Lebedev Russian literature of the 19th century, second half. On the national identity and spiritual foundations of Russian classical literature of the 19th century
Recommended by the UMO in the specialties of pedagogical education as a textbook for higher education students educational institutions students studying in specialty 032900 (050301) - “Russian language and literature”. The textbook gives modern approaches in covering the main stages of the historical and literary process.
According to new data philological science the traditional periodization of historical literary development, the idea of the Renaissance nature of Russian realism is expanded and clarified.
Introduction
On the national identity and spiritual foundations of Russian classical literature of the 19th century
M. Gorky wrote: “In the history of the development of European literature, our young literature is an amazing phenomenon; I will not exaggerate the truth by saying that none of the literature of the West has arisen in life with such force and speed, in such a powerful and dazzling brilliance of talents... nowhere in less than a hundred years has such a bright constellation of great names appeared as in Russia... Our literature is our pride..."
“As long as our poetry is alive and well, until then there is no reason to doubt the deep health of the Russian people,” wrote critic N. N. Strakhov, and his like-minded Apollo Grigoriev considered Russian literature “the only focus of all our highest interests.” According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, our literature was elevated to the dignity of a national cause that united the most viable forces of Russian society. She was not only elegant literature", but also the basis of the spiritual existence of the nation. The Russian writer treated his work in a special way: for him it was not a profession, but a ministry. Chernyshevsky called literature “a textbook of life,” and Leo Tolstoy was subsequently surprised that these words did not belong to him, but to him. ideological opponent.
Belief in the divine, world-transforming power of the artistic word.
The artistic exploration of life in Russian classical literature never turned into a purely aesthetic pursuit; it always pursued a living spiritual and practical goal. Russian writer V.F. Odoevsky formulated the meaning of his writing work: “I would like to express in letters the psychological law according to which not a single word spoken by a person, not a single action is forgotten, is not lost in the world, but certainly produces some kind of action; so responsibility is connected with every word, with every seemingly insignificant act, with every movement of a person’s soul.” The word was perceived by our writers “not as an empty sound, but as a deed - almost as “religiously” as the ancient Karelian singer Veinemeinen, who “made a boat with singing.” Gogol also harbored this belief in the miraculous power of the word, dreaming of creating a book that itself, by the power of the only and indisputably true thoughts expressed in it, should transform Russia,” notes the modern thinker G. D. Gachev.
It is not for nothing that Saltykov-Shchedrin gives the main character of his novel “The Golovlev Lords” the nickname Judas, which evokes direct associations with Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus Christ for thirty pieces of silver. He receives this nickname for his constant abuse of the word. Saltykov-Shchedrin, Russian Orthodox Christian and enlightener, believes in the divine nature and divine power of the human word: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. It was in the beginning with God. Everything came into being through Him, and without Him nothing came into being that came into being. In Him was life, and life was the light of men. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not overcome it” (Gospel of John, chapter 1, vv. 1-5).
The entire coloring of the novel “The Golovlevs” is painted in gray, cloudy tones, and as the plot moves towards the finale, the twilight in it thickens, and the action is interrupted in a dull, dark, blizzard March night. This dark background– a reflection of the writer’s main artistic thought: the meaning of the life of the Golovlevs is a desecration of the shrine given by God to man, of the luminous, spiritual nature of the Word.
The atmosphere of universal lies was especially difficult for a person for whom the word was God. “No matter how passionately I am attached to literature, I must admit that at times this attachment is subjected to very decisive tests,” the satirist wrote bitterly while working on the novel. – When belief in miracles ceases, then the miracles themselves seem to fall silent. When faith in the life-giving properties of a word is lost, then we can say with confidence that the meaning of this word has been reduced to ringing metal. And it seems that this is exactly what we have achieved.” Saltykov-Shchedrin equated a person’s deceitful use of words with the most malicious blasphemy.
Classic Ukrainian literature Ivan Franko, recalling the years of his youth, wrote: “...If we liked the works of European literature and excited our aesthetic taste and our imagination, then the works of the Russians tormented us, touched our conscience, awakened the person in us...”
Not external life success, not wealth, not opinion in the eyes of others, not titles and ranks, but inner world of a person, regardless of his position in society, a burning Christian conscience has become the focus of our classical literature. And behind this stood the height of Orthodox Christian ideals, which nourished our classics, on which many generations of Russian writers were brought up. Our wonderful philosopher mid-19th century, I.V. Kireevsky wrote about it this way: “Western man sought by the development of external means to alleviate the severity of internal shortcomings. The Russian man sought to escape the burden of external needs by internal elevation above external needs.”
Although the height of the spiritual ideals affirmed by our classics is recognized throughout the world, in Soviet period, both in academic and school study of it, with all the undeniable and generally recognized successes, one significant and annoying imbalance has emerged. There was a constant emphasis on the accusatory, critical pathos of Russian writers, on their tearing down “all and all kinds of masks" This accent is even fixed in the name artistic method which they used - " critical realism" The spiritually creative ones remained in oblivion, moral ideals. Since atheism was our official doctrine and “religion,” the ideals of Russian writers were bashfully kept silent or remained in the shadows, because their nature could not be other than Christian, and even Orthodox in its Russian quality and essence.
In our textbook, Russian literature is considered as a unique phenomenon of the Russian Renaissance XIX century, similar to Western European realism of the Renaissance, but with specific national characteristics. Since the Renaissance, man has been proclaimed in the West as “the measure of all things.” Russian classics argued otherwise; they felt alarm for the fate of humanity at that stage of its history when the catastrophic consequences of such deification of man began to be revealed, when the Christian dogma of darkness was trampled upon. human nature“original sin” arose a fanatical belief in science, in its absolute impeccability, when it seemed to radical thinkers of the revolutionary-enlightenment sense that social inequality, imperfection and evil could easily be eliminated by the power of a liberated mind. Russian classical literature tried with all its might to restrain this tempting impulse. Pushkin and Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, Turgenev and Goncharov acutely felt the tragedy historical development, in the grain of which lay the self-deification of man, based on the anti-Christian idealization of his “nature”, on the temptation - “and we will be like gods.”
Turgenev, Goncharov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, together with other Russian classics, became determined opponents of the understanding of progress that the revolutionary youth affirmed. Progress in science, she declared, consists in the constant expansion of the circle of knowledge, in the discovery of new scientific data that casts doubt on, or even completely denies, previous knowledge. The same thing happens in the spiritual and moral sphere: the younger generation has the right to question and deny the moral ideals that inspire the “fathers.” Russian classical literature, represented by its leading representatives, on the contrary, asserted that “man is an eternal disciple of God”, that “in moral development the point is not to discover something new, but to bring each person and all of humanity closer to the ideal of perfection that the Gospel requires, and this is almost more difficult than achieving knowledge” (Goncharov).
Yu. V. Lebedev.
History of Russian literature of the 19th century. In three parts. Part 1 1800-1830s
Recommended by the educational educational institution for the specialties of pedagogical education as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in specialty 032900 (050301) - “Russian language and literature”. The textbook provides modern approaches to covering the main stages of the historical and literary process.
In accordance with new data from philological science, the traditional periodization of historical and literary development is revised, the idea of the Renaissance nature of Russian realism is expanded and clarified.
Introduction
On the national identity and spiritual foundations of Russian classical literature of the 19th century
M. Gorky wrote: “In the history of the development of European literature, our young literature is an amazing phenomenon; I will not exaggerate the truth when I say that none of the literatures of the West arose in life with such force and speed, in such a powerful and dazzling brilliance of talents... nowhere in less than a hundred years has such a bright constellation of great names appeared as in Russia... Our literature is our pride..."
“As long as our poetry is alive and well, until then there is no reason to doubt the deep health of the Russian people,” wrote critic N. N. Strakhov, and his like-minded Apollo Grigoriev considered Russian literature “the only focus of all our highest interests.” According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, our literature was elevated to the dignity of a national cause that united the most viable forces of Russian society. It was not only “fine literature”, but also the basis of the spiritual existence of the nation. The Russian writer treated his work in a special way: for him it was not a profession, but a ministry. Chernyshevsky called literature a “textbook of life,” and Leo Tolstoy was subsequently surprised that these words did not belong to him, but to his ideological opponent.
Belief in the divine, world-transforming power of the artistic word.
The artistic exploration of life in Russian classical literature never turned into a purely aesthetic pursuit; it always pursued a living spiritual and practical goal. Russian writer V.F. Odoevsky formulated the meaning of his writing work this way: “I would like to express in letters the psychological law according to which not a single word uttered by a person, not a single action is forgotten, is not lost in the world, but certainly produces some action; so that responsibility is connected with every word, with every seemingly insignificant deed, with every movement of a person’s soul.” The word was perceived by our writers “not as an empty sound, but as a deed - almost as “religiously” as the ancient Karelian singer Veinemeinen, who “made a boat sing.” Gogol also harbored this belief in the miraculous power of the word, dreaming create a book that itself, by the power of the only and indisputably true thoughts expressed in it, should transform Russia,” notes the modern thinker G. D. Gachev.
It is not for nothing that Saltykov-Shchedrin gives the main character of his novel “The Golovlev Lords” the nickname Judas, which evokes direct associations with Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus Christ for thirty pieces of silver. He receives this nickname for his constant abuse of the word. Saltykov-Shchedrin, a Russian Orthodox Christian and educator, believes in the divine nature and divine power of the human word: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. It was in the beginning with God. Everything began to be through Him, and without Him nothing began to be that began to be. In Him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not overcome it" (Gospel of John, chapter 1, vv. 1-5) .
The entire coloring of the novel "The Golovlevs" is painted in gray, cloudy tones, and as the plot moves towards the finale, the twilight in it thickens, and the action is interrupted in a dull, dark, blizzard March night. This dark background is a reflection of the writer’s main artistic thought: the meaning of the life of the Golovlevs is a desecration of the shrine given by God to man, of the luminous, spiritual nature of the Word.
The atmosphere of universal lies was especially difficult for a person for whom the word was God. “No matter how passionately I am attached to literature, I must admit that at times this attachment is subjected to very decisive tests,” the satirist wrote bitterly while working on the novel. “When faith in miracles ceases, then the miracles themselves seem to fall silent. When "If faith in the life-giving properties of the word is lost, then we can say with confidence that the meaning of this word has been reduced to ringing metal. And it seems that this is exactly what we have achieved." Saltykov-Shchedrin equated a person’s deceitful use of words with the most malicious blasphemy.
A classic of Ukrainian literature, Ivan Franko, recalling the years of his youth, wrote: “...If we liked the works of European literature and excited our aesthetic taste and our imagination, then the works of the Russians tormented us, touched our conscience, awakened the person in us...”
It is not external success in life, not wealth, not opinion in the eyes of others, not titles and ranks, but the inner world of a person, regardless of his position in society, a burning Christian conscience that became the focus of attention in our classical literature. And behind this stood the height of Orthodox Christian ideals, which nourished our classics, on which many generations of Russian writers were brought up. Our wonderful philosopher of the mid-19th century, I.V. Kireevsky, wrote about it this way: “Western man sought to alleviate the severity of internal shortcomings by developing external means. Russian man sought to avoid the burden of external needs by internal elevation above external needs.”
Although the height of the spiritual ideals affirmed by our classics is recognized throughout the world, during the Soviet period, both in academic and school studies, with all the undeniable and generally recognized successes, one significant and annoying imbalance emerged. There was an invariable emphasis on the accusatory, critical pathos of Russian writers, on their tearing off “all and every kind of mask.” This emphasis was even enshrined in the name of the artistic method they used - “critical realism”. Spiritually creative and moral ideals remained in oblivion. Since atheism was our official doctrine and “religion,” the ideals of Russian writers were bashfully kept silent or remained in the shadows, because their nature could not be other than Christian, and even Orthodox in its Russian quality and essence.
In our textbook, Russian literature is considered as a unique phenomenon of the Russian Renaissance of the 19th century, similar to Western European realism of the Renaissance, but with specific national characteristics. Since the Renaissance, man has been proclaimed in the West as “the measure of all things.” Russian classics argued otherwise; they felt alarm for the fate of humanity at that stage of its history when the catastrophic consequences of such deification of man began to be revealed, when, in violation of the Christian dogma about the darkness of human nature by “original sin,” a fanatical belief in science arose, in its absolute impeccability, when it seemed to radical thinkers of the revolutionary-enlightenment sense that with the power of a liberated mind one could easily eliminate social inequality, imperfection and evil. Russian classical literature tried with all its might to restrain this tempting impulse. Pushkin and Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, Turgenev and Goncharov acutely felt the tragedy of historical development, in the grain of which lay the self-deification of man, based on the anti-Christian idealization of his “nature”, on the temptation - “and we will be like gods.”
Yu. V. Lebedev.
History of Russian literature of the 19th century. In three parts. Part 1 1800-1830s
Recommended by the educational educational institution for the specialties of pedagogical education as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in specialty 032900 (050301) - “Russian language and literature”. The textbook provides modern approaches to covering the main stages of the historical and literary process.
In accordance with new data from philological science, the traditional periodization of historical and literary development is revised, the idea of the Renaissance nature of Russian realism is expanded and clarified.
Introduction
On the national identity and spiritual foundations of Russian classical literature of the 19th century
M. Gorky wrote: “In the history of the development of European literature, our young literature is an amazing phenomenon; I will not exaggerate the truth when I say that none of the literatures of the West arose in life with such force and speed, in such a powerful and dazzling brilliance of talents... nowhere in less than a hundred years has such a bright constellation of great names appeared as in Russia... Our literature is our pride..."
“As long as our poetry is alive and well, until then there is no reason to doubt the deep health of the Russian people,” wrote critic N. N. Strakhov, and his like-minded Apollo Grigoriev considered Russian literature “the only focus of all our highest interests.” According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, our literature was elevated to the dignity of a national cause that united the most viable forces of Russian society. It was not only “fine literature”, but also the basis of the spiritual existence of the nation. The Russian writer treated his work in a special way: for him it was not a profession, but a ministry. Chernyshevsky called literature a “textbook of life,” and Leo Tolstoy was subsequently surprised that these words did not belong to him, but to his ideological opponent.
Belief in the divine, world-transforming power of the artistic word.
The artistic exploration of life in Russian classical literature never turned into a purely aesthetic pursuit; it always pursued a living spiritual and practical goal. Russian writer V.F. Odoevsky formulated the meaning of his writing work this way: “I would like to express in letters the psychological law according to which not a single word uttered by a person, not a single action is forgotten, is not lost in the world, but certainly produces some action; so that responsibility is connected with every word, with every seemingly insignificant deed, with every movement of a person’s soul.” The word was perceived by our writers “not as an empty sound, but as a deed - almost as “religiously” as the ancient Karelian singer Veinemeinen, who “made a boat sing.” Gogol also harbored this belief in the miraculous power of the word, dreaming create a book that itself, by the power of the only and indisputably true thoughts expressed in it, should transform Russia,” notes the modern thinker G. D. Gachev.
It is not for nothing that Saltykov-Shchedrin gives the main character of his novel “The Golovlev Lords” the nickname Judas, which evokes direct associations with Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus Christ for thirty pieces of silver. He receives this nickname for his constant abuse of the word. Saltykov-Shchedrin, a Russian Orthodox Christian and educator, believes in the divine nature and divine power of the human word: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. It was in the beginning with God. Everything began to be through Him, and without Him nothing began to be that began to be. In Him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not overcome it" (Gospel of John, chapter 1, vv. 1-5) .
The entire coloring of the novel "The Golovlevs" is painted in gray, cloudy tones, and as the plot moves towards the finale, the twilight in it thickens, and the action is interrupted in a dull, dark, blizzard March night. This dark background is a reflection of the writer’s main artistic thought: the meaning of the life of the Golovlevs is a desecration of the shrine given by God to man, of the luminous, spiritual nature of the Word.
The atmosphere of universal lies was especially difficult for a person for whom the word was God. “No matter how passionately I am attached to literature, I must admit that at times this attachment is subjected to very decisive tests,” the satirist wrote bitterly while working on the novel. “When faith in miracles ceases, then the miracles themselves seem to fall silent. When "If faith in the life-giving properties of the word is lost, then we can say with confidence that the meaning of this word has been reduced to ringing metal. And it seems that this is exactly what we have achieved." Saltykov-Shchedrin equated a person’s deceitful use of words with the most malicious blasphemy.
A classic of Ukrainian literature, Ivan Franko, recalling the years of his youth, wrote: “...If we liked the works of European literature and excited our aesthetic taste and our imagination, then the works of the Russians tormented us, touched our conscience, awakened the person in us...”
It is not external success in life, not wealth, not opinion in the eyes of others, not titles and ranks, but the inner world of a person, regardless of his position in society, a burning Christian conscience that became the focus of attention in our classical literature. And behind this stood the height of Orthodox Christian ideals, which nourished our classics, on which many generations of Russian writers were brought up. Our wonderful philosopher of the mid-19th century, I.V. Kireevsky, wrote about it this way: “Western man sought to alleviate the severity of internal shortcomings by developing external means. Russian man sought to avoid the burden of external needs by internal elevation above external needs.”
Although the height of the spiritual ideals affirmed by our classics is recognized throughout the world, during the Soviet period, both in academic and school studies, with all the undeniable and generally recognized successes, one significant and annoying imbalance emerged. There was an invariable emphasis on the accusatory, critical pathos of Russian writers, on their tearing off “all and every kind of mask.” This emphasis was even enshrined in the name of the artistic method they used - “critical realism”. Spiritually creative and moral ideals remained in oblivion. Since atheism was our official doctrine and “religion,” the ideals of Russian writers were bashfully kept silent or remained in the shadows, because their nature could not be other than Christian, and even Orthodox in its Russian quality and essence.
In our textbook, Russian literature is considered as a unique phenomenon of the Russian Renaissance of the 19th century, similar to Western European realism of the Renaissance, but with specific national characteristics. Since the Renaissance, man has been proclaimed in the West as “the measure of all things.” Russian classics argued otherwise; they felt alarm for the fate of humanity at that stage of its history when the catastrophic consequences of such deification of man began to be revealed, when, in violation of the Christian dogma about the darkness of human nature by “original sin,” a fanatical belief in science arose, in its absolute impeccability, when it seemed to radical thinkers of the revolutionary-enlightenment sense that with the power of a liberated mind one could easily eliminate social inequality, imperfection and evil. Russian classical literature tried with all its might to restrain this tempting impulse. Pushkin and Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, Turgenev and Goncharov acutely felt the tragedy of historical development, in the grain of which lay the self-deification of man, based on the anti-Christian idealization of his “nature”, on the temptation - “and we will be like gods.”
3rd ed. - M.:2016. Part 1 - 367 pp.; Part 2 - 368 pp. 14th ed. - M.:2012. Part 1 - 365 pp.; Part 2 - 383 pp.
The textbook was created in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State educational standard secondary (complete) general education, new externally and internally designed. For the first time, the textbook establishes integrated connections between the subjects “Literature” and “Russian Language” educational field"Philology". The tasks and questions in the “Language of Literature” section are focused on the content of the textbook by A. I. Vlasenkova and L. M. Rybchenkova “Russian language. Grammar. Text. Speech styles. 10-11 grades."
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PART 1
From the author 3
Repetition of what has been learned 6
The formation and development of realism in Russian literature of the 19th century 7
The originality of the formation of realism in Russian literature -
National originality of Russian realism 9
The evolution of Russian realism 12
Russian literary criticism second half of the 19th century 16th century
The alignment of social forces in the 1860s 17
"Aesthetic Criticism" liberal Westerners 23
“Real criticism” of revolutionary democrats 28
Social and literary-critical program of the nihilists 30
Literary-critical program of Slavophiles 31
Literary-critical position of the Pochvenniks 35
Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev 41
Temporary and eternal in art world Turgeneva -
Public views of Turgenev 47
Childhood 50
Youth 52
Youth 53
“Notes of a Hunter” 55
The stories “Mumu” and “The Inn” 59
Novel "Rudin" 60
Stories about in a tragic sense love and nature 63
Novel " Noble Nest» 65
Novel "On the Eve". Break with Sovremennik 71
Novel “Fathers and Sons” 77
The creative history of the novel “Fathers and Sons” -
The tragic nature of the conflict in the novel 82
Bazarov's disputes with Pavel Petrovich 85
Internal conflict in Bazarov's soul. Love test 90
Bazarov's worldview crisis 93
Second round life trials. Illness and death of Bazarov 95
“Fathers and Sons” in Russian criticism 98
Literary workshop “Fathers and Sons” 101
Ideological off-road. "Smoke" 104
Social upsurge of the 1870s. Novel “Nove” 107
The last years of Turgenev's life 109
Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky 113
Civil execution -
Childhood -
Saratov Theological Seminary 115
St. Petersburg University 116
Saratov gymnasium 118
Approaches to a new aesthetics 120
The novel “What to do?” 123
The creative history of the novel “What to do?” -
Genre originality of the novel 124
Meaning "What to do?" in the history of literature and revolutionary movement 125
Dialogues with the “insightful reader” -
The composition of the novel -
Old people 126
New people 127
"Special Person" 129
Vera Pavlovna's fourth dream 130
Hard labor and exile. Novel “Prologue” 132
Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov 135
About the originality of the artistic talent of I. A. Goncharov -
Novel " An ordinary story» 138
Series of essays “Frigate “Pallada”” 142
Novel "Oblomov" 144
N.A. Dobrolyubov about the novel 145
A.V.Druzhinin about the novel 146
The completeness and complexity of Oblomov’s character 147
Andrey Stolts as the antipode of Oblomov 150
Oblomov and Olga Ilyinskaya 151
Historical and philosophical meaning of the novel 154
Literary workshop. "Oblomov" 155
Creative history of the novel “Cliff” 158
Raisky 161
Grandma 164
Marfenka 165
Faith -
“Enlightener” of Faith - nihilist Mark Volokhov 166
The Fall of Faith 168
Exit from the “cliff” 169
“Break” in the assessment of Russian criticism 171
Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky 174
The artistic world of the playwright -
Children's and teenage years 178
Start creative path 180
“The Thunderstorm” as a Russian tragedy 183
Creative history of "Thunderstorm" -
"State of the World" and arrangement characters in "Thunderstorm" 185
ABOUT folk origins Katerina's character 190
N.A. Dobrolyubov and A.A. Grigoriev about “The Thunderstorm” 192
Katerina as a tragic character 195
Literary workshop. "Thunderstorm" 198
Historical dramaturgy of Ostrovsky 200
Ostrovsky's dramaturgy of the late 1860s-1870s 203
In the world of fairy tales 207
Drama "Dowry" (1878) 208
Plays of Life 222
Fedor Ivanovich Tyutchev 226
Tyutchev's small homeland -
Tyutchev and the generation of “lyubomudrov” 229
The world of nature in Tyutchev’s poetry 231
Tyutchev's poetry in the context of Russian literary development 233
Chaos and space in Tyutchev's lyrics -
Love in Tyutchev's lyrics 235
Tyutchev on the causes of the spiritual crisis modern man 237
Poetic discovery of Russian space 238
Literary workshop. Love lyrics F. I. Tyutcheva 244
Nikolay Alekseevich Nekrasov 245
About the folk origins of Nekrasov’s worldview -
Childhood and adolescence of Nekrasov 247
"Petersburg ordeals." Meeting with V. G. Belinsky.
Nekrasov - journalist and publisher 256
Nekrasov's poetry collection of 1856 259
Nekrasov about the fate of Russian poetry -
The people in Nekrasov's lyrics. Poetic “polyphony” 261
The originality of Nekrasov’s satirical poems 265
Search for a hero of modern times in the poem “Sasha” 267
The originality of Nekrasov's love lyrics 268
Nekrasov's poetry on the eve of the reform of 1861 270
The first post-reform year. Poem "Peddlers" 272
A period of "difficult times". Poem “Frost, Red Nose” 275
Nekrasov's lyrics of the 1860s 281
Nekrasov's lyrics of the 1870s 285
Historical-heroic poems 287
Epic poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” 293
Creative story “Who lives well in Rus'.”
Genre and composition of the epic poem -
The initial ideas of wanderers about happiness 296
A turning point in the direction of searches 300
Yakim Nagoy 301
Ermil Girin 302
Wanderers and the landowner 303
Matryona Timofeevna 304
Saveliy, hero of the Holy Russian 306
People's World on the Move 308
Creative history of “A Feast for the Whole World” 310
Grisha Dobrosklonov 311
Literary workshop. Epic poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” 314
"Last Songs" 316
Afanasy Afanasyevich Fet 320
Fet's poems about the purpose of poetry 323
Fet's place in Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century 325
Characteristic features of Fet's lyrics 328
Metaphorical lyrics of Fet 330
Fet's love lyrics 331
Nature in Fet's poetry 333
Epithet in Fet's lyrics 336
Literary workshop. Lyrics by A. A. Fet 338
Alexey Konstantinovich Tolstoy 339
The life path of A.K. Tolstoy -
Lyrics by A. K. Tolstoy 343
Ballads and epics of A.K. Tolstoy 350
Trilogy by A. K. Tolstoy “The Death of Ivan the Terrible”, “Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich” and “Tsar Boris” 354
Satirical works of A.K. Tolstoy 356
"The Fearless Truth Teller" 358
Literary workshop. Love lyrics by A.K. Tolstoy 360
PART 2
Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin 3
Master of Satire -
Childhood, adolescence, youth of Saltykov-Shchedrin 5
"Vyatka captivity" 8
“The Story of a City” 10
Problematics and poetics of the satire “Stories of a City” -
Literary workshop. “The Story of a City” 21
“Social” novel “The Golovlevs” 22
"Fairy Tales" 29
Pages of Western European history novel XIX century 43
Frederic Stendhal -
"Red and Black" 44
"Parma Monastery" 45
Honore de Balzac 47
"Human Comedy" 49
The novel "Eugenia Grande" -
Novel "Père Goriot" 52
Charles Dickens 58
Dickens' Christmas Stories 60
Novel "Dombey and Son" 61
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky 66
Childhood 67
Adolescence at the Military Engineering School 69
Start literary activity. "Poor People" 71
Petrashevsky Circle 76
Siberia and hard labor 78
“Pochvennichestvo” by Dostoevsky 80
Ideological novel “Crime and Punishment” 85
Raskolnikov's theory 88
The world of St. Petersburg corners and its connection with Raskolnikov’s theory 89
The idea and nature of Raskolnikov 90
“Punishment” Raskolnikov 94
Raskolnikov and Sonechka 96
Literary workshop. "Crime and Punishment" 100
The novel “Crime and Punishment” in Russian criticism of the late 1860s 102
Genre originality of Dostoevsky's novels 105
A novel about a “positively beautiful” person 108
Controversy with nihilism. "Demons" 114
Novel "Teenager" 115
Novel "The Brothers Karamazov" 116
Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy 128
Family nest -
Childhood 131
Boyhood and youth 134
Youth in the Caucasus 138
Dialectics three eras human development in Tolstoy's trilogy 140
Tolstoy - participant Crimean War 146
“Sevastopol Stories” 150
Chernyshevsky on Tolstoy’s “dialectics of the soul” 153
From “dialectics of the soul” to “dialectics of character” 155
Tolstoy's work in the early 1860s 157
Public and pedagogical activity Tolstoy 161
Epic novel “War and Peace” 163
Creative history of "War and Peace" -
“War and Peace” as an epic novel 165
Composition “War and Peace” 171
“People” and “crowd”, Napoleon and Kutuzov 174
Life quests of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov 180
Natasha Rostova 194
Epilogue of "War and Peace" 199
Literary workshop. "War and Peace" 202
"Anna Karenina" 207
Religious and ethical views of Tolstoy 215
"Resurrection" 222
Care and death of L. N. Tolstoy 227
Nikolay Semenovich Leskov 231
The artistic world of the writer -
Childhood 237
Youth 240
Entry into literature 241
Writer's drama Leskov 242
"Lady Macbeth Mtsensk district» 243
"Soboryan" 245
"The Enchanted Wanderer" 252
Literary workshop 262
Pages foreign literature late XIX- beginning of the 20th century 264
Henrik Ibsen -
"A Doll's House" ("Nora") 266
Guy de Maupassant 270
"Necklace" 273
Bernard Shaw 277
"Pygmalion" 278
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov 282
Features of Chekhov's artistic worldview -
The work of self-education 286
Early period of creativity 295
Creativity of the second half of the 1880s 298
The story “The Steppe” as a result of Chekhov’s work in the 1880s 304
Chekhov's Travels to Sakhalin Island 306
People who claim to know the real truth -
The tragedy of Doctor Ragin 316
Country theme. The stories “Men” and “In the Ravine” 318
"Student" 322
"Little Trilogy" 325
From Startsev to Ionych 332
Chekhov's story “The Lady with the Dog” 334
Literary workshop.
Prose of A. P. Chekhov 339
General characteristics of the “new drama” 340
Historical origins of the “new drama” 342
Features of the poetics of the “new drama” 344
ABOUT genre originality Chekhov's comedy The Cherry Orchard» 348
The originality of the conflict and its resolution in “The Cherry Orchard” 350
Literary workshop. "The Cherry Orchard" 354
On the global significance of Russian literature 357
Yu. V. Lebedev.
Russian history literature of the 19th century century. In three parts. Part 1 1800-1830s
Recommended by the educational educational institution for the specialties of pedagogical education as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in specialty 032900 (050301) - “Russian language and literature”. The textbook provides modern approaches to covering the main stages of the historical and literary process.
In accordance with new data from philological science, the traditional periodization of historical and literary development is revised, the idea of the Renaissance nature of Russian realism is expanded and clarified.
Introduction
ABOUT national identity and spiritual foundations of Russian classical literature of the 19th century
M. Gorky wrote: “In the history of the development of European literature, our young literature is an amazing phenomenon; I will not exaggerate the truth by saying that none of the literature of the West has arisen in life with such force and speed, in such a powerful and dazzling brilliance of talents... nowhere in less than a hundred years has such a bright constellation of great names appeared as in Russia... Our literature is our pride..."
“As long as our poetry is alive and well, until then there is no reason to doubt the deep health of the Russian people,” wrote critic N. N. Strakhov, and his like-minded Apollo Grigoriev considered Russian literature “the only focus of all our highest interests.” According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, our literature was elevated to the dignity of a national cause that united the most viable forces of Russian society. It was not only “fine literature”, but also the basis of the spiritual existence of the nation. The Russian writer treated his work in a special way: for him it was not a profession, but a ministry. Chernyshevsky called literature a “textbook of life,” and Leo Tolstoy was subsequently surprised that these words did not belong to him, but to his ideological opponent.
Belief in a divine, world-transforming power artistic word.
The artistic exploration of life in Russian classical literature never turned into a purely aesthetic pursuit; it always pursued a living spiritual and practical goal. Russian writer V.F. Odoevsky formulated the meaning of his writing this way: “I would like to express in letters the psychological law according to which not a single word spoken by a person, not a single action is forgotten, is not lost in the world, but certainly produces some action; so responsibility is connected with every word, with every seemingly insignificant act, with every movement of a person’s soul.” The word was perceived by our writers “not as an empty sound, but as a deed - almost as “religiously” as the ancient Karelian singer Veinemeinen, who “made a boat with singing.” Gogol also harbored this belief in the miraculous power of the word, dreaming of creating a book that itself, by the power of the only and indisputably true thoughts expressed in it, should transform Russia,” notes the modern thinker G. D. Gachev.
It is not for nothing that Saltykov-Shchedrin gives the main character of his novel “The Golovlev Lords” the nickname Judas, which evokes direct associations with Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus Christ for thirty pieces of silver. He receives this nickname for his constant abuse of the word. Saltykov-Shchedrin, a Russian Orthodox Christian and educator, believes in the divine nature and divine power of the human word: “In the beginning there was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. It was in the beginning with God. Everything came into being through Him, and without Him nothing came into being that came into being. In Him was life, and life was the light of men. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not overcome it” (Gospel of John, chapter 1, vv. 1-5).
The entire coloring of the novel “The Golovlevs” is painted in gray, cloudy tones, and as the plot moves towards the finale, the twilight in it thickens, and the action is interrupted in a dull, dark, blizzard March night. This dark background is a reflection of the writer’s main artistic thought: the meaning of the life of the Golovlevs is a desecration of the shrine given by God to man, of the luminous, spiritual nature of the Word.
The atmosphere of universal lies was especially difficult for a person for whom the word was God. “No matter how passionately I am attached to literature, I must admit that at times this attachment is subjected to very decisive tests,” the satirist wrote bitterly while working on the novel. – When belief in miracles ceases, then the miracles themselves seem to fall silent. When faith in the life-giving properties of a word is lost, then we can say with confidence that the meaning of this word has been reduced to ringing metal. And it seems that this is exactly what we have achieved.” Saltykov-Shchedrin equated a person’s deceitful use of words with the most malicious blasphemy.
A classic of Ukrainian literature, Ivan Franko, recalling the years of his youth, wrote: “...If we liked the works of European literature and excited our aesthetic taste and our imagination, then the works of Russians tormented us, touched our conscience, awakened the person in us...”
It is not external success in life, not wealth, not opinion in the eyes of others, not titles and ranks, but the inner world of a person, regardless of his position in society, a burning Christian conscience that became the focus of attention in our classical literature. And behind this stood the height of Orthodox Christian ideals, which nourished our classics, on which many generations of Russian writers were brought up. Our wonderful philosopher of the mid-19th century, I.V. Kireevsky, wrote about it this way: “Western man sought by the development of external means to alleviate the severity of internal shortcomings. The Russian man sought to escape the burden of external needs by internal elevation above external needs.”
Although the height of the spiritual ideals affirmed by our classics is recognized throughout the world, during the Soviet period, both in academic and school studies, with all the undeniable and generally recognized successes, one significant and annoying imbalance emerged. There was an invariable emphasis on the accusatory, critical pathos of Russian writers, on their tearing off “all and every kind of mask.” This emphasis was even enshrined in the name of the artistic method they used - “critical realism.” Spiritually creative and moral ideals remained in oblivion. Since atheism was our official doctrine and “religion,” the ideals of Russian writers were bashfully kept silent or remained in the shadows, because their nature could not be other than Christian, and even Orthodox in its Russian quality and essence.
