Russian artistic culture in the era of enlightenment. Open Library - open library of educational information

Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He was a worker with an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: with his own hand edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles to educational institutions. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: he personally edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles to educational institutions. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known.

Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, and German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov.

Birthday of the Russian press. Birthday of the Russian press. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. In Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected the final version of the new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer. In Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected the final version of the new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer.

The first museum. The first museum. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection preserved human freaks. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection of human freaks preserved in alcohol. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia.

First Academy First Academy In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also higher education in Russia. In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also for higher education in Russia. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor.

Changes in everyday life. Changes in everyday life. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. Encyclopedia cultural behavior became the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct.” The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” became an encyclopedia of cultural behavior. The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. During the reign of Peter 1, the new Julian calendar came into use. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. During the reign of Peter 1, the new Julian calendar came into use. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. Petrine reforms affected all aspects of Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed over the centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1. Peter's reforms affected all aspects of Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed over the centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1.
Man and culture of modern times. Man and culture of modern times. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes who committed incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes, who accomplished incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits.

Art culture European Enlightenment: approval of the cult of reason.

Lesson assignment: Name the main ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. Prove the continuity between the culture of the Renaissance and the culture of the Enlightenment.

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the key eras in the history of European culture, associated with the development of scientific, philosophical and social thought. This intellectual movement was based on rationalism and freethinking.

Starting in England under the influence of the scientific revolution of the 17th century, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and covered other European countries. The French enlighteners were especially influential, becoming “masters of thought.” Enlightenment principles formed the basis of the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

The age of “reason and enlightenment” became a time of crushing skepticism and irony, when seemingly indestructible foundations were subjected to merciless criticism human life, when faith in Jesus Christ and in the virtue of the Christian king began to cause bewilderment and ridicule.

Basics government structure, law, politics, moral priorities - everything was subjected to rigorous analysis, which in turn contributed to the development of a new worldview, imbued with feeling the joys of “this-worldly” existence. In return Christian ideas Enlightenment thinkers put forward theories about the spiritual fundamental principle of the Universe based on an optimistic belief in the power of the human intellect, in its ability not only to understand the vices of society, but also to rebuild life according to the laws of freedom, equality and fraternity.

The joy of life, the joy of love, the enjoyment of the real benefits of luxury, which embraced the aristocracy, irresistibly attracts many artists. This is how the foundations of the Rococo style are formed - the product of a refined life, marked by features of special sophistication. Rococo became an adornment of the idle life of the pampered nobility, but not only. In this style, the great artists, who will be discussed below, managed to embody the sensual charm of human relationships, not constrained by the boundaries of external decency, combined with playful frivolity and subtle humor.

Literature Daniel Defoe

The author of Robinson was born in London into the family of a wealthy butcher named Fo. The parents wanted their son to become a priest. They sent him to a private school, where the young man studied ancient languages, philosophy and theology. After graduating from school, he started trading, which brought him a good income. Defoe devoted all his free time to literature; created several poignant pamphlets addressing the issue of religious freedom, which were widely known. He went bankrupt several times and again made a fortune, without particularly worrying about material well-being. At the same time his writings increasingly attracted the attention of those in power. Defoe becomes a prominent political figure and falls into disgrace. In 1719, he wrote an immortal novel about the adventures of Robinson Crusoe, which was reprinted 4 times within four months and caused a huge number of imitations.

Jonathan Swift

The author of Gulliver's Travels was born in the capital of Ireland - Dublin. His relatives dreamed of him becoming a priest and sent him to study theology at Dublin University. However, the position of a modest priest (Swift was not even a nobleman) did not appeal to the young man, and he agreed to accept the position of literary secretary, which allowed him to engage in literary creativity. Among his first works were pamphlets denouncing the Catholic Church. These works forced important political figures to listen to the voice of the humble priest. Swift soon turns into an influential figure in politics and diplomacy. But literature has not been forgotten either. In 1726, a novel about the adventures of Gulliver was published without the name of the author, which went through countless reprints.

Defoe tries to convince the reader that the author of the book is not he, but Robinson Crusoe, and Swift generally anonymously threw his manuscript to the publisher. What prompted authors to constantly indicate in novels geographical coordinates those places where travelers found themselves? Defoe's readers have repeatedly told the author that what they like most about the novel is travel and adventure. This greatly upset the author, who claimed that he was misunderstood and that it was not about adventure. What's the matter then?

Educational orientation of the works. The authors turned to their contemporaries, primarily to people of “common rank” - representatives of the rising third estate, convincing them that the adventures of the heroes were real. Defoe “deceives” readers, seeks to instill in them faith in their own strengths, in the possibility of transformation, to prove that “all mortals are equal!” (Voltaire). That is why his novel was called a hymn to work and clear human thought. Swift was not so optimistic about the world, and bourgeois prosperity simply irritated him. Hence the edifying, moralizing nature of many works.

Pierre Beaumarchais (Caron)

The famous tribune of the French Revolution, Danton, said that “... Figaro put an end to the aristocracy.” Indeed, in his works Beaumarchais ridicules the privileged class. Figaro is a prominent representative of the third estate. Beaumarchais himself wrote: “All outstanding people come from the third estate...”

It is not surprising that it was in Germany, which experienced a national catastrophe (the Thirty Years' War), which disintegrated into almost 300 principalities, over fifty imperial cities and many small noble estates, that the Enlightenment was born, permeated with a passionate protest against any slavery and oppression. German thinkers Herder, Kant, Hegel made a huge contribution to the development of philosophy, ethics, psychology and many natural sciences. “Sturm und Drang” (“Storm and Drang”) was the name of a new social movement of young writers who put forward radical ideas that stirred public consciousness.

German Enlightenment. The development of the German Enlightenment was influenced by political fragmentation Germany and its economic backwardness, which determined the predominant interest of German educators not in socio-political problems, but in issues of philosophy, morality, aesthetics and education.

Among the brilliant names of German educational literature, we highlight two - Goethe and Schiller. Both poets were involved in the Sturm and Drang movement. Both left a huge mark on the history of world culture.

No, there is a limit to the violence of tyrants! When rights are cruelly violated and the burden is unbearable, the oppressed fearlessly calls out to heaven. There he finds confirmation of rights, Which, inalienable and indestructible, Shine like stars for humanity. That old time will return again, When equality reigned everywhere. But if all means have been tried, Then the sword that strikes remains. William Tell. Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Faust is based on the legend of the real medieval scientist warlock Doctor Faust, who sold his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and the art of magic. Goethe, while preserving the main outline of the legend, supplemented it with themes, ideas, and images that made the work an “encyclopedia” not only of German culture, but also of the entire European Enlightenment.

... The years of life have not passed in vain; The final conclusion of earthly wisdom is clear to me: Only he is worthy of life and freedom, Who goes to battle for them every day! "Faust"

Art This feature can be traced in the visual arts. Diderot spoke about Greuze’s painting “The Family of a Paralytic”: “I already like the genre itself: it is a moralizing painting. There have already been plenty of scenes of debauchery and vice in painting for too long! Shouldn't we now rejoice to see that painting is finally competing with dramatic poetry, touching, enlightening and thereby correcting us and calling us to virtue? “Singers of the Third Estate” strove to establish extra-class values, emphasized the importance of the individual’s personality, and dreamed of correcting and improving morals. The English painter and graphic artist W. Hogarth was especially successful in the latter.

English Enlightenment The period of formation of educational ideology occurred at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. This was the result and consequence of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which is the fundamental difference between the insular Enlightenment and the continental one. Having survived the bloody upheaval of civil war and religious intolerance, the British sought stability rather than radical change existing system. Hence the moderation, restraint and skepticism that distinguishes the English Enlightenment. The national feature of England was the strong influence of Puritanism in all areas public life, therefore, common to Enlightenment thought is the belief in limitless possibilities reason was combined among English thinkers with deep religiosity.

William Hogarth HOGARTH, William - (Hogarth, William. 1697-1764) English painter, graphic artist and art theorist. Born in London in poor family school teacher. He studied with the engraver E. Gamble, and from 1720 at the J. Thornhill Academy in London. In 1729, Hogarth secretly married Thornhill's youngest daughter, Jane. And in 1731 he moved with his wife to the Thornhill house. Worked in London in 1743 and 1748. visited France. Hogarth was greatly influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers who argued that with the help artistic creativity can be educated moral principle in man and eradicate vices.

Graham children

The fishing party

Wedding contract

The French Enlightenment was distinguished by the most radical views on all issues of a political and social nature. French thinkers created doctrines that denied private property(Rousseau, Mably, Morelli), defending atheistic views (Diderot, Helvetius, P.A. Holbach). It was France, which became the center of educational thought for a century, that contributed to the rapid spread of advanced ideas in Europe - from Spain to Russia and North America. These ideas also inspired the ideologists of the Great French Revolution, which radically changed the social and political structure of France.

Chardin, Jean Baptiste Simeon French painter; born in Paris on November 2, 1699. In 1728 he was elected to the Royal Academy as a master of still life, in 1743 he was appointed adviser to the Academy, and in 1755 he became its treasurer; he left this position shortly before his death. Chardin painted still lifes throughout his life. After 1733 he also turned to genre compositions. It was thanks to them that he became known throughout Europe. Most of these paintings depict women busy with household chores or relaxing, playing with children. Chardin died in Paris on December 6, 1779.

Peddler

Silver cup

Watteau Antoine (1684-1721) Jean Antoine Watteau was born in 1684 in the small provincial town of Valenciennes into the family of a poor roofer and carpenter. In 1702, Watteau went to Paris without any financial support from his family. For two years he has been working for a meager wage as a copyist of cheap paintings for a merchant from the Notre Dame Bridge. The artist devotes his free time to drawing from life. In 1703, Watteau met the theater decorator C. Gilot, from whom he continued to study painting. Having become close in 1708 with the curator of the Luxembourg Palace, C. Audran, Watteau had the opportunity to study the works of the great masters, which abounded in the palace collection of paintings. In 1709, in the hope of continuing his studies, Watteau entered the painting “The Return of David after the Victory over Goliath” into the annual competition of the Royal Academy of Painting, but he failed to win the first prize. Watteau begins his independent creative activity with sketches of scenes of a soldier's life.

Joys of life

Venice holiday

Hunting holidays

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Francois Boucher Francois Boucher can be called one of the most prominent Rococo artists. The main theme of his work was pleasure, enjoying the delights of life, its idyllic perception. The artist's career was brilliant. He was born in Paris and took his first painting lessons from his father, then worked as an illustrator in the workshop of F. Lemoine and retained his love for book graphics for life. In 1734 Boucher received the title of academician, then professor and became director of the Academy. He worked for three royal manufactories (Beauvais, Gobelins and Sevres), designed theatrical productions, performed decorative works for the royal palaces, other royal orders, many of which he received thanks to the patronage of Madame de Pompadour. In 1765 Boucher became the king's first artist. His painting aroused admiration, but at the same time there were harsh responses and accusations of frivolity addressed to him. Regardless of the assessment of the artist’s creativity, his works are a hymn to pleasure, carnal pleasure, but ennobled, sublime, poeticized. Boucher's works are full of light and air, sensuality and light mysterious irony, filled with a feeling of bliss and pleasure.

Diana after swimming

Artist in the studio. Self-portrait.

Madame Pompadour

Madame Pompadour

Reading young woman

With the crisis of Rococo aesthetics, the ideas of Enlightenment realism powerfully poured into French painting.

Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699-1779) can be called great among equals in this direction.

Jean Baptiste Greuze About Chardin's younger contemporary, the painter Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805), Diderot said: “This is truly my artist.” The Enlightener dedicated many pages of his “Salons” to Greuze, appreciating in his work the sensitivity and penchant for moralization, so close to the ideals of the encyclopedist himself. The idealization of noble feelings has become main theme creativity of Grez.

Jean-Baptiste Greuze "Portrait of a Boy"

The Father's Curse 1778. Louvre, Paris.

Spoiled child

guitar player

Characteristic features of classicism: “exemplary”, the Age of Enlightenment, submission to reason, idealization of heroic images, clarity, directness and simplicity, restraint, calm in emotions, dignity and rationalism in actions, adherence to rules and order

(1594-1665) Nicolas Poussin

In the sculptor's workshop

Death of Germanius

The revolutionary spirit of France was more fully and objectively expressed by Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828), the creator of sculptural portraits of philosophers, scientists, freedom fighters, and political figures. He became famous for his ability to reproduce not only the appearance of a model, but also her hidden psychological world. Jean-Antoine Houdon

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Portrait of a wife

The highest achievements of English painting were not associated with political satire. The genre of ceremonial portraiture is the area where the talent of outstanding English painters - Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) and Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) - was most fully revealed.

Reynolds, Joshua Sir Joshua Reynolds (Joshua Reynolds, 1723-1792) - famous English historical and portrait painter; painter. Art theorist. Representative of the English school of portrait painting of the 18th century. First president of the Royal Academy of Arts, member of the Royal Society of London.

Portrait of John Simpson

Thomas Gainsborough 1727, Sudbury, Suffolk - 1788, London. English painter and graphic artist, major master national school painting. Born into the family of a cloth merchant. The talent that manifested itself early was formed very quickly. Having started with sculpting small figures of animals, at the age of 10 he was already painting landscapes. Around 1740 he came to London, where he studied in the studios of various artists, without ultimately receiving a systematic education. Perhaps one of his teachers was G. Gravelot. Around this time he began to paint portraits.

The Andrews

Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort.

Jacques Louis David On the threshold of the bloody events of the Great French Revolution, a new name shone in painting - Jacques Louis David (1748-1825). An adherent of classicism, he devoted all his remarkable gift to the embodiment of the ideals of the revolutionary transformation of the world. Let us pay attention: it was David who managed to organically combine in his work ancient traditions, the aesthetics of classicism and the doctrine of revolution, which allowed historians to dub his style “revolutionary classicism.”

Leonidas at Thermopylae

Napoleon at the Saint Bernard Pass

Death of Marat

The educational movement, having common basic principles, developed in different countries oh not the same. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.

1. Why is the 18th century called the “century of reason and enlightenment”? Remember the words of Voltaire, who called on the people to “crush the reptile,” that is, the church. What spiritual values ​​did the enlighteners offer instead of religious ones? What were the results of the French Enlightenment? Does the educational call for freedom, equality and brotherhood today contradict Christian commandments? 2. What are the features of the Rococo style? What ideals did artists strive for in this style? Tell us about Watteau's work. 3. Do the works of Boucher and Fragonard correspond to the attitudes of the “gallant century”? 4. Tell us about classicism in the art of France and England in the 18th century. 5. Tell us about the work of Viennese composers classical school- Gluck, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Homework.

ABSTRACT
In the discipline "Culturology"
On the topic “Russian culture of the Enlightenment. Petrine reform"

Performed:
Student of group 114
Kulyomina E. I.
Checked:
teacher
Panfilova E.V.

Ust-Katav
2011

Introduction……………………...……………………………….. p. 3

1. Russian architecture, painting and theater of the 17th-18th centuries..... p. 5

2. Culture of the period of Peter’s reforms…………………….. p. 17

Conclusion…………………………………….………………p. 25

Literature……………………………… …………………………. …With. 16

Introduction.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. The Russian Renaissance is being replaced by new era, called by specialists the Russian Enlightenment. There is a radical reorientation of not only Russian culture, but also Russian society from the Byzantine East to the European West. The leading role is moving from religious art to secular art. Through the strict outlines of the icon, the first contours of a secular portrait and landscapes are visible. From the depths of icon painting, painting makes its way to the light for a long time and painfully. Sensuality is replaced by rationalism. From feudalism, Russia is slowly turning to capitalism, and therefore, to a new economic structure, a new way of life.
In the 18th century, the foundations of a secular worldview were laid: a system of secular education was formed, art and science developed. However, the process of restructuring Russian society was completely completed only in the 19th century. Throughout the 18th century, there was a struggle between the old and the new, the pre-Petrine orders and European customs, and painstaking work, invisible to the eye, took place to educate a new person.
In Peter's reforms, comprehended from a great historical distance, one can simultaneously discern the liberal initiatives of Catherine II and Alexander I, and the republican projects of the Decembrists, and the administrative restructuring of Nicholas I, and the Great Peasant Reform of 1861, and the Stolypin reform, and all phases of the Russian Revolution ( It is no coincidence that many thinkers of the Silver Age, including the so-called “Vekhiites”, the authors of the famous collection of articles “Vekhi” of 1909, and especially N. Berdyaev, saw in Peter’s transformations the embryo of future Bolshevism). A. Tolstoy in his novel “Peter I” also developed a similar idea, evoking in his readers transparent associations of socialist construction in the years of the first five-year plans with Peter’s titanic efforts to overcome centuries-old barbarism. We can say that Peter’s reforms represent a knot of intractable national problems that Russia will have to unravel in the future over several centuries, including beyond the 20th century. Therefore, understanding the meaning and purpose, nature and results of Peter’s reforms is extremely important for interpreting and assessing the entire history of Russian culture of the New and Modern times until the end of the 20th century.

Russian architecture of the 17th - 18th centuries.

Painting.
In the second half of the 17th century, along with other types of art in Russia, painting experienced serious changes. To a certain extent, they prepare for the radical reforms that took place in it at the beginning of the 18th century. Entering the position of modern art with a significant delay compared to other artistic advances European countries, Russian painting in its own way reflects the general patterns of this stage of development. Secular art comes to the fore. Initially, secular painting was established in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but already from the second half of the 18th century it became widespread in other cities and estates. A traditional branch of painting, icon painting is still widely practiced in all levels of society.
Russian painting developed throughout the 18th century in close contact with the art of Western European schools, joining the common heritage - works of art of the Renaissance and Baroque, and also making extensive use of the experience of neighboring states. At the same time, as researchers have long established, art in general and painting in particular, throughout the entire 18th century, were connected by a single focus and had a pronounced national character. During this period, the greatest masters of their craft - representatives of the domestic art school and foreign painters - worked in Russia.
The most interesting phenomenon in the art of Peter the Great's era was the portrait. At the origins of portrait painting of modern times is I. N. Nikitin (c. 1680–1742). I.N. Nikitin vividly embodies the power of human possibilities discovered by Peter the Great's era. The greatest reformer of Russian painting, he shares with him triumphs, and in the end - tragic misfortunes. The portraits created by Nikitin in the early period are already quite European in nature, images closest to the works of the French school of the early 18th century. Using pan-European experience, the Russian artist realizes his own ideas about the world, beauty and individual characteristics of the model. This is how a version of the portrait arises - generally understandable and completely unique. The brush of this great artist includes such works as the portrait of Tsarevna Anna Petrovna and Tsarevna Praskovya Ioannovna (presumably 1714). Perhaps the most powerful work after Nikitin’s return from Italy is the portrait of State Chancellor G. I. Golovkin (1720s). In addition to increased literacy in drawing and painting techniques, he demonstrates the spirituality of expression and the interaction of the image with the viewer. No less seriousness is inherent in the “Portrait of a Floor Hetman” (1720s). The author's independence is manifested in the portrait of S. G. Stroganov (1726) and in the painting “Peter I on his deathbed” (1725). With the death of Peter, the life of the artist himself ended tragically - he was tried on false charges and exiled to Tobolsk.
The work of another Russian painter, Andrei Matveev (1701-1739), also belongs to the Peter the Great era in spirit. By order of Peter, he was sent to Holland to study, which provided the necessary level of knowledge. While still studying, he created paintings - “Allegory of Painting” (1725) and “Venus and Cupid”. Matveev’s most famous work is “Self-portrait with his wife” (1729). Matveev’s work depicts a new culture of relations for Russia. The husband and wife not only act as equals: the artist carefully and proudly presents his wife to the viewer. Interest in matters of art and hard work distinguished this artist.
The painting of the last decades of the 18th century is distinguished by significant diversity and completeness. First of all, this is due to the founding of the Academy of Arts. The Russian school is now mastering those genres of painting that were previously represented only by the works of old and modern Western European masters. The most significant achievements of Russian painting in the last decades of the 18th century are associated with the art of portraiture.
The work of F. S. Rokotov (1735-1808) constitutes one of the most charming and difficult to explain pages of our culture. Already at a fairly mature age, he was accepted into the Academy of Arts. His early works - portraits of G. G. Orlov (1762-1763), E. B. Yusupova (1756-1761) testify to his involvement in the Rococo culture. Signs of this style are also present in the coronation portrait of Catherine II (1763), which became a model for the depiction of a very demanding empress. Many more portraits came from the artist’s brush - the poet V.I. Maikov (1769-1770), almost the entire Vorontsov family - himself (late 1760s), his wife M.A. Vorontsova and children (1770- e).
A contemporary of Rokotov was D. G. Levitsky (1735-1822). For about 20 years, Levitsky headed the portrait class at the Academy of Arts and not only participated in the education of an entire school of Russian portrait painters, but set the tone and level of the high reputation of portrait art in Russia. The scope of his painting is wider than Rokotov’s. He was equally good at intimate portraits, and a full-length ceremonial image. It is not surprising that the circle of his customers is very extensive. This is the rich man Demidov, whose picture he painted in 1773, and the secular beauty Ursula Mnischek (1782), and the Italian actress Anna Davia-Bernuzi (1782). An important place in Levitsky’s work is occupied by the work on the portrait of Catherine II, which was reflected in “The Vision of Murza” by G. R. Derzhavin.
From all of the above, we can conclude that throughout the entire 18th century, Russian art of painting passed big way formation according to the laws of new times. The needs of the era were reflected in the predominant development of secular painting - portrait, landscape, historical and everyday genres.

Theater.
In the 17th century, the first court theater appeared in Moscow. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich liked the performance given during the celebrations on the occasion of his second marriage, and he ordered the construction of an amusement chamber in Preobrazhenskoye. The second court performance was given on the occasion of the birth of Peter I in 1642. This date is considered to be the date of birth of the Russian theater. Initially, the troupe was recruited from residents of the German settlement, later Russian actors appeared - from the burghers and clerks. All roles were played by men. The first performances were predominantly of spiritual content based on legendary, historical and biblical subjects. The authors of the plays were Simeon of Polotsk and Archimandrite Dmitry Savin. Secular plays also appeared - “The Comedy about Tamerlane and Bayazet”, “The Comedy about Bacchus with Venus”. Ballet performances were staged. The Church was hostile to secular theater. After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, at the insistence of Patriarch Joachim, the theater was closed.
In 1756, the first professional theater in Russia was established in St. Petersburg, the basis of which was a troupe of Yaroslavl actors led by F.G. Volkov. Volkov’s successor and his friend I.A. Dmitrievsky did a lot for the development of Russian theater.
Conclusion:
Thus, the 17th century became a turning point in the development of Russian culture. There was a transition from medieval religious-feudal culture to the culture of modern times. He expressed himself in the spread of secular scientific knowledge, departure from religious canons in literature, architecture, painting. The decisive factor in the changes taking place was the appeal to the human personality.
The culture and social life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century reflect the fundamental transformations taking place in the socio-economic sphere. The ideas of the Enlightenment had a noticeable impact on public life in general. This is the period when natural sciences begin to develop in Russia and the Russian literary language is being formed. The richness and diversity of the cultural process in the second half of the 18th century prepared the way for the “golden age” of Russian culture in the 19th century.

Culture of the period of Peter's reforms
The Russian Middle Ages ended with the seventeenth century, and the eighteenth century begins a new time in the history of the country. The Imperial Russia of St. Petersburg comes to the place of Moscow Tsarist Rus'. The social dynamics of the century are enormous: Russia enters it medieval and rather backward, and by the end of the century it emerges as a strong power, actively influencing the destinies of Europe. A powerful development process is associated with the name of Peter I and his reforms.
The process was complex and controversial. This is noted by many Russian historians. V. O. Klyuchevsky, for example, writes about the 18th century: “What made Russian life in this century so complicated? Reforms begun by Peter's predecessors and continued by them... Until then, Russian society lived by the conditions of its own life and the instructions of the nature of its country. Since the 17th century, a foreign culture, rich in experience and knowledge, began to influence this society. This incoming influence met with home-grown orders and entered into a struggle with them, disturbing the Russian people, confusing their concepts and habits, complicating their life, giving it increased and uneven movement” /1, p. 13/.
The time of Peter was, first of all, the establishment of a noble empire. A new administrative apparatus is being formed. Peter, instead of medieval orders, forms a few but effective collegiums, removes the traditional boyar duma, based on hereditary representation. The Senate appears on the stage of Russian history - a government agency created to control and manage the state. The appearance of this institution indirectly separates in the minds of people the power of the king, the owner, from the power of the state, an institution for the “good of the subjects.” For the beginning of the 18th century, this was a very relevant and significant cultural task. Even previously relatively independent religions and churches now find themselves under the overbearing hand of the state. Absolute monarchy, the beginning of which dates back to the 17th century, is now presented as a fully established form of government.
New phenomena in the political and social sphere gave rise to powerful processes in the field of spiritual culture, largely determining its features. What are these features? The culture of the 18th century is often compared typologically with the Western European Enlightenment. Let us note right away: this ratio is far from complete and not even close for Russia special meaning. As is known, the Western European Enlightenment was prepared by the Renaissance and the New Time period, which had already ensured a break with medieval theological culture and proclaimed the unshakable authority of scientific knowledge. Russian culture of the late 17th - early 18th centuries had to solve problems that took Western Europe five centuries to complete. Such an intensity of spiritual development, unprecedented in history, constitutes the first feature of Russian culture of the period under review.
Already in last decades In the 17th century, a situation arose in Russia that we now call a crisis of spiritual culture, ideological values ​​and ideals. Pre-Petrine Rus' lived “to the point of moral bankruptcy,” and could not help but live, tied from head to toe (from state system government to national life) religious dogmas. The most important of the measures consistently carried out by Peter I was the final removal of the church from interference in state affairs, and, consequently, the limitation of the “cultural field” of church activity. With the abolition of the patriarchate in 1721, the direction of church affairs was transferred to the hands of the Holy Synod, accountable to the monarch. The Church was actually deprived of its dominant role in the field of cultural and ideological policy in precisely the area where its influence had previously been especially great. The role of the clergy as a source of enlightenment, as a representative of the “spiritual vanguard” of the Russian people, is over. “With the accession of Peter the Great, a new intelligentsia is being formed, which is guided in everything by “worldly” interests and ideas. The crystallizing core around which these interests and ideas are formed is not the idea of ​​a universal religious mission (preserving the purity of Orthodoxy), but the ideal of Great Russia.” Thus, the second distinctive feature of the spiritual culture of the new stage is its secularization1.
Since Peter's reforms, the interest of Russian writers in the human personality has intensified, and the humanistic principle in art has deepened. In the new concept, a person finally ceases to be a source of sinfulness, and is perceived as an active person, valuable in itself, and even more so for “services to the fatherland.” Hence the change in the main value guideline: ideas about the sinful nature of man, characteristic of the official culture of pre-Petrine Rus', were replaced by a culture that directed human interests towards maintaining the purity of the Christian faith, with a culture based on ideas about man as a part of a new social system; hierarchically ordered monarchical state. Appeal to the individual, humanism is the third feature of the spiritual culture not only of the period of Peter’s reforms, but also of the 18th century as a whole. Peter I, who opened a “window to Europe,” put the country on the path of Europeanization and brought Russia into the circle of the European educational movement. The Europeanization of Russia began with borrowing in the field of everyday culture: Secularization (cf. Lat. saecularis - secular) appears - liberation from church subordination of social, intellectual and artistic activity.
new household items, the luxury of Polish and German costumes is being imitated. Communication etiquette is borrowed.
The imposition of various forms of Western life (clothing, removal of beards, assemblies, the free appearance of women in them, etc.) occurs on the strict orders of Peter I. It should be noted that the limits of the spread of the new culture are quite “narrow”: the court, the highest officials, the capital and to a small extent the provincial nobility. It is also impossible not to see that the process of Europeanization of Russian culture was quite contradictory: “there was a lot of unnecessary and immature in the borrowing, part of the changes came down only to a change in form, the “external gilding” under which the “Asian people” lived.” But imitation was logically necessary and inevitable due to the relative cultural youth of Russia. This was the fourth feature of the spiritual culture of the century under review. The rapprochement with the West, however, introduced more than just borrowing and imitation into Russian culture. It contributed to the development of Russian independence, the transition from “narrow nationalism to national creativity” cultural life..., presupposing universal human impressions and humane views.” In this sense, the 18th century can be called “an intermediate period of our social consciousness” (P. Milyukov), and the spiritual culture of the century can be called the initial stage in the formation of Russia’s social consciousness. And this is the fifth feature of the spiritual culture of the period under review.
One of the main principles of educational culture is syncretism. Spiritual culture as a whole is influenced by the idea of ​​regularity and knowability of the surrounding world (nature, man himself and the human), characteristic of the New Time.
Syncretism (gr. synkretismos - connection, association) - unity, indivisibility, existence in unity of all types of creative activity of society).
Knowledge obtained as a result of one's own experience and one's own practical activity is preferred to abstract book learning. This principle was adopted unconditionally by Russian culture of the 18th century.
Syncretism characterizes the activity of a typical representative of the Enlightenment - a master encyclopedist. In this sense, Russia in the 18th century resembled the European Renaissance. Among the figures of Russian culture of the 18th century, people who were only writers, only musicians, only painters or architects are a minority. It is customary to say about Peter I that he knew 14 crafts. Lomonosov worked with equal brilliance in various fields of cultural and creative activity, in science and art.
etc.................

Culture in the Age of Enlightenment

Introduction

1. Enlightenment from a general point of view

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

1.2 Age of Reason

2. Education in Russia

2.1 Penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia

2.2 Enlightenment in Russian conditions

2.2.1 Catherine II: Culture and Enlightenment

2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy

2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism

3. The most famous educators

3.1 Russia. Radishchev

3.2 Russia: Novikov

3.3 France: Voltaire

3.3.1 Literary creativity. Dramaturgy

3.3.2 Literary creativity: Poetry

3.4 Germany: Goethe

Conclusion

List of used literature

Application

Introduction

The 18th century in world culture left its mark on history and is called the “era of enlightenment.”

During this era, the direction of fantastic forms - “Baroque” - ended, and the persecution of humanists began1. It was from this time that cultural figures began to have a double life (the 1st life is a secret search for something new by the power of imagination and the 2nd is an open life like everyone else). In literature, the main work of this time is the novel by the Spanish writer Calderon “Life is a Dream.”

In Europe, a war is emerging between the educated authorities and the poorly educated population, which has become active thanks to books. This war leads to the creation of the first bourgeois republic in Holland. And here it becomes necessary for all monarchies to protect themselves from the influence of republics. For example, in the largest kingdom in Europe, France, the de facto ruler, Cardinal Richelieu, publishes uniform requirements to art: to educate the citizens of the kingdom according to the models of the heroes of antiquity. And from Richelieu’s rules a new direction, classicism, appears. From the 2nd half of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century, the idea of ​​enlightenment (educating the people through art) was winning in Europe.

So, what is the “age of enlightenment”? What personalities is it built on? And how did it change people's minds? - you will find answers to these and other questions in subsequent topics.

1. Enlightenment from the point of view of history

The Enlightenment is a broad cultural movement in Europe and North America in the 18th century, which aimed to spread the ideals of scientific knowledge, political freedom, social progress and expose related prejudices and superstitions. The centers of Enlightenment ideology and philosophy were France, Germany and England (where it originated). The ideology of the Enlightenment received its concentrated expression in France in the period from 1715 to 1789, called the Age of Enlightenment (siecle des lumieres). Kant's definition of Enlightenment as “the courage to use one's own mind” speaks of the Enlightenment's fundamental orientation towards endowing reason with the status of the highest authority and the associated ethical responsibility of its bearers - enlightened citizens.

The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant influence on the development of social thought. At the same time, in the 19th and 20th centuries. The ideology of the Enlightenment was often criticized for the idealization of human nature, an optimistic interpretation of progress as the steady development of society based on the improvement of the mind. In a broad sense, educators were the name given to outstanding disseminators of scientific knowledge.

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

In front of everyone national characteristics The Enlightenment had several common ideas and principles. There is a single order of nature, on the knowledge of which not only the success of science and the well-being of society, but also moral and religious perfection are based; the correct reproduction of the laws of nature allows us to build natural morality, natural religion and natural law. A mind freed from prejudice is the only source knowledge; facts, the essence, are the only material for reason. Rational knowledge must free humanity from social and natural slavery; society and the state must harmonize with the external nature and nature of man. Theoretical knowledge inseparable from practical action that ensures progress as highest goal social existence.

The specific ways of implementing this program within the framework of the Enlightenment diverged significantly. The difference in opinions about religion was especially significant: the practical atheism2 of La Mettrie, Holbach, Helvetius and Diderot, the rationalistic anticlerical deism3 of Voltaire, the moderate deism of D'Alembert, the pious deism of Condillac, the emotional "deism of the heart" of Rousseau. The unifying point was hatred of the traditional church. In this case, the deism of the Enlightenment did not exclude such organizational forms as the Masonic4 quasi-church5 with its rituals. Epistemological6 differences were less varied: basically the Enlightenmentists adhered to empiricism7 of the Lockean kind with a distinctly sensationalist interpretation of the origin of knowledge. Sensualism8 could be of a mechanical-materialistic nature, but skeptical and even a spiritualistic version. Ontology9 was of interest to enlighteners in to a lesser extent: they provided the solution to these problems to specific sciences (in this regard, the philosophy of the Enlightenment can be considered the first version of positivism10), fixing only the evidence of the existence of the subject, nature and God-the first cause. Only in Holbach's System of Nature is a dogmatic11 picture of atomistic-material existence given. In the social sphere, educators tried to substantiate the theory of progress and connect it with the stages of economic and political development of society. Economic (Turgot), political (Montesquieu), human rights (Voltaire) ideas of the Enlightenment played a significant role in the formation of the liberal12 civilization of the modern West.

1.2 Age of Reason

The years of Defoe's life (1660-1731) coincided with a time of rapid development of science, which literally interrupted all the ideas of medieval man about the world around him. During the 16th-18th centuries. geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of Europeans: the world was rapidly expanding. If in the 15th century. The lands well known in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, English, Dutch, and French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries begun by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their work, by the end of the 17th century. the previous picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of ordinary people: the Earth - the biblical focus, the universe - from the center of the universe has turned into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be just one of the stars that complement the endless Cosmos.

This is how modern science was born. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new world science, in which the concepts of “mind”, “nature”, “natural law” became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence that mechanical watches were a favorite image in the writings of statesmen and politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-functioning system there was almost no room for God. He was given the role of the originator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received an impetus, subsequently developed independently, in accordance with natural laws, which the Creator created as universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism and had many followers among naturalists of the 17th and 18th centuries.

But perhaps the most important step that the new philosophy dared to take was the attempt to extend the laws operating in nature to human society. A conviction emerged and grew stronger: both man himself and social life are subject to unchangeable natural laws. They only need to be discovered, recorded, and achieved accurate and universal execution. A path was found to create a perfect society built on “reasonable” foundations - the key to the future happiness of mankind.

The search for natural laws of social development contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them is the theory of natural law, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, and human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was formed. The English philosopher Locke believed that the transition of once free people to “civil society” was the result of a “social contract” concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are transferred to some part of the “natural rights” of fellow citizens (justice, foreign relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, religion and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of “civil society.”

A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new, deeply different from the medieval, understanding of the world and man. It was called the Age of Enlightenment - after the name of the powerful ideological movement that by the mid-18th century. widely covered the countries of Europe and America. In the 18th-19th centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That is why the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment.

This movement was represented by outstanding philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures from different countries. Among the educators were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain problems, belong to different religions or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of light restrictions on the monarchy. But they were all united by a commonality of goals and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating fair society in a peaceful, non-violent way. "Enlightenment of minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the rational principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of Enlightenment and main meaning activities of educators.

But criticism of medieval orders was not the only concern of the enlighteners. They tried to develop principles for the structure of a future society, where people would gain freedom, equality, prosperity, peace, and religious tolerance.

Enlighteners pinned their hopes for establishing a just system on the wise policies of the powers that be. In those days, monarchy was the dominant form of government. The Enlightenmentists believed that an “enlightened sovereign” brought up in the spirit of new ideas would destroy slavery and oppression by introducing reasonable government institutions and laws. Thus, from the ideas of the “sage on the throne” grew the idea of ​​an alliance between educators and monarchs, although both sides had largely opposing goals.

The field of activity of educators was extensive: they wrote philosophical treatises and political pamphlets, sat in parliament and received ministerial posts, drafted laws and carried out educational reforms, were engaged in science and teaching, literature and journalism, book publishing and charity. They talked with monarchs and commoners, prospered and begged, traveled and spent time in prisons. They left their descendants a rich ideological and cultural heritage and their unrealized (perhaps unrealizable) dreams of creating an ideal society.

2. Education in Russia

2.1 Penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia

The ground for the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Russia was prepared by the reforms of Peter I. By the end of his reign, the country was confidently moving along the path of Europeanization and found itself included in the cultural orbit of the West. The development of domestic science and education proceeded at a rapid pace. There are many innovations that I didn’t know about pre-Petrine Russia: newspapers, magazines, portrait painting.

By the middle of the 18th century. educated society consisted of a Europeanized nobility (primarily St. Petersburg and Moscow), as well as an extremely small number of young raznochin intelligentsia (raznochinsy were people who came from soldiers, sailors, clergy, minor officials, etc.).

Philosophical and socio-political ideas of Western European thinkers began to penetrate into Russia already under Peter I.

But the Enlightenment movement under the general name “Voltairianism” became widespread in the 40-60s. 17th century It is no coincidence that it was named after the famous French philosopher Voltaire. If at the end of the 17th century. England was the leader of the European Enlightenment, then in the 18th century. The “historical initiative” moved to the continent, and the French Enlightenment became the pan-European standard. In addition, Russian “Frenchmania” was caused by the expansion of cultural ties between Russia and France, especially in the second half of the 18th century. Wealthy nobles had an excellent opportunity to become familiar with the Enlightenment while traveling abroad, and a good knowledge of the French language allowed them to study the works of the Enlightenment.

And in Russia itself, the works of enlighteners gained extreme popularity: educated society read the books of Voltaire, Montesquieu, D’Alembert and Diderot.

2.2 Education in Russian conditions

But the centuries-old path of development of Russia differed in many ways from the European one, and the seeds of the Enlightenment, having fallen on Russian soil, bore different fruits than in the West. In the second half of the 18th century, France was already on the threshold of a great revolution, and the “third estate” (the entire population, except the nobility and clergy) had to present a historical account of the monarchy and the nobility. The enlighteners' sharp criticism of outdated orders and prejudices, the ideals they proclaimed corresponded to the sentiments of the future leaders of the revolution. Later, slogans of freedom and equality were inscribed on its banners.

Meanwhile, Russia during the heyday of Voltairianism, that is, under Catherine II, was completely different from France. Behind the façade of the brilliant empire lay a huge country, the vast majority of the population, which literally did not lift its eyes from the ground, engaged in hard peasant labor. About half of the enslaved peasantry were in the position of landowner slaves. There was no trace of a third estate: serf labor reigned in industrial enterprises, and the most entrepreneurial merchants longed to merge with the powerful and privileged noble class. Serfdom became part of the flesh and blood of Russia, becoming a familiar, everyday phenomenon. It was protected by the autocracy, which had at its disposal a strong bureaucratic apparatus, a powerful army and a strong social support in the person of the “slave-owning nobility.” It is not surprising that the ideas of Western European enlighteners received a completely different sound in Russia.

The Enlightenment was supported by both the autocracy and the nobility. They sought to use new cultural trends in the interests of preserving existing orders. Empress Catherine II herself paid tribute to the new century, passionately wanting to be known as an “enlightened empress.” She flaunted her views, borrowed from French authors, corresponded with such luminaries of European thought as Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and was very jealous of the reputation of an enlightened ruler. The ideas of the Enlightenment were not alien to the conservative aristocracy. Its herald was a prominent publicist, historian and economist, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov. The ideas of the Enlightenment were also used by liberal nobles. Among them are the director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences E.R. Dashkova, historian I.N. Boltin, diplomat N.I. Panin and D.A. Golitsyn, writers A.P. Sumarokov and M.M. Kheraskov. They considered it necessary to modernize monarchical rule and soften relations between landowners and peasants.

The true enlighteners who dreamed of a radical reorganization of Russian society on a reasonable basis were the publicist N. I. Novikov, the writer D. I. Fonvizin, as well as individual representatives of the small intelligentsia of the various ranks at that time. Among the latter we should name jurists S.E. Desnitsky and A.Ya. Polenov, philosophers J.P. Kozeltsky, D.S. Anichkov and N.N. Popovsky. And even the democratic aspirations of those who can rightfully be considered educators did not go beyond the limits set by the same Russian reality.

2.2.1 Catherine II : Culture and Enlightenment

Her passion for science and fine arts revealed another side of the empress’s multifaceted, richly gifted nature. Ekaterina was involved in collecting: she bought libraries, graphic and numismatic collections (cabinets), collections of paintings and sculptures; invited European artists to decorate her palaces and cities.

Among Catherine's famous acquisitions are the libraries of Diderot and Voltaire. In a relatively short period of time, sparing no expense, she bought unique painting collections of such patrons as Brühl in Dresden and Crozat in Paris, which included masterpieces by Raphael, Rembrandt, Poussin, Van Dyck, Rubens and other celebrities. Catherine II founded the Hermitage, the richest collection of art collections at the palace.

The empress's example was followed by her entourage. They set up large and small “Hermitages” in their city palaces and country estates, acquiring a taste for beauty and a thirst for knowledge and enlightenment.

The reign of Catherine II was marked by extensive educational transformations. Through the efforts of the empress, institutes, cadet corps and educational homes were established. But Catherine’s main merit in this area can be considered the first experience in creating a system of general education in Russia, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). Main public schools appeared in provincial cities, and small schools appeared in district cities. In Ekaterinoslavl, Penza, Chernigov and Pskov, with the assistance of the empress and the care of the public, it was planned to establish universities.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian government for the first time set as its goal the introduction of general education in the country (and not just technical and special education; Peter the Great needed schools to train artillerymen and navigators). Catherine proclaimed her intention to educate “a new breed of people” (General I. I. Betskoy was Catherine’s active collaborator in education). At the very beginning of her reign, Catherine laid the foundation for female school education: in 1764, in St. Petersburg, at the Resurrection Monastery, an educational institution was established for the “education of noble maidens” (Smolny Institute). In 1764, the “Charter for Public Schools in the Russian Empire” was published; According to this charter, “main” (in provincial cities) and “small” (in district cities) public schools were to be established in the cities of Russia.

The Medical College, established in 1763, was supposed to be concerned with the training of doctors; several special schools (in particular, cadet corps) were also established.

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine, the organization of medical care to the population was entrusted to the authorities. Each city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. Smallpox epidemics remained a terrible disaster for the inhabitants of Russia, and Catherine by example marked the beginning of vaccination. When the empress inoculated herself with smallpox, in response to the admiration of the courtiers, she objected that “she only fulfilled her duty, because a shepherd is obliged to lay down his life for his flock.”

Catherine's time was the time of awakening of scientific, literary and philosophical interests in Russian society, the time of the birth of the Russian intelligentsia. The first public library in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1765, on the initiative of Catherine, Volnoye was established economic society, which put as its main idea a study on the situation of agriculture in Russia and published a long series of its “Proceedings” (some of them very valuable). It began under Catherine scientific work in the field of Russian history; on the one hand, there was a collection and publication historical sources, on the other hand, the general course of historical development of Russia was discussed and assessed (works of Miller and Schletser, Prince M.M. Shcherbatov and Boltin). The Academy of Sciences at this time began to publish Russian chronicles.

Of the Russian writers, the most outstanding were the poet Derzhavin and the satirist Fonvizin. Catherine herself was a writer (though not a first-class one); She also undertook the publication of the magazine “Everything and everything” to influence modern public opinion. Simultaneously with her magazine, several independent magazines arose, which sometimes entered into lively politics with it.

The main ideological influence under which the educated nobility and the emerging “raznochinsky” intelligentsia were in Catherine’s era was the influence of French “enlightenment” literature with its preaching of “natural human rights,” freedom and equality.

Catherine was not only tolerant, but also sympathetic and patronizing towards liberal ideas and educational activities. Only at the end of her reign, alarmed and frightened by the events of the French Revolution, Catherine tried to stop the further spread of “freethinking.” A. N. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” published in 1790 and containing a strong protest against serfdom, was confiscated, and its author was exiled to Siberia. As Catherine said about Radishchev after: “The rebel is worse than Pugachev.” In 1791, Novikov’s “printing company” was closed, and he himself was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

And also, 2nd half of the 18th century. was characterized by a significant rise in Russian culture, which, of course, was facilitated by Catherine, who persistently strove to appear in the eyes of Europe as an educational ruler and patron of music. Under her, dramatic and musical theaters. In St. Petersburg, theater troupes existed under the Gentry Corps; in Moscow - at the university and the Orphanage. In 1783, the first theater school appeared in St. Petersburg. Amateur and professional theaters are springing up in Tula, Kharkov, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Irkutsk and other cities. The repertoire of these theaters included plays by Beaumarchais and Moliere, as well as tragedies, dramas and comedies by Russian authors Sumarokov, Fonvizin, Knyazhnin, Krylov. Serf theaters that belonged to large nobles became widespread (among them the theater of Count Sheremetyev in Ostankino was famous).

Musical culture was also on the rise. Russia became acquainted with the achievements of European music. Famous foreign musicians toured St. Petersburg and Moscow, performing works by Mozart, Haydn, Handel and other composers. And the Russian national opera itself successfully competed with Italian and French. And Russian also reached a high degree of perfection in Catherine’s era. art, permeated with the ideas of humanism and patriotism (coming from the common people V. Bazhenov and M. Kazakov). Their work is the most striking examples of Russian classicism.

Catherine II continued the traditions of Peter the Great, inviting the most famous European architects to Russia, such as Rastrelli, Cameron, Rossi, Quarenghi, Falcone, who made a huge contribution to Russian culture. The symbol of St. Petersburg has become the famous monument to Peter I, created by Etienne Falconet.

The time of Catherine II was the heyday of urban planning in Russia. Under her, the systematic development of St. Petersburg - the “Venice of the North” - and the construction of new cities were carried out: Nikolaev, Ekaterinoslav, Odessa, Sevastopol and other cities. The construction of suburban imperial palaces gained great scope: Peterhof with its majestic cascade of fountains, Tsarskoe Selo, Pavlovsk, Gatchina.

Painting also achieved particular success (F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovitsky). The history of the reign of Empress Catherine II is a story of brilliant good wishes and their very moderate and distorted implementation. Catherine did not make a “sage on the throne”: in Russia the autocracy was not weakened and serfdom, in many ways they even intensified. But in those same decades, colossal legislative and administrative work was carried out, transforming Russia from the hastily cobbled together state of Peter I into a Europeanized power. The army and navy delivered many glorious victories to Russia. Historians have ambivalent assessments of Catherine's era: at that time, enlightenment and despotism turned out to be inextricably, inseparably linked.

2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy

The dissimilarity between the development paths of Russia and the West determined another feature of the Russian Enlightenment. The famous “freethinking” of the French enlighteners, their sharply hostile attitude towards Catholic Church, which sometimes took the form of open atheism. The question of the existence of God was a hot topic between them. Thus, Diderot declared that there is no God; Rousseau claimed that he saw God in every creation, Voltaire believed that if God does not exist, then he needs to be invented as a moral bridle for humanity. But the main thing was that the French Enlightenment was secular in nature. In Russia, philosophy had not yet been separated from religion; it only had to go beyond the framework of Christianity. Therefore, among the enlighteners of that time, the question of the existence of God was not openly discussed. Russian naturalists, for example, firmly occupied the position of deism. Even Lomonosov, who ardently argued the harmfulness of church tutelage over science, did not question the existence of God and sharply condemned Voltaire’s religious views. How contradictory was the attitude of Russian society towards this famous Frenchman can be understood from the statement of the enlightened nobleman I. I. Shuvalov: “I don’t like him, he’s a beast... but he writes nicely!” Of course, Russian enlighteners glorified Reason, fought against ignorance and superstition, and exposed the vices of the clergy. Lomonosov’s famous poem “Hymn to the Beard,” which circulated in society, brought a lot of trouble to its author. But in general, they all remained in the position of true Christians.

2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of Russian educators was their pronounced patriotism. The victory over Sweden in the Northern War promoted Russia to the ranks of the great European powers. This allowed the Russian people to realize in a new way the importance of their nation, which is an equal member of the family of European nations. At the same time, Russia's cultural backwardness gave rise to bitter feelings. Particularly offensive to Russian national pride was the widespread opinion in the West that Russia would never become civilized if it relied only on its own strength. Therefore, Russian educators never tired of talking about the nation’s untapped creative potential. Russia, according to the Enlightenment philosopher Popovsky, did not manage to join the ranks of enlightened states more likely “due to the late start of learning than due to impotence.” Giving lectures on philosophy at Moscow University, he called on his listeners to prove that they, too, “were given minds by nature, the same as those that entire nations boast of.”

Russian leaders insisted that it was necessary to strengthen the educational role of the state and create an extensive system public education, open access to science, government and public life to people from the lower strata of society. Russian educational scientists, and above all Lomonosov, played a major role in the creation of the Russian scientific language.

If you try to paint a portrait of Russia during the time of Catherine II, the Enlightenment will serve as a frame, or at best, as a background. The ideas of the Enlightenment, assimilated extremely fragilely by an extremely small part of Russians, were distorted under the influence of Russian reality. However, in the next, 19th century, enlightened Russian society will increasingly begin to turn the course of the country's history in its own way.

3. The most famous enlighteners

3.1 Russia: Radishchev

Radishchev's philosophical views bear traces of the influence of various trends in European thought of his time. He was guided by the principle of reality and materiality (corporality) of the world, arguing that “the existence of things, regardless of the power of knowledge about them, exists in itself.” According to his epistemological views, “the basis of all natural knowledge is experience.” At the same time, sensory experience, being the main source of knowledge, is in unity with “reasonable experience.” In a world in which there is nothing “beyond corporeality,” man, a being as corporeal as all of nature, takes his place. Man has a special role; he, according to Radishchev, represents the highest manifestation of physicality, but at the same time is inextricably linked with the animal and flora. “We do not humiliate a person,” Radishchev argued, “by finding similarities in his constitution with other creatures, showing that he essentially follows the same laws as him. How could it be otherwise? Isn’t it real?” The fundamental difference between a person and other living beings is the presence of a mind, thanks to which he “has the power to know about things.” But an even more important difference lies in the human capacity for moral action and evaluation. “Man is the only creature on earth who knows the bad, the evil,” “a special property of man is the unlimited possibility of both improving and being corrupted.” As a moralist, Radishchev did not accept the moral concept of “reasonable egoism,” believing that “self-love” is by no means the source of moral feeling: “man is a sympathetic being.” Being a supporter of the idea of ​​“natural law” and always defending ideas about the natural nature of man (“the rights of nature never dry up in man”), Radishchev at the same time did not share the opposition outlined by Rousseau between society and nature, the cultural and natural principles in man. For him, human social existence is as natural as natural existence. In fact, there is no fundamental boundary between them: “Nature, people and things are the educators of man; climate, local situation, government, circumstances are the educators of nations.” Criticizing social vices Russian reality, Radishchev defended the ideal of a normal “natural” way of life, seeing the injustice reigning in society as literally a social disease. He found this kind of “disease” not only in Russia. Thus, assessing the state of affairs in the slave-owning United States, he wrote that “one hundred proud citizens are drowning in luxury, and thousands do not have reliable food, nor their own from the heat and darkness of the shelter.” In the treatise “On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality,” Radishchev, considering metaphysical problems, remained true to his naturalistic humanism, recognizing the inextricability of the connection between the natural and spiritual principles in man, the unity of body and soul: “Isn’t it with the body that the soul grows, isn’t it with it that it matures and strengthens, and isn’t it with it that it withers and grows dull?” At the same time, not without sympathy, he quoted thinkers who recognized the immortality of the soul (I. Herder, M. Mendelssohn, etc.). Radishchev’s position is not that of an atheist, but rather of an agnostic, which fully corresponded to the general principles of his worldview, which was already quite secularized, focused on the “naturalness” of the world order, but alien to godlessness and nihilism.

3.2 Russia : Novikov

One of most important tasks Novikov considered the fight against the nobility’s admiration for foreignness to be national foundations Russian culture. Simultaneously with satirical magazines, he published a number of historical publications. Among them is the book “The Experience of a Historical Dictionary about Russian writers“, as well as “Ancient Russian Vivliofika...” - monuments of Russian history, and other publications of historical materials, published monthly. He was the first to create the “Scythian History”.

Novikov recognized the need for publication historical monuments paleographic accuracy, collection of heteroglossia, compilation of alphabetical indexes, etc., sometimes applied these techniques when used by several lists. Novikov drew material for his editions of ancient monuments from private, church, and state ancient repositories, access that was allowed by the Empress in 1773. Novikov himself compiled a collection of manuscripts of historical content. Miller, Prince Shcherbatov, Bantysh-Kamensky and others brought him a lot of materials, as well as Catherine II, who supported the publication of Vivliofika with generous subsidies.

3.3 France: Voltaire

3.3.1 Literary creativity: Dramaturgy

Continuing to cultivate the aristocratic genres of poetry - messages, gallant lyrics, odes, etc., Voltaire in the field of dramatic poetry was the last major representative of classical tragedy; he himself wrote 28 tragedies. Among them are the most important: “Caesar”, “Semiramis”, “Rome Saved”, “Chinese Orphan”. However, in the context of the extinction of aristocratic culture, classical tragedy was inevitably transformed. Notes of sensitivity burst into her former rationalistic coldness in ever greater abundance, her former sculptural clarity was replaced by romantic picturesqueness. The repertoire of ancient figures was increasingly invaded by exotic characters - medieval knights, Chinese, Scythians, Hebrians and the like. For a long time, not wanting to put up with the rise of the new drama - as a “hybrid” form, Voltaire ended up defending the method of mixing the tragic and the comic, considering this mixture a legitimate feature only “ high comedy“and rejecting as a “non-fiction genre” the “tearful drama”, where there are only “tears”. For a long time, opposing the invasion of the stage by plebeian heroes, Voltaire, under the pressure of bourgeois drama, gave up this position, wide opening the doors of drama “for all classes and all ranks” and essentially formulating the program of a democratic theater; “To make it easier to instill in people the valor necessary for society, the author chose heroes from the lower class. He was not afraid to bring on stage a gardener, a young girl helping her father with rural work, simple soldier. Such heroes, who stand closer to nature than others and speak simple language, will make a stronger impression and achieve their goals more quickly than princes in love and princesses tormented by passion. Enough theaters thundered with tragic adventures, possible only among monarchs and completely useless for other people.” The type of such bourgeois plays includes “The Seigneur’s Right,” “Nanina,” “The Spendthrift,” etc.

3.3.3 Literary creativity: Poetry

Voltaire began in the style of classical epic, which, like classical tragedy, was transformed under his hand: instead of fictional character real wars are taken, instead of fantastic wars - actually former ones, instead of gods - allegorical images - concepts: love, jealousy, fanaticism. Continuing the style of the heroic epic in the “Poem of the Battle of Fontenoy,” glorifying the victory of Louis XV, Voltaire then in “The Virgin of Orleans” (La Pucelle d'Orleans), caustically and obscenely ridiculing the entire medieval world of feudal-clerical France, reduces the heroic poem to the heroic farce and moves gradually, under the influence of Pope, from heroic poem to a didactic poem, to a “discourse in verse” (discours en vers), to a presentation in the form of a poem of one’s moral and social philosophy (“Letter on Newton’s Philosophy”, “Discourse in Verse about Man”, “Natural Law”, “Poem about Lisbon disaster").

3.4 Germany: Goethe

First significant work The Goethe of this new era is “Götz von Berlichingen” - a drama that made a huge impression on his contemporaries. She puts Goethe in the forefront of German literature, placing him at the head of the writers of the period of Sturm and Drang. The originality of this work, written in prose in the manner of Shakespeare’s historical chronicles, is not so much that it rehabilitates national antiquity, dramatizing the story of a 16th-century knight, but rather that this drama, arising outside of Rococo literature14, also comes into conflict with the literature of the Enlightenment, the most influential cultural movement hitherto. The image of a fighter for social justice - typical image literature of the Enlightenment - receives an unusual interpretation from Goethe. Knight Götz von Berlichingen, sad about the state of affairs in the country, leads a peasant uprising; when the latter takes on sharp forms, it moves away from it, cursing its outgrown movement. The established legal order triumphs: before it, those who are equally powerless revolutionary movement the masses, interpreted in the drama as chaos unleashed, and the individual trying to oppose “willfulness” to it. Goetz finds freedom not in the human world, but in death, in merging “with Mother Nature.” The meaning of the symbol is the final scene of the play: Goetz leaves the prison into the garden, sees the boundless sky, he is surrounded by reviving nature: “Lord Almighty, how good it is under your sky, how good freedom is! The trees are budding, the whole world is full of hope. Goodbye, dears! My roots are cut off, my strength is leaving me.” Last words Goethe - “Oh, what heavenly air! Freedom, freedom!

Conclusion

In general, the 1780-1790s become the historical border of the European Enlightenment. During the era of the English industrial revolution, engineers and entrepreneurs replaced publicists and ideologists in culture. The French Revolution destroyed the historical optimism of the Enlightenment. The German literary and philosophical revolution redefined the status of reason.

Intellectual Legacy The Enlightenment was an ideology rather than a philosophy, and was therefore quickly superseded by German classical philosophy and Romanticism, receiving from them the epithet of "flat rationalism." However, the Enlightenment finds allies in the positivists of the 2nd half of the 19th century and finds a “second wind” in the 20th century, sometimes perceived as an alternative and antidote in the fight against totalitarianism.

But that's a completely different story………

List of used literature

Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, 2009

B. I. Krasnobaev “Essays on the history of Russian culture” M., 1987.

IN. Klyuchevsky " Historical portraits", 1990

Encyclopedia "Wikipedia"

Applications

Meaning of words

1. Humanists1 (from Latin humanus - human, humane) - this is a person who recognizes the values ​​of man as an individual, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations

2. Atheism2 (French atheisme, from Greek atheos - godless) - historically diverse forms of denial of religious ideas and cult and affirmation of the intrinsic value of the existence of the world and man.

3. Deism3 (from Latin deus - god) - a religious and philosophical doctrine that recognizes God as the world’s mind, which designed the expedient “machine” of nature and gave it laws and movement, but rejects God’s further intervention in the self-movement of nature (i.e., “divine providence,” miracles, etc.) and does not allow any other path to the knowledge of God other than reason.

4. Freemasonry4 (French franc mason, English free mason - lit. “free mason”) - a religious and moral movement associated with the satisfaction of religious needs on a non-church basis.

5. Quasi-church5 (from Latin quasi - supposedly, as if) -“imaginary”, “fake” church, based on the teachings of the Freemasons.

6. Epistemology6 (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge and logos - word, teaching) - the same as the theory of knowledge.

7. Empiricism7 (from Greek empeiria - experience) - a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of reliable knowledge; opposes rationalism. Empiricism is characterized by the absolutization of experience, sensory knowledge, and the belittlement of the role of rational knowledge.

8. Sensualism8 (from Latin sensus - perception, feeling) - direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the basis and main form of reliable knowledge; opposes rationalism. The basic principle of sensationalism is “there is nothing in the mind that is not in the senses.”

9. Ontology9 (from Greek on, genus ontos - existing and logos - word, teaching) - section of philosophy, the doctrine of being (in contrast to epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge), in which the universal foundations, principles of being, its structure and patterns are studied.

10. Positivism10 (French positivisme, from Latin positivus - positive) - philosophical direction, based on the fact that all genuine knowledge is the cumulative result of special sciences; science, according to positivism, does not need any philosophy standing above it.

11. Dogmatism11 (Greek Dogmatikos, from dogma - teaching) - one-sided, schematic, ossified thinking. Dogmatism is based on blind faith in authorities and the defense of outdated positions.

12. Liberalism12 (from Latin liberalis - relating to freedom, free) - an ideological and socio-political movement that proclaimed the principle of civil, political, and economic freedoms.

13. Clericalism13 - the desire to ensure the primacy of the church and religion in political and cultural life.

14. Rococo14 (“bizarre”, “capricious”; French rococo from rocaille - fragments of stones, shells) - stylistic direction that dominated European art during the first three quarters of the 18th century, it represented not so much an independent artistic phenomenon as a phase, a certain stage of the pan-European Baroque style.

Illustrations

Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment

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Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment

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Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He was a worker with an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: with his own hand edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles to educational institutions. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 -1698 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known.

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Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military affairs well, spoke Dutch, understood French, and German languages. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous dandy of Moscow, Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov.

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Birthday of the Russian press. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. In 1708-1710 in Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected the final version of the new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer.

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The first museum. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection of human freaks preserved in alcohol. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia.

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The first academy In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also for higher education in Russia. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor.

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Changes in everyday life. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” became an encyclopedia of cultural behavior. The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. During the reign of Peter 1, the new Julian calendar came into use. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into daytime and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. Petrine reforms affected all aspects of Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1.

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Man and culture of modern times. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main structure has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes, who accomplished incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits.

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