and develop simultaneously. Consequently, the concept of “stage” does not mean that in the same chronological framework there cannot be another kind of flow, earlier or later. That is why it is necessary to correlate the work of one or another realist writer with the work of other realist artists, while identifying the individual uniqueness of each of them, revealing the closeness between groups of writers.
First third XIX century. Krylov’s realistic fables reflected the real relationships of people in society, depicted living scenes, the content of which was varied - they could be everyday, social, philosophical and historical.
Griboyedov created " high comedy"("Woe from Wit"), that is, a comedy close to drama, reflecting in it the ideas that lived educated society first quarter of the century. Chatsky, in the fight against serf owners and conservatives, defends national interests from the standpoint of common sense And folk morality. The play contains typical characters and circumstances.
In Pushkin's work, the problems and methodology of realism have already been outlined. In the novel “Eugene Onegin,” the poet recreated the “Russian spirit,” gave a new, objective principle for depicting the hero, and was the first to show “ extra person", and in the story "The Station Agent" - " little man" In the people, Pushkin saw the moral potential that determines national character. In the novel "The Captain's Daughter" the historicism of the writer's thinking was revealed - both in the correct reflection of reality, and in the accuracy of social analysis, and in the understanding of the historical patterns of phenomena, and in the ability to convey the typical characteristics of a person's character, to show him as a product of a certain social environment.
30s of the XIX century. In this era of “timelessness”, public inaction, only the brave voices of A. S. Pushkin, V. G. Belinsky and M. Yu. Lermontov were heard. The critic saw in Lermontov worthy successor Pushkin. The man in his work bears the dramatic features of the time. In fate
Pechorin, the writer reflected the fate of his generation, his “age” (“Hero of Our Time”). But if Pushkin devotes his main attention to the description of the character’s actions and actions, giving “outlines of character,” then Lermontov focuses on the inner world of the hero, on an in-depth psychological analysis of his actions and experiences, on the “history of the human soul.”
40s of the XIX century. During this period, realists received the name “ natural school"(N.V. Gogol, A.I. Herzen, D.V. Grigorovich, N.A. Nekrasov). The works of these writers are characterized by accusatory pathos, rejection of social reality, and increased attention to everyday life. Gogol did not find the embodiment of his lofty ideals in the world around him, and therefore was convinced that in the conditions of contemporary Russia, the ideal and beauty of life could be expressed only through the denial of ugly reality. The satirist explores the material, material and everyday basis of life, its “invisible” features and the spiritually wretched characters arising from it, firmly confident in their dignity and right.
Second half of the 19th century. The work of writers of this time (I. A. Goncharov, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. S. Turgenev, N. S. Leskov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, V. G. Korolenko, A. P. Chekhov) are distinguished by a qualitatively new stage in the development of realism: they not only critically comprehend reality, but also actively look for ways to transform it, show close attention to the spiritual life of man, penetrate into the “dialectic of the soul”, create a world populated by complex contradictory characters, full of dramatic conflicts. The works of writers are characterized by subtle psychologism and large philosophical generalizations.
The turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The features of the era were most clearly expressed in the works of A. I. Kuprin and I. A. Bunin. They sensitively captured the general spiritual and social atmosphere in the country, deeply and faithfully reflected the unique pictures of life of the most diverse segments of the population, and created a complete and truthful picture of Russia. They are characterized by such themes and problems as the continuity of generations, the heritage of centuries, the root connections of man with the past, the Russian character and features of national history, the harmonious world of nature and the world of social relations (devoid of poetry and harmony, personifying cruelty and violence), love and death , the fragility and fragility of human happiness, the mysteries of the Russian soul, loneliness and the tragic predestination of human existence, ways of liberation from spiritual oppression. The original and original creativity of the writers organically continues the best traditions of Russian realistic literature, and above all, deep penetration into the essence of the life depicted, the disclosure of the relationship between the environment and the individual, attention to the social and everyday background, and the expression of the ideas of humanism.
Pre-October decade. A new vision of the world in connection with the processes taking place in Russia in all areas of life determined a new face of realism, which was significantly different from classical realism its "modernity". New figures emerged - representatives of a special movement within realistic direction- neorealism (“updated” realism): I. S. Shmelev, L. N. Andreev, M. M. Prishvin, E. I. Zamyatin, S. N. Sergeev-Tsensky, A. N. Tolstoy, A. M. Remizov, B.K. Zaitsev, etc. They are characterized by a departure from the sociological understanding of reality; mastering the sphere of the “earthly”, deepening the concrete sensory perception of the world, artistic study of the subtle movements of the soul, nature and man coming into contact, which eliminates alienation and brings us closer to the original, unchanging nature of being; a return to the hidden values of the folk-village element, capable of renewing life in the spirit of “eternal” ideals (pagan, mystical flavor of the depicted); comparison of the bourgeois urban and rural way of life; the idea of the incompatibility of the natural force of life, existential good with social evil; a combination of the historical and the metaphysical (next to the features of everyday or concrete historical reality there is a “super-real” background, a mythological subtext); the motive of purifying love as a kind of symbolic sign of the all-human natural unconscious principle that brings enlightened peace.
Soviet period. Distinctive features The socialist realism that arose at this time was partisanship, nationality, the depiction of reality in its “revolutionary development”, propaganda of the heroism and romance of socialist construction. In the works of M. Gorky, M. A. Sholokhov, A. A. Fadeev, L. M. Leonov, V. V. Mayakovsky, K. A. Fedin, N. A. Ostrovsky, A. N. Tolstoy, A. T. Tvardovsky and others affirmed a different reality, a different person, different ideals, a different aesthetics, principles underlying moral code fighter for communism. A new method in art was promoted, which was politicized: it had a pronounced social orientation and expressed state ideology. At the center of the works there was usually a positive hero, inextricably linked with the team, who constantly had a beneficial influence on the individual. The main sphere of application of the forces of such a hero is creative work. It is no coincidence that the industrial novel has become one of the most common genres.
20-30s of the XX century. Many writers, forced to live under a dictatorial regime, under conditions of cruel censorship, managed to maintain internal freedom, showed the ability to remain silent, be careful in their assessments, switch to allegorical language - they were devoted to the truth, true art realism. The genre of dystopia was born, in which a harsh critique of a totalitarian society based on the suppression of personality and individual freedom was given. The fates of A.P. Platonov, M.A. Bulgakov, E.I. Zamyatin, A.A. Akhmatova, M.M. Zoshchenko, O.E. Mandelstam were tragic; they were deprived of the opportunity to publish in the Soviet Union for a long time.
The “thaw” period (mid-50s - first half of the 60s). In it historical time Young poets of the sixties declared themselves loudly and confidently (E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, R. I. Rozhdestvensky, B. Sh. Okudzhava, etc.), who became “rulers of thoughts” of his generation together with representatives of the “third wave” of emigration (V. P. Aksenov, A. V. Kuznetsov, A. T. Gladilin, G. N. Vladimov,
A. I. Solzhenitsyn, N. M. Korzhavin, S. D. Dovlatov, V. E. Maksimov, V. N. Voinovich, V. P. Nekrasov, etc.), whose works were characterized by acute critical understanding modern reality, preservation of the human soul in a command-administrative system and internal confrontation her, confession, moral quest heroes, their release, emancipation, romanticism and self-irony, innovation in the field of artistic language and style, genre diversity.
The last decades of the 20th century. A new generation of writers, already living in somewhat relaxed political conditions within the country, came up with lyrical, urban and rural poetry and prose that did not fit into the rigid framework of socialist realism (N. M. Rubtsov, A. V. Zhigulin,
V. N. Sokolov, Yu. V. Trifonov, Ch. T. Aitmatov, V. I. Belov, F. A. Abramov, V. G. Rasputin, V. P. Astafiev, S. P. Zalygin, V. M. Shukshin, F. A. Iskander). The leading themes of their work are the revival of traditional morality and the relationship between man and nature, which revealed the writers’ closeness to the traditions of Russian classical realism. The works of this period are permeated with a feeling of attachment to the native land, and therefore responsibility for what happens on it, a feeling of the irreplaceability of spiritual losses due to the severance of age-old ties between nature and man. Artists reflect on the turning point in the field moral values, the shifts in society in which the human soul is forced to survive, reflect on the catastrophic consequences for those who lose historical memory, experience of generations.
The latest Russian literature. In the literary process recent years Literary scholars identify two trends: postmodernism (blurring of the boundaries of realism, awareness of the illusory nature of what is happening, mixing different artistic methods, stylistic diversity, increasing the influence of avant-gardeism - A. G. Bitov, Sasha Sokolov, V. O. Pelevin, T. N. Tolstaya, T. Yu. Kibirov, D. A. Prigov) and post-realism (traditional for realism attention to the fate of a private person, tragically lonely, losing in the vanity of the humiliating everyday life moral guidelines trying to self-determinate - V.S. Makanin, L.S. Petrushevskaya).
So, realism as a literary and artistic system has a powerful potential for continuous renewal, which manifests itself in one or another transitional era for Russian literature. In the works of writers who continue the traditions of realism, there is a search for new themes, characters, plots, genres, poetic means, a new way of talking with the reader.
Realism is a trend in literature and art that aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features Oh. The dominance of realism followed the era of Romanticism and preceded Symbolism.
1. At the center of the work of realists is objective reality. In its refraction through the worldview of art. 2. The author subjects life material to philosophical processing. 3. The ideal is reality itself. The beautiful thing is life itself. 4. Realists approach synthesis through analysis.
5. The principle of the typical: Typical hero, specific time, typical circumstances
6. Identification of cause-and-effect relationships. 7. The principle of historicism. Realists turn to the problems of the present. The present is the convergence of past and future. 8. The principle of democracy and humanism. 9. The principle of objectivity of the story. 10. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate
11. psychologism
12. .. The development of poetry is somewhat calming down 13. The novel is the leading genre.
13. Heightened social-critical pathos is one of the main features of Russian realism - for example, “The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol
14. The main feature of realism as a creative method is increased attention to the social side of reality.
15. The images of a realistic work reflect general laws existence, not living people. Any image is woven from typical traits manifested in typical circumstances. This is the paradox of art. An image cannot be correlated with a living person; it is richer than a specific person - hence the objectivity of realism.
16. “The artist should not be a judge of his characters and what they say, but only an impartial witness
Realist writers
Late A. S. Pushkin is the founder of realism in Russian literature (the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” back in the 1820s - 1830s)
M. Yu. Lermontov (“Hero of Our Time”)
N. V. Gogol (“Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”)
I. A. Goncharov (“Oblomov”)
A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”)
A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”)
N. G. Chernyshevsky (“What to do?”)
F. M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “White Nights”, “Humiliated and Insulted”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Demons”)
L. N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”).
I. S. Turgenev (“Rudin”, “The Noble Nest”, “Asya”, “Spring Waters”, “Fathers and Sons”, “New”, “On the Eve”, “Mu-mu”)
A. P. Chekhov (“The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”, “Student”, “Chameleon”, “The Seagull”, “Man in a Case”
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people. End of the 19th century - The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature. . Realism becomes, to a certain extent, a method of artistic cognition of reality. In the 40s, a “natural school” arose - the work of Gogol, he was a great innovator, discovering that even an insignificant event, such as the acquisition of an overcoat by a minor official, can become a significant event for understanding the most important issues of human existence.
"Natural School" became initial stage development of realism in Russian literature.
Topics: Life, customs, characters, events from the life of the lower classes became the object of study by “naturalists”. The leading genre was the “physiological essay,” which was based on accurate “photography” of the life of various classes.
In the literature of the “natural school,” the hero’s class position, his professional affiliation, and the social function he performs decisively prevailed over his individual character.
Those who joined the “natural school” were: Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Goncharov, Panaev, Druzhinin and others.
The task of truthfully showing and exploring life presupposes in realism many techniques for depicting reality, which is why the works of Russian writers are so diverse in both form and content.
Realism as a method of depicting reality in the second half of the 19th century. got the name critical realism, because his main task was to criticize reality, the question of the relationship between man and society.
To what extent does society influence the fate of the hero? Who is to blame for a person being unhappy? What to do to change a person and the world? - these are the main questions of literature in general, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - in particular.
Psychologism - the characterization of a hero through the analysis of his inner world, consideration of the psychological processes through which a person’s self-awareness is realized and his attitude to the world is expressed - has become the leading method of Russian literature since the formation of the realistic style in it.
One of the remarkable features of Turgenev’s works of the 50s was the appearance in them of a hero who embodied the idea of the unity of ideology and psychology.
Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, who at the end of the 19th century became the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deep layers
Turgenev is credited with creating literary types of ideologists - heroes, whose approach to personality and characterization of their inner world is in direct connection with the author’s assessment of their worldview and the socio-historical meaning of their philosophical concepts. The merging of the psychological, historical-typological and ideological aspects in Turgenev’s heroes is so complete that their names have become a common noun for a certain stage in the development of social thought, a certain social type representing a class in its historical state, and the psychological makeup of the individual (Rudin, Bazarov, Kirsanov , Mr. N. from the story “Asya” - “Russian man on rendez-vous”).
Dostoevsky's heroes are at the mercy of ideas. Like slaves, they follow her, expressing her self-development. Having “accepted” a certain system into their soul, they obey the laws of its logic, go through all the necessary stages of its growth with it, and bear the yoke of its reincarnations. Thus, Raskolnikov, whose concept grew out of rejection of social injustice and a passionate desire for good, passing through all its logical stages along with the idea that took possession of his entire being, accepts murder and justifies the tyranny of a strong personality over the voiceless masses. In lonely monologues-reflections, Raskolnikov “strengthens” in his idea, falls under its power, gets lost in its ominous vicious circle, and then, having completed the “experience” and suffering internal defeat, begins to feverishly seek dialogue, the possibility of jointly assessing the results of the experiment.
In Tolstoy, the system of ideas that the hero develops and develops in the course of his life is a form of his communication with the environment and is derived from his character, from the psychological and moral characteristics of his personality.
It can be argued that all three great Russian realists of the mid-century - Turgenev, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky - depict the mental and ideological life of a person as a social phenomenon and ultimately presuppose obligatory contact between people, without which the development of consciousness is impossible.
Realism in literature is a direction whose main feature is a truthful depiction of reality and its typical features without any distortion or exaggeration. This originated in the 19th century, and its adherents sharply opposed sophisticated forms of poetry and the use of various mystical concepts in works.
Signs directions
Realism in 19th-century literature can be distinguished by clear characteristics. The main one is the artistic depiction of reality in images familiar to the average person, which he regularly encounters in real life. Reality in the works is considered as a means for a person to understand the world around him and himself, and the image of each literary character is worked out in such a way that the reader can recognize himself, a relative, colleague or acquaintance in it.
In the novels and stories of realists, art remains life-affirming, even if the plot is characterized by tragic conflict. Another sign of this genre is the desire of writers to consider the surrounding reality in its development, and each writer tries to discover the emergence of new psychological, social and social relations.
Features of this literary movement
Realism in literature, which replaced romanticism, has the signs of art that seeks and finds truth, striving to transform reality.
In the works of realist writers, discoveries were made after much thought and dreaming, after analyzing subjective worldviews. This feature, which can be distinguished by the author’s perception of time, determined features realistic literature of the early twentieth century from traditional Russian classics.
Realism inXIX century
Such representatives of realism in literature as Balzac and Stendhal, Thackeray and Dickens, George Sand and Victor Hugo, in their works most clearly reveal the themes of good and evil, and avoid abstract concepts and show the real life of their contemporaries. These writers make it clear to readers that evil lies in the lifestyle of bourgeois society, capitalist reality, and people’s dependence on various material values. For example, in Dickens's novel Dombey and Son, the owner of the company was heartless and callous not by nature. It’s just that he developed such character traits due to the presence big money and the ambition of the owner, for whom profit becomes the main achievement in life.
Realism in literature is devoid of humor and sarcasm, and the images of the characters are no longer the ideal of the writer himself and do not embody his cherished dreams. From the works of the 19th century, the hero practically disappears, in whose image the author’s ideas are visible. This situation is especially clearly visible in the works of Gogol and Chekhov.
However, this literary trend is most clearly manifested in the works of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, who describe the world as they see it. This was expressed in the image of characters with their own strengths and weaknesses, the description of mental torment, a reminder to readers of the harsh reality that cannot be changed by one person.
As a rule, realism in literature also affected the fate of representatives of the Russian nobility, as can be judged from the works of I. A. Goncharov. Thus, the characters of the heroes in his works remain contradictory. Oblomov is sincere and soft person, however, due to his passivity, he is not capable of better. Another character in Russian literature has similar qualities - the weak-willed but gifted Boris Raisky. Goncharov managed to create the image of an “anti-hero” typical of the 19th century, which was noticed by critics. As a result, the concept of “Oblomovism” appeared, referring to all passive characters whose main features were laziness and lack of will.
To the question Literature of the first half of the 19th century. given by the author European the best answer is In the first half of the 19th century. literature occupied a dominant position in the system of spiritual culture. It was the main and, perhaps, the only area where there was an opportunity to express the demands and aspirations of the people. Process of development and change artistic directions occurred in conditions of the decomposition of the feudal-serf system and the revival of social thought. These directions were: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism. Realism has finally emerged. At the end of his work, the poet G. R. Derzhavin came to classicism. The most prominent representative of sentimentalism was the writer and historian N. M. Karamzin (the stories “Poor Liza”, “Natalia - the Boyar’s Daughter”). Russian sentimentalism did not last long." The heroic events of the War of 1812 contributed to the emergence of romanticism. One of the creators of Russian romanticism was V. A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852). His poetry is imbued with melancholic dreams, romantically rethought images of folk fiction (ballads “Lyudmila”, "Svetya Lada") Another direction - civil, revolutionary romanticism manifested itself in the work of K. F. Ryleev (1795-1826). His lyrics, historical "Dumas", poems "Voinarovsky", "Nalivaiko" are full of political associations. Odes, the poems of K. Küchelbecker (1797-1846) called for a fight against the autocratic-serf system.
Romanticism also influenced early work A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov.
The founder of Russian realism is the brilliant A. S. Pushkin (1799-1837). It is with his work that the beginning of the golden age in literature is associated. Pushkin was the founder new literature, responding to questions that worried society and reflecting Russian reality in unsurpassed artistic images. He created wonderful works of various genres both in poetry and prose: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", the first works classical prose"Belkin's Tales", the historical drama "Boris Godunov", a chronicle of the impoverishment of a fortress village "The History of the Village of Goryukhin", historical story"The Captain's Daughter", a study of the philosophical and moral problems of humanity - the tragedy "Mozart and Salieri", a brilliant embodiment of the image of Russia as a horseman rearing up, holding it with the iron bridle of the autocrat - the poem " Bronze Horseman", lyric poems are examples of lyrics illuminated by the ideas of freedom, love, and patriotism.
He was the first to come to the conclusion that true nationality is not a description of the Russian sarafan, but the authenticity of life, the truth about the relationships between people, individuals and society. A.S. Pushkin turned to the treasures of folk art and was imbued with a deep understanding of the soul, psychology and character of the Russian person. His genius soberly assessed the past Russian history, its present and foresaw some pages of the future of Russia. N.V. Gogol wrote: “At the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns on me. In fact, none of our poets is higher than him and can no longer be called national; this right decisively belongs to him... He has Russian nature, Russian language, Russian character. »
A. S. Pushkin contributed to the creation of scientific historiography, proving the need to rely on an objective analysis of facts and phenomena, a conscientious study of life, argued that the individual is a full-fledged actor great human history. The significance of A. S. Pushkin’s work is enormous; he ranks among the greatest and unique phenomena of world culture. In his creativity and views, he belongs not only to the 19th century. , not only Russia. At the end of the 20th century. he comes to people of different countries as a contemporary and educator of noble feelings.
A. S. Pushkin passed away, having an heir and successor to his social and literary work - M. Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841), wonderful poet and an artist who already at the age of 16 declared a powerful talent. IN full force he came out in 1837 with the poem “On the Death of a Poet,” in which he sharply denounced the autocracy and the morals of the court nobility.
The emergence of realism
General character realism
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction:
Relevance:
The essence of realism in relation to literature and its place in the literary process is understood in different ways. Realism is an artistic method, following which the artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself and are created through typification of the facts of reality. IN in a broad sense the category of realism serves to determine the relationship of literature to reality, regardless of the writer’s affiliation with one or another literary school and direction. The concept of “realism” is equivalent to the concept of life’s truth and in relation to the most diverse phenomena of literature.
Goal of the work:
consider the essence of realism as literary movement in literature.
Tasks:
Explore the general nature of realism.
Consider the stages of realism.
The emergence of realism
In the 30s of the XIX century. Realism is becoming widespread in literature and art. The development of realism is primarily associated with the names of Stendhal and Balzac in France, Pushkin and Gogol in Russia, Heine and Buchner in Germany. Realism develops initially in the depths of romanticism and bears the stamp of the latter; not only Pushkin and Heine, but also Balzac experienced a strong passion for romantic literature in their youth. However, unlike romantic art, realism refuses the idealization of reality and the associated predominance of the fantastic element, as well as an increased interest in the subjective side of man. In realism, the prevailing tendency is to depict a broad social background against which the lives of the heroes take place (“ Human Comedy"Balzac, "Eugene Onegin" by Pushkin, "Dead Souls" by Gogol, etc.). Depth of understanding social life Realist artists sometimes surpass the philosophers and sociologists of their time.
General character of realism
“Realism is opposed, on the one hand, to directions in which the content is subordinated to self-sufficient formal requirements (conventional formal tradition, canons of absolute beauty, the desire for formal sharpness, “innovation”); on the other hand, to trends that take their material not from real reality, but from the world of fantasy (whatever the origin of the images of this fantasy), or that seek in the images of real reality a “higher” mystical or idealistic reality. Realism excludes the approach to art as a free “creative” game and presupposes the recognition of reality and the knowability of the world. realism is the direction in art in which the nature of art as a special kind of cognitive activity is most clearly expressed. In general, realism is artistic parallel materialism. But fiction deals with a person and human society, that is, with a sphere that the materialist understanding consistently masters only from the point of view of revolutionary communism. Therefore, the materialistic nature of pre-proletarian (non-proletarian) realism remains largely unconscious. Bourgeois realism often finds its philosophical justification not only in mechanical materialism, but in a wide variety of systems - from different forms“bashful materialism” to vitalism and to objective idealism. Only a philosophy that denies the knowability or reality of the external world excludes a realistic attitude.”
To one degree or another, all fiction has elements of realism, since reality, the world of social relations, is its only material. Literary image, completely divorced from reality, is unthinkable, and an image that distorts reality beyond known limits is devoid of any effectiveness. The inevitable elements of reflecting reality can, however, be subordinated to other types of tasks and so stylized in accordance with these tasks that the work loses any realistic character. Only such works can be called realistic in which the focus on depicting reality is predominant. This attitude can be spontaneous (naive) or conscious. In general, we can say that spontaneous realism is characteristic of the creativity of pre-class and pre-capitalist society to the extent that this creativity is not in slavery to an organized religious worldview or is not captured by a certain stylizing tradition. realism, as a companion to the scientific worldview, arises only at a certain stage in the development of bourgeois culture.
Since the bourgeois science of society either takes as its guiding thread an arbitrary idea imposed on reality, or remains in the swamp of creeping empiricism, or tries to extend scientific theories developed in natural science to human history, bourgeois realism cannot yet be fully considered a manifestation of the scientific worldview . The gap between scientific and artistic thinking, which first became acute in the era of romanticism, is in no way eliminated, but is only glossed over in the era of the dominance of realism in bourgeois art. The limited nature of the bourgeois science of society leads to the fact that in the era of capitalism artistic paths knowledge of socio-historical reality often turns out to be much more effective than “scientific” paths. The artist’s keen vision and realistic honesty often help him show reality more accurately and completely than the principles of bourgeois scientific theory that distort it.
Realism includes two points: firstly, the image external features certain society and eras with such a degree of concreteness that gives the impression (“illusion”) of reality; secondly, a deeper revelation of the actual historical content, essence and meaning of social forces through generalization images that penetrate beyond the surface. Engels, in his famous letter to Margaret Harkness, formulated these two points as follows: “In my opinion, realism implies, in addition to the truthfulness of details, fidelity to the presentation typical characters under typical circumstances."
But, despite their deep internal connection, they are by no means inseparable from one another. The mutual connection between these two moments depends not only on historical stage, but also from the genre. This connection is strongest in narrative prose. In drama, especially in poetry, it is much less stable. The introduction of stylization, conventional fiction, etc. in itself does not at all deprive the work of its realistic character if its main thrust is aimed at depicting historically typical characters and situations. Thus, Goethe's Faust, despite its fantasy and symbolism, is one of the greatest creations of bourgeois realism, for the image of Faust provides a deep and true embodiment of certain traits of the rising bourgeoisie.
The problem of realism has been developed by Marxist-Leninist science almost exclusively in application to narrative and dramatic genres, the material for which is “characters” and “positions”. When applied to other genres and other arts, the problem of realism remains completely underdeveloped. Due to the much smaller number of direct statements of the classics of Marxism that can provide a specific guiding thread, vulgarization and simplification still reign here to a large extent. “When extending the concept of “realism” to other arts, two simplifying tendencies should be especially avoided:
1. the tendency to identify realism with external realism (in painting, to measure realism by the degree of “photographic” similarity) and
2. tendencies to mechanistically extend criteria developed in narrative literature to other genres and arts, without taking into account the specifics of a given genre or art. Such a gross simplification in relation to painting is the identification of realism with direct social subject matter, such as we find, for example, among the Wanderers. The problem of realism in such arts is, first of all, the problem of an image constructed according to the specifics of this art and filled with realistic content."
All this applies to the problem of realism in lyrics. Realistic lyrics are lyrics that truthfully express typical feelings and thoughts. In order to admit lyrical work realistic, it is not enough for what it expresses to be “generally valid”, “generally interesting” in general. Realistic lyrics are an expression of feelings and attitudes specifically typical of a class and era.
Stages of development realism XIX century
The formation of realism occurs in European countries and in Russia almost at the same time - in the 20s - 40s of the 19th century. It is becoming a leading trend in the literature of the world.
True, this simultaneously means that the literary process of this period is irreducible only in a realistic system. Both in European literatures, and - especially - in US literature, the activity of romantic writers continues in full: de Vigny, Hugo, Irving, Poe, etc. Thus, the development of the literary process occurs largely through the interaction of coexisting aesthetic systems, and characteristics of both national literatures and creativity individual writers requires mandatory consideration of this circumstance.
Speaking of the fact that from the 30s - 40s leading place realist writers occupy a place in literature, it is impossible not to note that realism itself turns out to be not a frozen system, but a phenomenon in constant development. Already within the 19th century, the need arises to talk about “different realisms”, that Merimee, Balzac and Flaubert equally answered the main historical questions that the era suggested to them, and at the same time their works are distinguished by different content and originality forms.
In the 1830s - 1840s in creativity European writers(primarily Balzac) the most remarkable features of realism appear as a literary movement, giving a multifaceted picture of reality, striving for an analytical study of reality.
“The literature of the 1830s and 1840s was largely fueled by statements about the attractiveness of the century itself. Love to 19th century shared, for example, by Stendhal and Balzac, who never ceased to be amazed by its dynamism, diversity and inexhaustible energy. Hence the heroes of the first stage of realism - active, with an inventive mind, not afraid of facing unfavorable circumstances. These heroes were largely associated with the heroic era of Napoleon, although they perceived his two-facedness and developed a strategy for their personal and public behavior. Scott and his historicism inspire Stendhal's heroes to find their place in life and history through mistakes and delusions. Shakespeare makes Balzac say about the novel “Père Goriot” in the words of the great Englishman “Everything is true” and see in the fate of the modern bourgeois echoes of the harsh fate of King Lear.”
“Realists of the second half of the 19th century will reproach their predecessors for “residual romanticism.” It is difficult to disagree with such a reproach. Indeed, the romantic tradition is very noticeably represented in creative systems Balzac, Stendhal, Merimee. It is no coincidence that Sainte-Beuve called Stendhal “the last hussar of romanticism.” Traits of romanticism are revealed:
– in the cult of exoticism (Merimee’s short stories such as “Matteo Falcone”, “Carmen”, “Tamango”, etc.);
– in the predilection of writers for depicting bright individuals and passions that are exceptional in their strength (Stendhal’s novel “Red and Black” or the short story “Vanina Vanini”);
– a passion for adventurous plots and the use of fantasy elements (Balzac’s novel “ Shagreen leather"or Merimee's short story "Venus of Il");
- in an effort to clearly divide the heroes into negative and positive - carriers of the author's ideals (Dickens's novels)."
Thus, between the realism of the first period and romanticism there is a complex “family” connection, manifested, in particular, in the inheritance of techniques and even individual themes and motifs characteristic of romantic art (the theme of lost illusions, the motif of disappointment, etc.).
In domestic historical and literary science " revolutionary events 1848 and the important changes that followed in the socio-political and cultural life bourgeois society" is generally considered to be what divides the "realism of foreign XIX countries century into two stages – realism of the first and second half of the 19th century.” In 1848, popular protests turned into a series of revolutions that swept across Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Austria, etc.). These revolutions, as well as the unrest in Belgium and England, followed the “French model”, as democratic protests against a class-privileged government that did not meet the needs of the time, as well as under the slogans of social and democratic reforms. Overall, 1848 marked one huge upheaval in Europe. True, as a result of it, moderate liberals or conservatives came to power everywhere, and in some places even a more brutal authoritarian government was established.
This caused general disappointment in the results of the revolutions, and, as a consequence, pessimistic sentiments. Many representatives of the intelligentsia became disillusioned with mass movements, active actions of the people on a class basis and transferred their main efforts to private world personality and personal relationships. Thus, the general interest was directed towards the individual, important in itself, and only secondarily - towards his relationships with other individuals and the world around him.
The second half of the 19th century is traditionally considered the “triumph of realism.” By this time, realism was loudly asserting itself in the literature not only of France and England, but also of a number of other countries - Germany (late Heine, Raabe, Storm, Fontane), Russia (“natural school”, Turgenev, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Tolstoy , Dostoevsky), etc.
At the same time, since the 50s, a new stage in the development of realism begins, which involves new approach to the image of both the hero and the society surrounding him. The social, political and moral atmosphere of the second half of the 19th century “turned” writers towards the analysis of a person who can hardly be called a hero, but in whose fate and character the main signs of the era are refracted, expressed not in a major deed, a significant act or passion, compressed and intensely conveying global shifts of time, not in large-scale (both social and psychological) confrontation and conflict, not in typicality taken to the limit, often bordering on exclusivity, but in everyday life, everyday life.
Writers who began working at this time, as well as those who entered literature earlier, but worked during this period, for example, Dickens or Thackeray, of course, were already guided by a different concept of personality, which was not perceived or reproduced by them as a product of a direct relationship social and psychological-biological principles and strictly understood determinants. Thackeray’s novel “The Newcombs” emphasizes the specificity of “human studies” in the realism of this period - the need to understand and analytically reproduce multidirectional subtle mental movements and indirect, not always manifested social connections: “It is difficult to even imagine how many different reasons determine our every action or passion, how often, when analyzing my motives, I mistook one thing for another...” This phrase by Thackeray conveys, perhaps, main feature realism of the era: everything focuses on the depiction of man and character, and not circumstances. Although the latter, as they should in realistic literature, “do not disappear,” their interaction with character acquires a different quality, associated with the fact that circumstances cease to be independent, they become more and more characterologized; their sociological function is now more implicit than it was with Balzac or Stendhal.
Due to the changed concept of personality and the “human-centrism” of the entire artistic system (and “man - the center” was not necessarily a positive hero, defeating social circumstances or dying - morally or physically - in the fight against them), one may get the impression that the writers of the second half centuries abandoned the basic principle of realistic literature: dialectical understanding and depiction of the relationships between character and circumstances and adherence to the principle of socio-psychological determinism. Moreover, some of the most prominent realists of this time - Flaubert, J. Eliot, Trollott - when talking about the world surrounding the hero, the term “environment” appears, often perceived more statically than the concept of “circumstances”.
An analysis of the works of Flaubert and J. Eliot convinces that artists need this “stakeout” of the environment primarily in order to describe surrounding the hero the situation was more flexible. The environment often narratively exists in the inner world of the hero and through him, acquiring a different character of generalization: not poster-sociologized, but psychologized. This creates an atmosphere of greater objectivity in what is being reproduced. In any case, from the point of view of the reader, who trusts such an objectified narrative about the era more, since he perceives the hero of the work as a person close to him, just like himself.
Writers of this period do not at all forget about one more aesthetic setting of critical realism - the objectivity of what is reproduced. As you know, Balzac was so concerned about this objectivity that he was looking for ways to bring closer literary knowledge(understanding) and scientific. This idea appealed to many realists of the second half of the century. For example, Eliot and Flaubert thought a lot about the use of scientific, and therefore, as it seemed to them, objective methods of analysis in literature. Flaubert thought especially a lot about this, who understood objectivity as synonymous with impartiality and impartiality. However, this was the spirit of the entire realism of the era. Moreover, the work of realists in the second half of the 19th century occurred during the period of takeoff in the development of natural sciences and the heyday of experimentation.
In the history of science it was important period. Biology developed rapidly (C. Darwin’s book “The Origin of Species” was published in 1859), physiology, and the formation of psychology as a science took place. The philosophy of positivism by O. Comte became widespread, and later played an important role in the development of naturalistic aesthetics and artistic practice. It was during these years that attempts were made to create a system of psychological understanding of man.
However, even at this stage of the development of literature, the character of the hero is not conceived by the writer outside of social analysis, although the latter acquires a slightly different aesthetic essence, different from that which was characteristic of Balzac and Stendhal. Of course, in Flaubert's novels. Eliot, Fontana and some others are struck by “a new level of depiction of the inner world of man, a qualitatively new skill psychological analysis“, which consists in the deepest disclosure of the complexity and unforeseenness of human reactions to reality, the motives and causes of human activity.”
It is obvious that the writers of this era sharply changed the direction of creativity and led literature (and the novel in particular) towards in-depth psychologism, and in the formula “social-psychological determinism” the social and psychological seemed to change places. It is in this direction that the main achievements of literature are concentrated: writers began not just to draw the complex inner world of a literary hero, but to reproduce a well-functioning, thoughtful psychological “character model”, in it and in its functioning, artistically combining the psychological-analytical and social-analytical. The writers updated and revived the principle of psychological detail, introduced dialogue with deep psychological overtones, found narrative techniques to convey “transitional”, contradictory spiritual movements that were previously inaccessible to literature.
This does not mean at all that realistic literature abandoned social analysis: the social basis of reproduced reality and reconstructed character did not disappear, although it did not dominate character and circumstances. It was thanks to the writers of the second half of the 19th century that literature began to find indirect ways of social analysis, in this sense continuing a series of discoveries made by writers of previous periods.
Flaubert, Eliot, the Goncourt brothers and others “taught” literature to reach out to the social and what is characteristic of the era characterizes its social, political, historical and moral principles, through the ordinary and everyday existence of an ordinary person. Social typification among writers of the second half of the century is the typification of “massiveness, repetition.” It is not as bright and obvious as among representatives of classical critical realism of the 1830s - 1840s and most often manifests itself through the “parabola of psychologism”, when immersion in the inner world of a character allows you to ultimately immerse yourself in the era, in historical time, as seen by writer. Emotions, feelings, and moods are not transtemporal, but of a specific historical nature, although it is primarily ordinary everyday existence that is subject to analytical reproduction, and not the world of titanic passions. At the same time, writers often even absolutized the dullness and wretchedness of life, the triviality of the material, the unheroic nature of time and character. That is why, on the one hand, it was an anti-romantic period, on the other, a period of craving for the romantic. This paradox, for example, is characteristic of Flaubert, the Goncourts, and Baudelaire.
There are other important points related to the absolutization of imperfection human nature and slavish subordination to circumstances: writers often perceived the negative phenomena of the era as a given, as something irresistible, and even tragically fatal. That is why in the works of realists of the second half of the 19th century the positive principle is so difficult to express: the problem of the future interests them little, they are “here and now”, in their time, comprehending it in an extremely impartial manner, as an era, if worthy of analysis, then critical.
CRITICAL REALISM
from Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging and lat. realis - real, real) - the name assigned to the main realistic method art of the 19th century century, which was developed in the art of the 20th century. The term “critical realism” emphasizes critical, accusatory pathos democratic art in relation to existing reality. This term was proposed by Gorky to distinguish this type of realism from socialist realism. Previously, the unsuccessful term “bourgeois R.” was used, but the now accepted one is inaccurate: along with sharp criticism of the noble-bourgeois society (O. Balzac, O. Daumier, N.V. Gogol and the “natural school”, M.E. Saltykov- Shchedrin, G. Ibsen, etc.) many. prod. K.r. embodied the positive beginnings of life, moods advanced people, labor and moral traditions people. Both started in Russian. Literature is represented by Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, in the theater - M. S. Shchepkin, in painting - “Itinerants”, in music - M I. Glinka, composers of “The Mighty Handful”, P. I. Tchaikovsky; in foreign literature of the 19th century - Stendhal, C. Dickens, S. Zeromski, in painting - G. Courbet, in music - G. Verdi, L. Janacek. IN late XIX V. the so-called verism, which combined democratic tendencies with some crushing social issues(for example, operas by G. Puccini). A characteristic genre of literature of critical realism is the socio-psychological novel. Based on K. r. Russian classical art criticism developed (Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Stasov), ch. the principle of which was nationality. In critical realism, the formation and manifestation of characters, the fate of people, community groups, separate classes (ruin landed nobility, strengthening of the bourgeoisie, decomposition of the traditional way of life peasant life), but not the fate of society as a whole: a change in the social structure and prevailing morality is conceived to one degree or another as a consequence of the improvement of morality or self-improvement of people, and not as the natural emergence of a new quality as a result of the development of society itself. This is the inherent contradiction of critical realism; in the 19th century. inevitable. In addition to socio-historical and psychological determinism, biological determinism is used in critical realism as an additional artistic emphasis (starting with the work of G. Flaubert); in L.N. Tolstoy and other writers it is consistently subordinated to the social and psychological, but, for example, in some works of the literary movement, the head of which, Emile Zola, theoretically substantiated and embodied the principle of naturalism, this type of determination was absolutized, which damaged the realistic principles of creativity . The historicism of critical realism is usually built on the contrast of the “present century” and the “past century”, on the opposition of generations of “fathers” and “children” (“Duma” by M. Yu. Lermontov, I. S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”, “Saga” about Farsites” by J. Galsworthy and others), ideas about periods of timelessness (for example, in O. Balzac, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov, a number of writers and artists of the early 20th century). Historicism in this understanding often prevented an adequate reflection of the past in historical works. Compared to production on contemporary themes, prod. There are few paintings that deeply reflect historical events (in literature - the epic "War and Peace" by Tolstoy, in painting - canvases by V. I. Surikov, I. E. Repin, in music - operas by M. P. Mussorgsky, J. .Verdi). IN foreign art in the 20th century Critical realism acquires a new quality, moving closer to different types modernism and naturalism. Traditions of classical K. r. developed and enriched by J. Galsworthy, G. Wells, B. Shaw, R. Rolland, T. Mann, E. Hemingway, K. Chapek, Lu Xun and others. At the same time, many others. artists, especially in the second sex. XX century, carried away by modernist poetics, they retreat from art. historicism, their social determinism takes on a fatalistic character (M. Frisch, F. Dürrenmatt, G. Fallada, A. Miller, M. Antonioni, L. Buñuel, etc.). To the great achievements of K. r. cinematography includes the work of directors C. Chaplin, S. Kreimer, A. Kuro-sawa; a type of critical realism was Italian neorealism.
Conclusion
As noted earlier, realism is a literary movement on a global scale. A notable feature of realism is also the fact that it has a long history. At the end of the 19th and 20th centuries, the work of such writers as R. Rolland, D. Golusorsi, B. Shaw, E. M. Remarque, T. Dreiser and others gained worldwide fame. Realism continues to exist to this day, remaining the most important form of world democratic culture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. V.V. Sayanov Romanticism, realism, naturalism - L. - 1988.
2. E.A. Anichkov Realism and new trends. – M.: Science. - 1980.
3. M.E. Elizarova History foreign literature XIX century - M. - 1964.
4. P. S. Kogan Romanticism and realism in European literature XIX century – M. – 1923
5. F. P. Schiller From the history of realism of the 19th century. in the West - M. - 1984.
