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PSYCHOLOGICAL AND LINGUISTIC FOUNDATIONS OF LITERACY TEACHING METHODS

teaching literacy method lesson

School education begins with basic reading and writing. Based on the Primer, the school should teach children to read and write within 3-3.5 months; In the future, the ability to read and write improves, skills are strengthened, and the degree of their automation increases. The further success of the school largely depends on how this initial literacy training is organized.

Reading and writing skills are speech skills, just as reading and writing are types of human speech activity. Both reading and writing skills are formed in inextricable unity with other types of speech activity - with oral statements, with listening - auditory perception of someone else's speech, with internal speech. Human speech activity is impossible and loses all meaning without need (motive); it is impossible without a clear understanding of the content of speech by the speaker or listener. Being the reality of thought, speech in its essence is the opposite of everything that is satisfied with mechanical memorization and memorization.

Consequently, both teaching elementary reading and writing (learning to read and write), and the development of these skills should be structured so that the activities of schoolchildren are caused by motives and needs that are close and understandable to children.

Of course, children should also be aware of the distant goal - “learn to read”; but the immediate goal is absolutely necessary: to read the answer to the riddle; find out what is written under the picture; read the word so that your comrades can hear you; find out the letter to read the word (the remaining letters are known); write down a word based on observations, a picture, a solution to a riddle, etc.

But we must not forget that for younger schoolchildren, motives can be present in the process of activity itself. Thus, A. N. Leontyev wrote: “For a child playing with blocks, the motive of the game lies not in making a building, but in making it, that is, in the content of the action itself.” This is said about a preschooler, but junior schoolboy is still little different in this respect from a preschooler, the methodology should provide for motives both in the process of reading and writing, and not only in their perspective.

Understanding what children read and what they write is also the most important condition for successful literacy learning. When writing, understanding, awareness of the meaning precedes action; when reading, it is derived from the act of reading.

Therefore, learning to read and write involves various types of speech and mental activity: live conversations, stories, observations, guessing riddles, retelling, recitation, playing sound recordings, dialogue and films, television shows. These types of work contribute to the creation of speech situations that comprehend the processes of reading and writing.

A skill cannot be formed without repeated repetition of actions. Therefore, when learning to read and write, you need to read and write a lot. New texts are taken both for reading and writing: repeated re-reading of the same text is not justified, does not correspond to the principle of motivation of speech activity, and often leads to mechanical memorization of the text being read. In addition, changing situations and content in repeated actions helps strengthen the skill and develop the ability to transfer actions.

Nowadays, reading and writing are not something special, accessible only to a select few, as was believed a century ago. Both reading and writing have become essential skills for every person, and it is surprising for those who cannot read or write. Therefore, it is very important that from the first days in the first grade the student feels the naturalness of mastering literacy and is imbued with confidence in success. K. D. Ushinsky wrote about children who remain silent in class for months; Now there are no such children. But many children still have to overcome a certain “psychological barrier” on the way to reading skills: reading and writing seem to them to be something very difficult. An optimistic, cheerful atmosphere should reign in literacy lessons, excluding suppression and humiliation of those who do not yet read. It is no coincidence that in the first quarter of the first year of study it is forbidden to grade students.

What is the essence of reading, what is its mechanism?

All information that a person uses in his activities is encoded; this means that each unit of value corresponds to a conventional sign, or code unit. IN oral speech a sound code is used, or our sound language, in which the meaning of each word is encoded in a specific set of speech sounds; the letter uses a different code - an alphabetic one, in which the letters are correlated with the sounds of the first, oral, sound code. The transition from one code to another is called recoding.

The reading mechanism consists of recoding printed (or written) signs and their complexes into semantic units, into words; writing is a process of recoding the semantic units of our speech into conventional signs or complexes thereof, which can be written or printed.

If Russian writing were ideographic, then each sign, or ideogram, would be recoded directly into a semantic unit, or into a word, into a concept; Accordingly, when writing, each word would be encoded using an ideogram. But our writing is sound, therefore, the recoding process is complicated by the need for an intermediate stage - translating graphic signs into sounds, i.e., the need for sound-letter analysis of words: when writing, sounds are recoded into letters, when reading, on the contrary, letters are recoded into sounds.

At first glance, sound writing complicates the reading process; in fact, it simplifies, since the number of letters required for the recoding process is quite small compared to the number of ideograms, and it is enough to master the system of rules for the relationship of sounds and letters in order to learn to read and write.

By the way, the above view of the process of reading and writing determines the need for unity in teaching these two skills: direct and reverse recoding must alternate and run in parallel.

Recoding, which is mentioned above, is the main subject of the methodology for teaching literacy, so the methodology cannot fail to take into account the peculiarities of the sound and graphic systems of the Russian language.

Sound structure of the Russian language and its graphics

Russian writing is sound, or more precisely, phonemic (phonemic). This means that each basic sound of speech, or each phoneme, in the graphic system of the language has its own sign - its own grapheme.

The methodology for teaching literacy, focusing students and teachers on sounds, takes into account the features of the Russian phonetic system.

COMPARATIVE-CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LITERACY TEACHING METHODS (BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES)

Teaching literacy is the most ancient branch of methodology native language. His story is complex and instructive. The most outstanding teachers of the past: K. D. Ushinsky, L. N. Tolstoy, V. P. Vakhterov and many others - actively responded to the burning problems of alphabet studies. Basic literacy, that is, the ability to read and write, is the key to mass education; but for centuries it was also an insurmountable obstacle on the way masses to the light of knowledge.

Today in Soviet schools it takes a little more than three months to master literacy. But just a century ago, schoolchildren crammed letters and “storehouses” for two years, and even then, not all of them achieved success.

Today, the Soviet methodology of teaching literacy solves the following questions: how to develop reading and writing skills, while at the same time ensuring high developmental potential of learning? How to make the process of mastering literacy interesting, entertaining, creative, how to turn it into a continuous series of discoveries for the student? How to connect the task of developing elementary reading and writing skills with the tasks of preparing for the acquisition of grammar, spelling, phonetics, without violating the requirements of accessibility, systematicity and scientific character? Today, such tasks as further reducing the time spent on completing the Primer are not being removed.

Disputes over methods of teaching literacy continue. No sooner had the discussion died down in the journal “Soviet Pedagogy” in 1963-1964 than the controversy around primers flared up again (magazines “ Primary School" and "Soviet pedagogy", 1969-1974). All this means that today, like a hundred years ago, the initial stage of children’s education attracts the close, passionate attention of teachers and educational scientists. In such a situation, every teacher needs to know well how the Russian science of teaching literacy - alphabet studies - developed.

Up to late XVIII c., during the period of domination of dogmatic teaching methods in school practice, the so-called letter-compositional method was used, which was based on the mechanical memorization of letters, their names, syllables and words. The training began with memorizing the names of all the letters of the alphabet: az, beeches, verb, dobro, ezh... people, mysleti, etc. Then the syllables were memorized: beeches - az - ba, verb - az - ga, az - verb - ag , beeches - rtsy - az - bra, etc., more than 400 syllables in total (synthesis). Syllables, which do not always actually exist in the language, were formed in isolation from living speech: it was, as it were, the preparation of formal material for reading.

Only after this did reading begin syllable by syllable (“by syllables”): students, calling each letter by its full name, added syllables, and then connected these syllables into words. This is how, for example, the word grass was read: firmly - rtsy - az - tra; lead - az - va; grass. All this took at least a year. In the 19th century the names of the letters were simplified (for example, instead of “buki” - “be”), but the essence of the technique remained the same.

The training ended with reading “over the top,” that is, whole words, without naming letters and syllables. This reading took another year. We moved on to writing only in the third year of study. The literal subjunctive method is dogmatic, aimed at mechanical rote learning. Although the authors of the best primers tried to enliven the teaching of literacy with illustrations and entertaining materials (for example, in the “Primer” by Karion Istomin, published in 1694, words and pictures were given for each letter, as well as moralizing poems), the training was painful, uninteresting and completely justified The proverb “The root of learning is bitter.”

The disadvantage of the method was that it did not rely on sounds, on sounding speech, and did not require continuous reading of a syllable (remember that the syllabic principle operates in the Russian graphics system). The complex name of the letter made it difficult to perceive the readable sound: verb - g. The texts, as a rule, were difficult: they did not take into account the child’s psyche. Immediately after learning the syllables, the children read texts with religious and moral content. The letter was torn from reading.

The needs of mass education prompted the search for new, easier methods of teaching literacy, ways to save time, and speed up learning. The letter-subjunctive method is being replaced by other, mainly sound, methods focused on the analytical, synthetic and analytical-synthetic activities of students. The creators of new methods sought, firstly, to rely on the achievements of linguistic science, in particular phonetics, and secondly, to provide not just facilitated and accelerated learning, but also to give it a conscious, developmental character. In essence, the 19th century in alphabet studies was an arena for the struggle of new methods, designed for conscious learning, with the inert, mechanical traditions of the letter-subjunctive method.

Depending on which language unit is taken as the initial one when teaching elementary reading (letter sound, syllable, whole word - ideogram), and on what type of student activity (analysis, synthesis) is leading, methods of teaching literacy can be classified into in accordance with the following

The literal subjunctive method has been preserved in family education for a long time perhaps, to this day. This is evidenced by the extremely interesting recollection of Oleg Koshevoy in A. Fadeev’s “Young Guard”: “I see your fingers on the primer with slightly thickened joints, and I repeat after you: be-a-ba, baba.”

The letter-compounding method, already familiar to us, is a pronounced alphabetic synthetic method (memorizing letters, combining them into syllables and then into words).

It is not difficult to imagine that a letter-analytic approach is possible; using this method, one should begin training by isolating individual letters from a written word. However, such a method has not been developed in Russia: not all methods that are possible, based on this table, have become widespread in Russia.

The most widespread in both the West and Russia are sound synthetic, analytical and, finally, analytical-synthetic methods of teaching literacy. In new sound methods, a significant role is given to children themselves: they isolate sounds from words, put words together from them, i.e. analyze and synthesize.

In the 40s of the XIX century. In Russia, the analytical sound method was popular: in the West it was called the “Jacotot method”, in Russia - the “Zolotov method”.

According to this method, schoolchildren divided a sentence into words, words into syllables, and syllables were divided into sounds (in the oral version) and letters (in the written version). As you know, such work is carried out today: teaching literacy begins with it.

However, this sound analytical method also reflected the traditions of the dogmatic period of the school’s development: syllables, forms of words, combinations of letters were memorized; Due to repeated reading of the same words and sentences, they also learned by heart. The sound analysis of the word began after the children visually memorized the outline of this word. It would seem that according to the sound method it was necessary to rely primarily on auditory work, to develop the ability to hear sounds in a spoken word (phonemic hearing); but Zolotov’s method was dominated by visual exercises.

Despite its shortcomings, the analytical sound method was a significant step forward from the dogmatic method, the result of a creative search for new, more advanced ways of teaching literacy that ensure mental development.

An example of a synthetic sound method is the very common one in Western Europe in the 19th century method created by G. Stefani (Germany). In Russia, this method was developed and promoted by Nikolai Aleksandrovich Korf (1834-1883). Having arisen in conditions of intense struggle between the old, literal and new methods, Korff’s method, naturally, inherited a lot from him, but still the most important thing is “where to start?” - was new: learning to read and write began with the study of individual sounds, and then the corresponding letters. When a certain number of sounds and letters accumulated, synthetic exercises began: children merged sounds into syllables, made syllables and words from letters. Then new sounds were learned, etc. Reading using this method is the naming of a series of sounds denoted by letters (such reading in our time is called letter-by-letter). The syllable was not a reading unit, and hence the difficulties of sound merging, sometimes completely insurmountable.

N.A. Korf’s method was close to the letter-subjunctive method, which was familiar to the masses of teachers, and this not only ensured its widespread use in Russia, but also contributed to the degeneration of the letter-subjunctive method itself, since even adherents of the latter began to introduce work on speech sounds into the usual methodology.

In 1875, Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy’s “New ABC” was published, compiled using the “auditory” method. In works on the history of alphabet writing, Tolstoy’s method is usually called syllabic-auditory, since L. N. Tolstoy paid much attention to great attention syllabic work: decomposition of syllables into sounds, combining sounds into syllables, reading syllables, their pronunciation. Children's speech hearing developed. The texts were composed in such a way that the difficulty of reading syllables and words increased gradually. Thus, “the entire first part of the ABC is composed of words that do not exceed two syllables and six letters”1.

L.N. Tolstoy’s method was still not purely syllabic: it was supposed to combine, according to the author’s plan, the best that was in various areas of literacy teaching methods. He introduced pre-letter exercises in decomposing words into sounds, paid a lot of attention to auditory perceptions and articulatory exercises (speech motor); applied simultaneous teaching of writing - introduced the printing of letters, words, and even writing words under dictation from the very first literacy lessons; sought conscious reading: all the texts compiled by him were not only accessible, but close and interesting to peasant children.

L. N. Tolstoy admitted that his “ABC” would be used by teachers teaching literacy in various systems, he focused mainly on texts for reading, creating an excellent example of the first book for reading.

Among the numerous primers and alphabet books that appeared in the 19th century. (mainly in the first half of the century), there were also syllabic ones (designed for teaching using the syllabic method). However, the syllabic methods used in the Russian school, strictly speaking, were not purely syllabic: the syllable did not become the unit of reading from the very beginning. First, students memorized all the letters of the alphabet, then memorized syllables, with increasing difficulty: ba, va, ga... - and read words consisting of such syllables; then: bra, vra - and again read the words containing the studied syllables, etc.

Sound analysis and synthesis were not carried out; writing began to be taught only after mastering the skill of reading.

Intensified syllabic work, in comparison with letter composition, was a step forward, since it involves auditory and speech motor exercises, reading itself becomes closer to natural, syllabic reading, and a gradual increase in the difficulty of what is being read is simply observed.

However, syllabic methods, as they were used in the 19th century, were aggravated by disadvantages inherited from the letter-compound method: mechanical memorization of letters and huge amount syllables, sometimes artificial, meaningless (vzgra, vzgr, etc.), adding words from memorized elements. Reading texts are prayers, commandments, religious and moral teachings.

The positive influence of syllabic methods on subsequent ones, mainly sound ones, consists in the introduction of syllabic tables and exercises.

The fact that the syllabic principle operates in Russian graphics (one single letter, as a rule, cannot be read correctly) would seem to speak in favor of the syllabic method of teaching reading. However, until now, the historical experience of the Russian school has shown that syllabic reading is more successfully carried out within the framework of the sound method (for example, the sound analytical-synthetic method used in schools today) than when taught using the syllabic method.

Searches and disputes to mid-19th V. led the majority of alphabetists to the conclusion that, firstly, sound methods have advantages over letter ones, since they are more consistent with the sound nature of speech; Secondly, analytical work(not synthesis alone!) provides better mental development; thirdly, it is no longer possible to tolerate separate teaching of reading and writing, as well as reading texts that children do not understand.

Naturally, in such a situation, sound analytical-synthetic methods could not help but appear. It is the sound analytical-synthetic method, in its various variants and modifications, that has not only become most widespread in Russia, but has also stood the test of time: it has served the school almost continuously for more than 100 years and produces good results.

In Western Europe, the sound analytical-synthetic method was developed in the 19th century. Gräser, A. Diesterweg, Vogel; in Russia it was first introduced by Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1870); the most famous successors of the work of K.D. Ushinsky, the authors of primers and manuals for them are D.I. Tikhomirov (1844-1915), V.P. Vakhterov (1853-1924), V.A. Flerov (1860-1919), A.V. Yankovskaya (1883-1964), S.P. Redozubov (1891-1957).

“Native Word” by K.D. Ushinsky, which included his “ABC”, as well as “Guide to teaching the “Native Word”, was published in 1864 and gained wide popularity and recognition. K.D.’s own method Ushinsky called it the writing-reading method. He convincingly proved that writing cannot be separated from reading. He believed that writing, based on sound analysis, should go ahead of reading (hence the name of the method). According to "ABC" K.D. Ushinsky's children first get acquainted with handwritten font and only after 10-15 lessons are printed letters introduced. But even then, after learning the sound, the new letter is first given in written form.

K.D. Ushinsky in his methodology combined analysis and synthesis, introduced a system of analytical and synthetic exercises with sounds, syllables and words. In his system, analysis and synthesis are inseparable and support each other.

The advantage of his method was that he relied on live speech. Learning to read and write is connected to the development of speech (“the gift of speech”) of students. From the very first lessons, children work with folk proverbs, with riddles; readable texts are accessible to children. For sound analysis, sentences and words taken from the speech of the students themselves are used.

The advantage of his technique is K.D. Ushinsky believed (and repeatedly emphasized) its developing nature. And indeed, analytical-synthetic exercises, constant attention to the development of speech, attention to conscious reading, conversations, the connection between writing and reading - all this created a consistent system for the development of schoolchildren’s thinking abilities. The sound analytical-synthetic method, therefore, represents a huge step forward in the struggle for mass education. It completely overcomes the dogmatism of the letter-subjunctive method. If we use the periodization of M.N. Skatkin, the sound analytical-synthetic method can be classified as an explanatory-illustrative method, and among the best of them, those that require high activity of the children themselves in the learning process. It contains some elements of the research method, which is fully developed only in our days.

All pedagogical system K.D. Ushinsky was aimed at the comprehensive development of the child, at the development of his thinking and speech, and the method of teaching him to read and write was the first link of his system. Therefore, in the recommendations of K.D. Ushinsky, a huge place belongs to observations (both surrounding life, and behind the phenomena of language, speech), conversations, stories of the students themselves. For a child, learning at school did not begin with memorizing the names of letters that were alien to him or unfamiliar patterns. printed words, but from the analysis of the living speech of the children themselves, from the decomposition of familiar, familiar words into syllables and sounds. K.D. Ushinsky introduced dozens of sound work techniques into school practice, which are still used today, and gave psychological and pedagogical justifications for all these techniques.

However, not all the innovations introduced by him satisfied his followers and successors - the method was improved.

In “Native Word” K.D. Ushinsky refused alphabetical order learning sounds and letters; Children first studied eight vowels, including iotated vowels, then consonants, with soft consonants studied together with hard ones.

His followers changed this order, guided by the desire to arrange sounds according to the principle of a gradual increase in the difficulty of isolating them from words. Thus, iotated e, i, ё, yu were transferred to a later stage; Initially, children were given only hard consonants, soft ones - later; plosive consonants began to be studied later than sonorant and “long” consonants, which can be “drawn” (this order is still used to this day).

At the end of the 19th century. D.I. Tikhomirov and V.P. Vakhterov introduced two-week pre-letter sound exercises. The purpose of these exercises is to develop children’s hearing, prepare them to quickly and easily isolate individual sounds from the speech stream, teach them to decompose it into elements: into sentences, words, syllables and sounds, and also to synthesize: combine sounds into syllables, syllables into words. During the same period, preparation for writing was carried out: drawing elements of letters, ornaments, contours, etc. Later, this stage was called the pre-letter period and some methodologists either shortened it to one week or extended it to a month.

V.P. Vakhterov and D.I. Tikhomirov also abandoned advanced writing: children first learned printed letters, and then their written versions (the principle of the unity of writing and reading was preserved).

How D.I. Tikhomirov, and V.P. The watchmen created their own primers. “Russian primer” by V.P. Vakhterov, published in 1897, went through more than 50 editions, “A Primer...” by D. and E. Tikhomirov - more than 150 editions.

In 1907, the “New Russian Primer” by V.A. was published. Flerov (went through more than 40 editions). It developed a strict gradualism in the study of sounds and letters - from “easy” sounds to “difficult” ones, according to their articulation and the ability to pronounce the sound separately, independently. Flerov recommended “reading by likeness”: having mastered the reading of the syllable ma, the student should also, i.e., “with one respiratory push,” read the syllables mo, sa, etc. He strengthened syllabic work: syllabic tables are placed in his primer. He denied the need for sound fusion, trying to introduce the principles of “read as you speak” and “read what you see.”

Thus, by the 20s of the XX century. The sound analytical-synthetic method not only reached high perfection, but was also the most popular, most widespread method of teaching literacy in mass schools.

However, despite the improvement of primers and methods, the most difficult moment in teaching children to read and write remained the transition from sound (letter) to syllable - a difficulty that also occurred in the letter-subjunctive method.

An attempt was made to overcome this difficulty in the early 20s; already in the Soviet school, I. N. Shaposhnikov. His method of “living sounds” was based on the statement that “individual sounds do not exist, a syllable is indecomposable, the sounds in words are completely different from one another - these are completely different sounds.” Therefore, he denied working with individual sounds and merging them; he returned to “writing and reading” K.D. Ushinsky, went to reading from an understood, living text. He wrote: “We start from living speech, from concepts, images and go to express them in graphic form. Therefore, the primer is like a book, like those ready-made words which are to be read, we fundamentally deny... Children learn the alphabet itself (abstraction of speech sounds) not in the order of going through the primer, not in the order of reading, but in the order of conducting sound analysis of speech by recording their thoughts and impressions from the very first lessons , experiences." Each schoolchild had to compile his own handwritten primer. Although Shaposhnikov’s method was focused on children’s creativity and high cognitive activity, it was not widely used, since most teachers did not know how to work without relying on a printed primer, on its page, on specific materials and exercises.

Sound analytical-synthetic method, introduced in Russia by K.D. Ushinsky, is still used in the Soviet school today, although many new things have appeared in it. However, difficulties that were not overcome in the methodology of teaching literacy led in the early 20s to the spread of another method of whole words, completely unusual for the Russian school. The latter was widespread in the USA and other countries. The method of whole words attracted specialists because it allowed, firstly, to immediately begin reading with texts that were meaningful and educationally valuable, avoiding a long period of reading primitive, uninteresting, and poor in content texts; secondly, the difficulties of the sound method associated with sound merging were removed; thirdly, the method of whole words was convenient in the system of complex teaching, as it allowed literacy learning to be linked from the very first steps to a complex topic.

According to the method of whole words, the word becomes the unit of reading from the very beginning; its graphic image is perceived as an ideogram and only subsequently is divided into its constituent elements - letters. During the first 2-3 months of classes, children memorized up to 150 words visually, almost without analyzing the sound and letter composition. They reproduced them graphically, that is, they redrew them, read them by their general appearance, and guessed them from the pictures. Then the letter analysis of the learned words began: the word typed from the letters of the split alphabet was “spread apart” and the children learned the letters.

The method of whole words was used in the Soviet school for 13 years - from 1922 to 1935, giving way to the tried and tested sound analytical-synthetic method, proven by long practice.

Why has the method of whole words, successfully used in English-speaking countries to this day, not justified itself in the Russian school?

Russian spelling is phonemic. This means that a phoneme, regardless of the variant of its sound, i.e., from a strong or weak position, is indicated by the same grapheme (letter): house - home, along the grass - along the street, etc. Although in Russian writing There are frequent deviations from this principle (for example, historical alternations: uzho - ears), in general the principle is maintained in the vast majority of spellings.

Constant exercises in sound analysis and synthesis, carried out according to the sound analytical-synthetic method, gradually, practical basis They develop phonemic awareness in children - the ability to “hear” a phoneme even in a weak position, based on comparisons (frost - frost). For the Russian language, where positional alternations are so frequent, phonemic hearing serves as the basis for mastering literate writing.

The whole word method did not ensure the development of phonemic awareness in students, which negatively affected spelling literacy.

A huge disadvantage of the whole word method was that it could not be classified as a method for developing students’ thinking. This method relied on visual, mechanical memory and in this sense was akin to the letter-subjunctive method. On the path of development of methods from dogmatic to research methods of whole words, there was certainly a step back.

Thus, the advantages of the whole word method were far outweighed by its disadvantages, and therefore the Soviet school abandoned it. In 1937, the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR approved the "Bukvari" by A.V. Yankovskaya and N.M. Golovin, compiled using the sound analytical-synthetic method. These primers were used until 1944. Then primers were created under the leadership of S.P. Redozubova, A.V. Yankovskaya (“Primer” of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR); The Primer for rural school, compiled by A.I. Voskresenskaya.

In these primers and in the manuals for them, the pre-revolutionary methodology of K.D. was not simply restored. Ushinsky, V.P. Vakhterova, V.A. Flerov and others, but also a lot of new things were introduced: in accordance with the achievements of modern phonetics, the order of studying sounds and letters, their combinations, syllables was clarified; in accordance with the psychology of reading developed by T.G. Egorov, identified four stages in the formation of reading skills; the methods of analytical-synthetic work are consistent with the characteristics of the sounds and syllables being studied, etc.

Soviet primers, compiled using the sound analytical-synthetic method, were a significant step forward in the development of primers. Modern methods of teaching literacy ensure that children master the skill of reading in a relatively short period of time - in just over three months. Simultaneously with the skill of elementary reading, children develop their speech and their thinking, learn to write, and receive propaedeutic information on grammar and spelling.

Systematic work continues to improve the methods of teaching literacy: in 1966, the school adopted a new primer, compiled under the leadership of N.V. Arkhangelskaya, and introduced the “ABC Companion”; experimental primers were created by D.B. Elkonin and primer V.G. Goretsky, V.A. Kiryushkina and A.F. Shanko, the latter is undergoing mass testing in schools; Many new proposals have been made to improve the analytical-synthetic sound method of teaching literacy. However, the methodology of teaching literacy, in its main features, does not yet meet the requirements for maximizing the cognitive activity and independence of students based on the use of research, search, and problem-based teaching methods.

MAIN TYPES OF LITERACY TEACHING CLASSES

Working on sounds

The basis of teaching literacy is sound; lessons include sound analysis of words and syllables, sound synthesis of words and syllables, analysis of sounds and their articulation, work on diction, and speech therapy work.

Work on sounds is combined with letter work, especially in synthesis techniques (composing words from letters of a split alphabet and other techniques): the constant correlation of sounds and letters is useful both for the formation of reading skills and for developing the foundations of spelling-literate writing.

Techniques of sound analysis and synthesis were most fully developed by S. P. Redozubov; he indicated and described six methods of analysis and seven methods of synthesis, methods and options for their application. Let's look at the main ones of these techniques.

Analysis

1. Isolating words from the speech stream (from a sentence); distinct pronunciation of a single word; dividing a word into syllables and distinct pronunciation of the syllables included in it; highlighting a stressed syllable, pronunciation of a word with increased, emphasized stress, distinct pronunciation of words syllable by syllable with the highlighting of a separate sound (my-lllo, in shliii, sharr).

2. Isolating a new sound, i.e., intended for study on this lesson. There are several known methods for the primary isolation of a new sound:

a) isolating from the sentence the sound-word and from the sentence based on the picture Plum and Pear, the sound-word and from the sentence This is a dog, and this is a cat;

b) onomatopoeic technique: zhzhzhuk, zhzhzh;

c) isolating a consonant sound from a closed syllable, where it is least strongly associated with the preceding vowel: aaammm - am, saaa-mmm, soo-mmm; mmaaa-k, ma-k;

d) isolating a consonant sound from an open syllable (recommended mainly for “long” consonants): Shshshuu-ra, Ssaaa-sha; .

e) highlighting a vowel that forms a whole syllable: o-sy, u-sy (it is desirable that the syllable be stressed); iotized ones also stand out: yu-la, ya-ma, e-du, etc.;

f) listing words with one initial sound (the words are pronounced by the teacher, and the sound is called by the students): horse, stone, jelly, roof;

g) finishing the word spoken from the picture (onion in the picture); the teacher says: luu, the children add: k.

Usually, during a lesson in learning about a new sound, following the initial isolation of the sound, it is additionally isolated from various positions and combinations with other sounds (except for those where positional alternation occurs), for example: the sound d - house, factories, basement, Dima, two, horses, given, but not recommended: garden [sat], stand [potstafka)

3. Listing the sounds in a word, naming them sequentially, counting the number of sounds in a word; the same - in terms of syllabic composition, for example: Slava - Slava - s-l-a-v-a, five sounds, five letters, two vowels, three consonants, two syllables, stressed - ela. You can also indicate: consonants s, l, v - hard.

This method of analysis continues in the second half of the year, as well as in subsequent grades, under the name of phonetic analysis.

4. Comparison and comparison of words by sound and style is especially effective when becoming familiar with pairs of soft and hard, voiced and voiceless consonants.

In teaching literacy, analysis always comes somewhat ahead of synthesis, but in general they are inseparable: analysis creates the basis for mastering the reading process; synthesis forms the reading skill itself.

Synthesis

1. Pronunciation of a syllable or word, previously subjected to sound analysis, and subsequent composition from a split alphabet; reading this syllable or word (in other words, the reading process itself is a synthetic activity, since, having recognized all the sounds or all the letters, we combine them and thus read them).

2. Formation of syllable tables based on a consonant (ma, mo, mu, we) or based on a vowel (sa, ma, ra, sha, etc.); reading such tables from an alphabet book or from a poster; compiling tables from the letters of the cut alphabet.

3. Reading words by similarity: mom - Masha - Sasha (the words differ in one consonant letter). Examples for reading can be compiled by the students themselves: cheese - rubbish - catfish - juice.

4. Building up vowels or consonants at the beginning or end of a word; in this case, a new word should be obtained: small - small, litter - variety, mouth - mole, chalk - bold.

Adding a sound in the middle of a word: raft - pilot, grass - grass.

Rearrangement of sounds: pi-la - linden, good - rustle, fox - strength, etc.

Rearrangement of syllables: sos-na - na-sos, no-ra - ra-no, etc.

Dropping a sound or syllable: crackers - cracker, car - wave, etc.

This group of synthetic work techniques requires combining sound work with letters: children manipulate a split alphabet, which gives them real, visual support in synthesis.

Adding a syllable: na-sha - Na-ta-sha, we - my-lo, sa-ni - sa-ni-tar; ro-sli - sli-you, etc.

All these techniques are entertaining and make it possible to organize semi-game moments in the lesson.

Not all methods of analysis and synthesis used in research are described here. modern school: A more complete description of these can be found in practical literacy guides.

To summarize, we emphasize that there can be neither pure analysis nor pure synthesis: we can only talk about the leading role of one or another type of mental activity. By analyzing a word, the student realizes it as a single whole with a lexical meaning - this is a synthesis; When synthesizing a word, he cannot and should not be distracted from its sound composition, and this is analysis. In general, it must be emphasized that the system of analytical and synthetic work ensures a high level of mental activity of students in the process of learning to read and write. It is the methods of analytical-synthetic work that ensure the cognitive independence of students, create “problematic” situations - develop - observation, intelligence of children, and exclude mechanical work.

An effective means of facilitating sound-letter analysis and synthesis are such didactic aids as the split alphabet, split syllables and typesetting (general class - on the board and individual - on each student’s desk); letter or syllabic abacus - a tablet with movable ribbons on which letters or syllables are printed: by moving the ribbons, you can compose words on the tablet; a cadoscope that allows you to project letters on the screen and compose syllables and words from them; a tape recorder or language laboratory for practicing the pronunciation of sounds, as well as for playing recordings of expressive speech, mainly works of art.

Articulating sounds, working on diction

An important place in the system of sound analytical-synthetic work belongs to the analysis and synthesis of the sounds themselves, observation of the position and movements of the organs of the speech apparatus at the moment of sound pronunciation (analysis) and bringing into desired position own organs of speech in order to pronounce a sound or a combination of sounds indicated by letters (synthesis). For example, analysis of the sound o: the lips are widened and rounded, the tongue is pulled back a little, the mouth is half open, the voice sounds.

Analysis of sound in: the upper lip is slightly raised, the lower lip touches the upper teeth, there is a gap between the teeth, the tongue is slightly pulled back, a voice sounds.

Analysis of the sound p: closed lips sharply break, air escapes from the mouth, while there is a gap between the teeth, the tongue is slightly pulled away from the teeth, the voice does not sound.

Synthesis of the sound p: the mouth is slightly open, there is a gap between the teeth, the lips are stretched a little wider, the tongue is pulled back a little and raised strongly upward; a voice sounds, the tip of the tongue trembles under the stream of passing air.

Not all sounds can be articulated in grade I; Thus, the sounds u, affricates, middle-lingual ts, ch, i, back-lingual g, v, x are usually not articulated at this stage of learning, at least according to the indicated method.

But there is a simplified method of articulatory analysis and synthesis without verbal explanations, through demonstration and imitation. The first grader is asked to take a closer look at how the teacher or one of the students pronounces (articulates) the desired sound, and pronounce it after them. When repeated many times, this technique gives good results.

On the basis of articulatory work, diction develops, i.e. pronunciation, the degree of clarity in the pronunciation of words, syllables, sounds, speech. Working on diction means achieving a clear, pure, distinct sound of a student’s speech. This is extremely important for learning to read and write, and for expressive reading, and for spelling, and for the formation of spelling skills, and, finally, for the development of singing skills. Good diction depends on the flexibility of the articulatory apparatus, therefore exercises in the development of diction are aimed at developing its flexibility. Here are the types of exercises:

a) exercises in the volume of pronunciation: for example, pronouncing the words salo - awl - salo - awl, then strengthening the voice almost to a scream, then weakening it to a whisper;

b) exercises at the pace of pronunciation: pronounce the same words salo - awl slowly, increasing the pace;

c) practicing the pronunciation of individual consonant sounds, especially those in the sound of which children have defects;

d) articulation gymnastics;

e) exercises for pronunciation of difficult sound combinations; For this purpose, tongue twisters and pure twisters are used; they need to be spoken quickly, as quickly as possible, usually several times in a row: Mom washed Mila with soap. I made the boots myself. Near the bell stake. The trumpeters sounded the alarm. I clean the puppy with a brush, tickling its sides. The wasp does not have whiskers, not whiskers, but antennae. Grass in the yard, firewood on the grass. Geese are cackling on the mountain, and a fire is burning under the mountain. Bull, blunt-lipped, blunt-lipped bull, and many more. etc.

It is necessary to teach children to breathe correctly during speech, to pronounce sounds, etc.

Some children exhibit shyness, especially when they do not pronounce any sounds clearly. Choral pronunciation of sounds and words, choral reading, and pronouncing tongue twisters in chorus are useful here.

It works with children who have speech defects associated with incorrect habits in the use of the speech apparatus (lisp, burr, lisp, nasality) or with deficiencies in the development of the speech apparatus itself (improper closure of the jaws, incorrect position of the teeth, etc.) speech therapist The teacher must also have basic speech therapy skills in order to carry out elements of speech therapy work every day in the classroom.

As has already been said, a child comes to school with significant speech skills. The volume of his vocabulary ranges from 4 to 7 thousand words, he uses both simple and complex sentences in his oral speech practice, most * children are able to tell a coherent story, that is, they can speak a simple monologue. Basic characteristic feature The speech of a preschooler is its situational nature, which is determined by the main type of activity of the preschooler - play activity.

What changes occur in a child’s speech development after he or she enters school? The changes are very significant: Firstly, the volitional factor in speech activity increases sharply: the child speaks not because he is encouraged to do so by surrounding circumstances, the so-called situation, but because the teacher, the educational process itself, demands it. The motivation of speech changes dramatically: if in situational speech main motive- communication, response in class, retelling, story are caused not by the living needs of communication, but by the need to fulfill the teacher’s requirement, to discover knowledge of the material, and not to lose face in front of comrades, in front of the teacher. Is it surprising that children who spoke fluently before school at home, on the street, in kindergarten, at school sometimes at first they get lost, embarrassed, and speak worse than before school.

The teacher takes care of creating motives for speech, motives that are natural and close to children - a relaxed atmosphere of conversation is created, children's story is preceded by the words of the teacher: “Tell me, we are all interested, we will listen to you,” etc. However, all these means only soften the sharpness of the transition; the rest is in educational process inevitably loses mainly its situational nature and moves into the volitional sphere. The role of its motives is not the situation (for example, a game), but educational tasks, since the main, leading activity of the child becomes educational activity.

Secondly, written language appears in a child’s life. Of course, the first written texts that a child encounters are still very simple and differ little from the everyday speech he used at home, among his friends before school. How does the inclusion of elements of written and bookish speech into the everyday life of a 1st grade student take place?

The teacher’s speech contains such elements - literary speech, subordinate to the norm and, of course, influenced by written and book styles; the school requirement to answer the teacher’s question with a complete answer leads to the fact that elliptical constructions (one of the most typical elements of everyday situational speech) disappear, as if declared “outlaw”; a conversation regarding teacher questions often requires the construction of complex sentences: “Why do you think it’s a fox?” - “This is a fox (because) she has red fur, a long fluffy tail, a long muzzle, small erect ears.” Even the texts of the Primer contain many typical “book” constructions; for example, in “The Tale of the Red Balloon” there are six complex sentences.

From the first days of learning to read and write, work begins on the culture of speech: children learn how to speak at school, in class; begin to understand that not every expression of a thought will be correct, that a thought should be expressed clearly, distinctly, and understandably for others; They become accustomed to self-control and to observing the speech of other children, and learn to correct shortcomings in other people’s speech. Modern first-graders already understand that at school they cannot use the same children's phrases that they use at home and with friends.

The third feature of the speech development of a first-grader is that in his speech activity the monologue speech, i.e. the type of speech that is preschool age either did not develop at all or did not occupy a dominant position. At the same time, we must not forget that children raised in kindergarten went through a certain system development of coherent speech.

A monologue during the period of learning to read and write is a retelling of what has been read, a story from perception (observation), a story from memory (what happened), and from imagination (mainly from pictures). Statements of the monologue type also take place in the process of phonetic work - for example, a schoolboy says: “The word strawberry has four syllables, stressed - no, only 9 sounds: z-e-m-l-ya-n-i-k-a, consonants z, m, l, n, k and vowels e, i, i, a.”

Finally, the fourth feature of the speech development of a first-grader is that at school speech becomes the object of study. Before entering school, the child used speech without thinking about its structure and patterns. But at school he learns that speech is made up of words, that words consist of syllables and sounds denoted by letters, etc. The development of speech in school practice is carried out in three directions: vocabulary work (lexical level), work on word combinations and sentence (syntactic level), work on coherent speech.

Every day, children learn new words, clarify, deepen their understanding of the meaning of those words that they have encountered previously, use words in their speech (activate them).

School life itself, the educational activities of children, require the assimilation of dozens of new words denoting the names of educational supplies, aids, and actions; Many new words and meanings are learned through observations, as well as from pictures in the primer and other manuals. New words are found in readable texts, in teacher stories, etc.

Thematic groups on which vocabulary work is carried out: school and educational work (names of school premises, furniture, equipment, educational supplies, educational subjects, types of educational work, lesson elements), socially useful work of adults and children (self-service at school, work at home, professions of parents and other people, work on collective and state farms, work in transport, at a factory, construction site, etc., tools labor, etc.), vocabulary of social relations, socio-political (our Motherland, the capital of our Motherland - Moscow, defense of the Motherland, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, the Communist Party, friendship of the peoples of the October Revolution and pioneers, moral concepts etc.), achievements of the Soviet people (tuning, space exploration, new machines and their creators, great artists, writers, etc.), vocabulary of nature (change of seasons, weather changes, names of plants (trees, shrubs, herbs, mushrooms), animals (wild and domestic), birds, insects, fish, etc.), everyday vocabulary (apartment, furniture, dishes, clothing, food, daily routine, home activities, etc.), game vocabulary (names games, toys, roles in the game, etc.).

New words are included in sentences, read, subjected to sound analysis, and composed from letters of the split alphabet. Words are included in the system of lexical and logical exercises (see the section “Development of student speech”).

Naturally, semantic work is of greatest importance for the development of speech: observations of the meanings of words, clarification of meanings and their shades.

From the first days of a child’s stay at school, he needs to be taught to be attentive to the word, to search for the most expressive words. This task is accessible to first-graders: children usually have a keen sense of the expressiveness of speech, they love expressive speech, and they themselves willingly use words with diminutives and affectionate suffixes.

Work on a sentence, as well as on a word, begins literally from the first lesson at school: isolating a sentence from speech (speech flow), reading, answering questions (both the question and the answer are sentences).

During the period of learning to read and write, the following main tasks of work at the syntactic level are solved:

a) awareness of the sentence as an independent unit of speech, highlighting sentences in oral speech, composing them, reading from the ABC book;

b) the transition from monosyllabic statements to expanded statements, from incomplete sentences- to full, relatively big offers having, as a rule, the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate;

c) establishing the simplest connections between words in a sentence, mainly in the predicative group, as well as in subordinate phrases.

One should not rush to introduce new syntactic constructions into children’s speech, but as soon as they appear in their own speech, then the task of the school is not to restrain children’s speech development with artificial measures or prohibitions, but to support this new and ensure it right.

Consequently, in the work on a proposal, a significant place belongs to the correction of shortcomings, introspection and self-control.

Since students do not yet have theoretical knowledge of syntax, the construction of sentences is carried out mainly on the basis of samples. Reading texts, teacher speech, and questions serve as examples.

During the period of learning to read and write, the role of questions is very great: the question provides the basis for composing a sentence. So, for the picture of the primer on page 12 the question is asked: What happened to the children in the forest? Possible answers: The children got lost in the forest; The children went into the forest to pick mushrooms and got lost; A boy and a girl were picking mushrooms and berries in the forest. They did not notice how evening came. They are lost - they don’t know the way home.

...

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Literacy acquisition is the first stage of children's schooling, during which they must develop basic reading and writing skills.

Being certain types speech activity, reading and writing are complex processes that consist of numerous operations. Thus, the reader needs to perceive graphic signs, recode them into sounds, say what he read out loud or “to himself,” and comprehend the information contained in each word, sentence, and paragraph.

The psychophysiological basis of reading is the interdependent and interconnected activity of the auditory, visual and speech motor analyzers. Great importance To successfully master reading, cognitive processes such as thinking, speech, memory, attention, imaginative perception, etc. are essential.

Mastering writing as a type of speech activity requires performing an even greater number of operations. The writer must formulate his thought in the form of a sentence, accurately selecting words for this purpose and, having predicted the place of each sentence among other units of text, carry out a sound analysis of the selected words, correlate the sound and the letter, taking into account the rules of graphics and spelling, and perform motor-graphic actions , strictly observing spatial orientation (direction and placement of letters on a line, their connection, etc.).

The psychophysiological basis of writing is the same as reading, with the additional inclusion of the motor analyzer.

A literate person does not notice the technical operations that he performs in the process of reading and writing. All his attention is focused on the content of written speech, its understanding when reading or production when writing. It is at this stage that writing and reading are considered types of speech activity.

For a beginner in reading and writing, each operation represents a complex task, the solution of which involves performing several actions. To read a syllable, the child has to stop his gaze first on one letter, then on another, since his field of vision is still limited by the boundaries of the sign; maintain the direction of eye movement from left to right; consistently recognize each letter, correlating it with a specific sound; carry out the synthesis of two sounds and, finally, pronounce the syllable as a whole.

Recording any syllabic structure in a notebook obliges the first-grader to hold the pen correctly and position the notebook, clearly pronounce the syllable intended for recording, divide it into its component elements, i.e., perform sound analysis, designate each sound with a letter, retain in memory the order of letters in the syllable, sequentially write them down in notebooks, accurately recording the location of the elements of each grapheme and their connections, limiting your writing to line lines.

In most cases, a normal child is prepared for the start of school. He has well-developed phonemic hearing and visual perception, and oral speech is formed. He masters the operations of analysis and synthesis at the level of perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. In addition, in the process of developing oral speech, a preschooler accumulates the experience of pre-grammatical language generalizations, or the so-called sense of language at the level of “indistinct awareness” (the term of S. F. Zhuikov).

The readiness of the sensorimotor and mental spheres of a child with normal development for learning to read and write creates the conditions for rapid mastery of the necessary operations and actions that underlie reading and writing skills.

First-graders in a public school quite successfully move from letter-by-letter to syllable-by-syllable reading, which, in turn, leads to a more rapid development of the skills of reading words and understanding their meaning. Already at this stage, schoolchildren experience the phenomenon of semantic conjecture, when, having read a syllable, they try to comprehend and pronounce the word as a whole, since the speech motor patterns that appeared during training are associated with certain words. True, while still a guess does not always lead to accurate recognition. Correct reading is impaired and the need arises to re-perceive the syllabic structure of the word. However, the emerging tendency towards semantic guesswork indicates the emergence of a new, higher level of understanding of what is being read.

Writing technique is also improving somewhat more slowly, but quite progressively. Moreover, syllable-by-syllable spelling reading has a positive effect on graphic and spelling skills, creating a proactive basis for competent writing even before learning spelling rules.

Violation of the activity of analyzers and mental processes leads to the inferiority of the psychophysiological basis for the formation of written speech. Therefore, first-graders have difficulty mastering all the operations and actions that are included in the processes of reading and writing.

The greatest difficulties in mastering reading and writing skills by such children are associated with impairments in phonemic hearing and sound analysis and synthesis. First-graders have difficulty differentiating acoustically similar phonemes and therefore do not remember letters well, since each time they correlate the letter with different sounds. In other words, there is a violation of the system of transcoding and encoding letters into sound and sound into letters.

Imperfect analysis and synthesis leads to difficulties in dividing a word into its component parts, identifying each sound, establishing the sound sequence of a word, mastering the principle of merging two or more sounds into a syllable, and recording in accordance with the principles of Russian graphics.

Poor pronunciation exacerbates deficiencies phonetic analysis. If in children with normal development, incorrect pronunciation of sounds does not always lead to inferior auditory perception and incorrect choice of letters, then in schoolchildren with phonemic underdevelopment, with OHP, impaired pronunciation is an impaired perception of sound and its incorrect translation into a grapheme.

Inferiority of visual perception prevents sufficiently rapid and accurate memorization of the graphic image of a letter, its differentiation from similar graphemes, and the establishment of correspondence between printed and written, uppercase and lowercase versions of each letter.

The spatial limitation of the field of vision and the slowness of mental activity tie the first grader to letter-by-letter reading for a long time. Even when the child has already mastered the principle of merging a consonant and a vowel, he continues to read each letter separately and only then names the syllable. The nature of the errors of students in grades 1–2 when reading and their causes are discussed in detail by R.I. Lalaeva in the book “Disturbances in the process of mastering reading in schoolchildren” (M., 1983. – P. 47 – 72).

In the development of initial writing skills, as mentioned earlier, the formation of motor operations plays an important role. The lack of general motor coordination, which manifests itself especially clearly in the movements of the small muscles of the hand, serves as another obstacle in the formation of writing skills. Muscular tension in the hand, accompanying movements of the neck and head, and increasing tremors quickly deplete the nervous and physical strength of children, leading to a decrease in attention and the appearance of errors in writing letters, in connecting one grapheme to another, etc. Difficulties are also caused in the development of calligraphy skills in first-graders.

There are children with more complex deficiencies in visual-spatial orientation, which is why for a long time they do not master the configuration of letters or mirror images of graphemes in writing; with a persistent decrease in performance, low level of mental activity. All this creates additional difficulties in the acquisition of writing and reading skills by such first-graders.

To work with such groups of children, additional techniques are needed, aimed primarily at correcting existing deficiencies and aimed at longer periods of study. The combination of frontal work with a differentiated and individual approach is the key to successful implementation of program requirements.

Thus, disruption of the activity of analyzers and mental processes leads to inferiority of the psychophysiological basis of speech formation.

If Russian writing were ideographic, then each sign (ideogram) would be recoded directly into a semantic unit (word or concept); Accordingly, when written, the word would be encoded using an ideogram. But our writing is sound, therefore, there is a need for an intermediate stage - translating graphic signs into sounds when reading or sounds into letters

when writing.

Russian writing - sound (phonemic). This means that each basic sound (phoneme) in the graphic system of a language has its own sign - a letter (grapheme). Therefore, the methodology for teaching literacy is based on phonetic and graphic systems (phonetics and graphics).

The teacher must know which sound units perform a meaningful function (i.e. they are phonemes) and which do not perform such functions (variants of basic phonemes in

weak positions).

Modern schools have adopted the sound method of teaching literacy, which involves isolating sounds in words, sound analysis, synthesis, and letter acquisition. And reading process.

The basis of Russian graphics is syllabic principle, which consists in the fact that a single letter (grapheme) cannot be read, since it is read taking into account subsequent letters. Therefore in modern methods Literacy is in effect the principle of syllabic (positional) reading, in which children from the very beginning are guided by the open syllable as a reading unit. Open syllables are characteristic of the Russian language. The construction of a syllable in most cases is subordinated the law of ascending sonority.

Syllable represents several sounds pronounced with one exhalation impulse. The base of a syllable is the vowel sound. The syllable structure may be different: SG (open), HS (closed), type SGS, as well as the same types with a combination of consonants: SSG, SSSG, etc. (S - consonant, G - vowel).

Mastering the rules of graphics is a necessary condition for writing, but not sufficient. Living phonetic processes lead to the fact that there is often a discrepancy between the spoken and written words. This occurs in cases where phonemes are in weak positions. To designate a weak position sound with a letter, you need to determine which phoneme the given sound belongs to, and then designate it. The letter for the sound corresponding to the strong position of the phoneme is selected according to the rules of graphics. For a sound representing a weak position of a phoneme, according to the rules spelling.

The basis of learning to read is also orthoepy, the norms of which are difficult for children to remember immediately, much less carry out. Therefore on initial stages A double reading is recommended: orthographic and then orthoepic.

For normal reading, it is necessary to learn some cases of punctuation: period, question and exclamation marks, comma, colon, dash.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LITERACY TEACHING METHODS

Reading and writing are difficult mental processes. An experienced reader has a so-called “reading field”, i.e. can cover a significant part of the text with vision (2-3 words). In this case, the reader recognizes words by their general appearance. And only the adult reads unfamiliar words syllable by syllable.

"Reading field" the beginning reader is limited: it covers only one letter, and in order to recognize it, it is often necessary to compare it with others. Reading a letter makes the child want to immediately name the sound, but the teacher demands to read a whole syllable, so you have to read the next letter, holding the previous one in memory, merge two or three sounds and reproduce the combination that makes up the single sound structure of the syllable or word. And here lies considerable difficulties for many children. To read, you need to perform as many acts of perception and recognition as there are letters in a syllable, syllables in a word.

In addition, the eyes of a beginning reader often lose a line, since the eye is not accustomed to moving strictly parallel to the line. A first-grader does not always understand what he reads, so he repeats syllables or words two or more times. Sometimes a child tries to guess a word by the first syllable, by a picture or by context. All these difficulties gradually disappear as the “reading field” increases.

Letter- complex speech action. An adult writes automatically without noticing basic actions. For a first-grader, this process breaks down into many independent actions. He must monitor the position of the pen and notebook, remember the written letter corresponding to the sound or printed letter, place it on the line, and connect it with others. This not only slows down the pace of writing, but also tires the child mentally and physically. In this regard, lessons should include special exercises for hands and body, alternate writing with oral exercises.

Successful learning to read and write requires extensive and systematic development work. phonemic hearing, those. the ability to distinguish individual sounds in a speech stream, to isolate a sound from a word or syllable. Phonemic hearing is necessary not only for learning to read and write, but also for subsequently developing spelling skills. The development of phonemic hearing is facilitated by sound analysis of words, establishing the sequence of sounds in a word, exercises in listening, hearing and “recognizing” phonemes in strong and weak positions.

A psychological study of the process of reading and writing for a beginner shows that the child relies on speaking out loud syllables for a long time. He can hear the sounds pronounced by the teacher, but, moving on to write down the word, he helps himself by pronouncing it and listening to it. Pronunciation when writing it is called speech motor analysis. The teacher needs to train children in correct pronunciation of words by syllable when composing and writing them. The child must learn to pronounce each word syllable by syllable, while simultaneously listening to its sound, trying to catch every sound of the word and the order of sounds.

PEDAGOGICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF LITERACY TRAINING

Pedagogy determines the content and methods of teaching, which must correspond to the age capabilities of students.

Attention First-graders are characterized by instability, hesitation during the lesson, the child does not yet know how to concentrate or distribute it.

Distinctive feature memory child - the predominance of visual images over verbal ones, so he remembers verbal material mechanically and without comprehension.

Perception at this age it is characterized by the fact that children perceive the object as a whole, without dividing it. And in a word they perceive first of all its meaning, and not its composition. In the first weeks, the child often confuses the concepts of “word”, “syllable”, “sound”, “letter”; confuses letters that are similar in shape with sounds that are similar in sound.

A first-grader thinks in concrete images, abstract thinking practically absent.

In connection with these features of mental processes, literacy training is organized using techniques and methods that help to implement the principles of accessibility and feasibility, visibility and individual approach. Play occupies an important place in the lesson.

Let us formulate the main pedagogical requirements to the literacy learning process.

1. At the beginning of each stage of the lesson, the teacher informs the children that
they will do and why, and at the end of the work he evaluates what
And how they did it.

2. Tasks and questions are formulated specifically and short
phrases.

3. The general class form of work predominates, the teacher is constantly
shows examples of completing or completing tasks.

4. At a reading lesson most children should read, and during writing lessons they should write.

5. During the lesson, it is necessary to change the types of students’ activities several times.

6. Visual aids, didactic material, game tasks should be used to such an extent that learning is accessible and interesting, but does not overload the attention of students.

7.When planning work, it is necessary to take into account the preparedness of the entire class and individually each student (group of students).

8.Use punishment methods carefully, giving preference to rewarding the child.

The success of organizing literacy training depends on the extent to which the teacher has linguistic knowledge and takes into account the requirements of psychology and pedagogy.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF LITERACY TEACHING METHODS

Plan:

1. Concept of the method. Classification of methods.

2.Letter methods.

3.Sound methods.

4.Syllable methods.

5. Whole word method.

6. Sound analytical-synthetic method K.D. Ushinsky.

7. Development of the K.D. method Ushinsky.

Psychological and pedagogical foundations of literacy teaching methods

Pedagogy and didactics

What is a teaching method? In the literature, there are different approaches to defining this concept: 1 this is the way the teacher and students act; 2 a set of working methods; 3 the path along which the teacher leads students from ignorance to knowledge; 4 system of actions of the teacher and students, etc. Acquisition of literacy is the first stage of children’s schooling, during which they must develop initial reading and writing skills. Recoding, which is mentioned above, is the main subject of literacy teaching methods, therefore...

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Psychological and pedagogical foundations of literacy teaching methods.

What is it? teaching method ? In the literature, there are different approaches to defining this concept: 1) this is the way of activity of the teacher and students; 2) a set of working methods; 3) the path along which the teacher leads students from ignorance to knowledge; 4) the system of actions of the teacher and students, etc.

Literacy skillsthe first stage of children’s schooling, during which they must develop basic reading and writing skills.
The further success of the school largely depends on how this initial literacy training is organized.

Reading and writing skills are speech skills, just like reading and writing are types of human speech activity. Both reading and writing skills are formed in inextricable unity with other types of speech activity - with oral statements, with listening, with auditory perception of someone else's speech, with internal speech.
As separate types of speech activity, reading and writing are complex processes that consist of numerous operations. Thus, the reader needs to perceive graphic signs, recode them into sounds, say what he read out loud or “to himself,” and comprehend the information contained in each word, sentence, and paragraph.

Psychophysiological basis of readinginterdependent and interconnected activity of the auditory, visual and speech motor analyzers. Cognitive processes such as thinking, speech, memory, attention, imaginative perception, etc. are of great importance for the success of mastering reading.

The psychophysiological basis of writing is the same as reading, with the additional inclusion of the motor analyzer. But, as evidenced by the research of A.R. Luria and R.E. Levina, the formation of this skill is carried out with more subtle and perfect work of all psychophysiological components, sufficient development at the preschool stage of the experience of sound generalizations and morphological analysis.

The reading mechanism consists of recoding printed (or written) signs and their complexes into semantic units, into words; writing is the process of recoding the semantic units of our speech into conventional signs or their complexes, which can be written or printed.

If Russian writing were ideographic, then each sign, or ideogram, would be recoded directly into a semantic unit, or into a word, into a concept; Accordingly, when writing, each word would be encoded using an ideogram. But our writing is sound, therefore, the recoding process is complicated by the need for an intermediate stage of translating graphic signs into sounds, i.e., the need for sound-letter analysis of words: when writing, sounds are recoded into letters, when reading, on the contrary, letters are recoded into sounds.

By the way, the above view of the process of reading and writing determines the need for unity in teaching these two skills: direct and reverse recoding must alternate and run in parallel.

Linguistic foundations of literacy teaching methods.

Teaching literacy can be successful if the methodology also takes into account the linguistic laws of the language and, above all, those that are characteristic of Russian phonetics and graphics. Let's look at the main ones.

Russian writing is sound. The main phonemes of the sound composition of speech are transmitted using special letters or their combinations. So, in the word horse sounds [k] and [o] are encoded with the corresponding letters k and o, and the soft consonant [n, ] letter combination n i b.

Speech sounds are “an element of spoken speech formed by the speech organs. With the phonetic division of speech, the sound is part of a syllable, the shortest, further indivisible sound unit pronounced in one articulation.”

Phoneme is a unit of the sound system of a language that distinguishes word forms of this language and is represented in speech by one or more sounds that are its allophones. In the word [mjlako], the phoneme [o] is presented in the form of allophones [ъ], [а], [о].

The phoneme is realized in the speech stream in speech sounds (allophones) - vowels and consonants.

Vowels are sounds that are formed in the larynx and are syllabic; when pronouncing them, the air stream does not encounter an obstacle. There are 6 vowel sounds in the Russian language.

Consonants are sounds that are formed in the oral or nasal cavity with the help of voice and noise (or noise only) and are not syllabic-forming; when they are pronounced, the air stream encounters an obstacle. The number of consonant sounds has not yet been agreed upon by the various phonetic schools. In school practice, the number most often called is 37.

So, consonants are characterized by the following parameters: the participation of voice and noise: noisy (voiced and voiceless) [b], [n], etc. and sonorant [r, l, m, n]; by method of formation: plosives [b, p, d, t, g, k], fricatives [v, f, s, z, w, g, sch, x, j], tremulous [r], affricates [ts, h]; occipital passages [m, n, l]; by place of formation: labial [b, p, m] and lingual [d, t, g], etc.; by hardness and softness; according to the participation of the velum palatine: nasal [m, n] and oral [b and p].

Sounds are encoded in writing by letters. For example, the sound [a] is indicated in writing by the letter i in the word ball and the letter a in the word cancer .
Russian writing is sound, or more precisely, phonemic (phonemic). This means that each basic sound of speech, or each phoneme, in the graphic system of the language has its own sign its own grapheme.

The methodology for teaching literacy, focusing students and teachers on sounds, takes into account the features of the Russian phonetic system.

It is very important for teaching literacy which sound units in the Russian language perform a meaningful function (i.e. they are phonemes, “basic sounds”), and which do not perform such a function (variants of “basic sounds” phonemes in weak positions).

The Russian language has 6 vowel phonemes: a, o, u, s, i, e and 37 consonant phonemes: hard p, b, m, f, v, t, d, s, z, l, n, sh, zh , r, g, k, x, c, soft p", b", m", f", e", ig", d", s", z", l", n", r", long w ", long w", h, i.

In modern schools, the sound method of teaching literacy has been adopted. Schoolchildren identify sounds, analyze them, synthesize them, and on this basis learn letters and the entire reading process. In this work, it is necessary to take into account the features of the Russian graphic system, the features of designating sounds in writing. The following features of the graphic system of the Russian language are most important for the methodology of teaching literacy:

The basis of Russian graphics is the syllabic principle. It consists in the fact that a single letter (grapheme), as a rule, cannot be read, since it is read taking into account subsequent letters. For example, we cannot read the letter l, because, without seeing the next letter, we do not know whether it is hard or soft; but we read two letters, whether or lu, unmistakably: in the first case, l is soft, in the second, l is hard. The beginning of the form

Since in the Russian language the sound content of a letter is revealed only in combination with other letters, then, therefore, letter-by-letter reading is impossible; it would constantly lead to errors in reading and the need for corrections. Therefore, in teaching literacy, the principle of syllabic (positional) reading has been adopted. From the very beginning of reading, schoolchildren focus on the syllable as a reading unit. Those children who have acquired the skill of letter-by-letter reading as a result of home schooling are relearned at school.

2. Classification of teaching methods

Since teaching methods are numerous and have multiple characteristics, they can be classified on several grounds.

1) According to the sources of transmission and the nature of information perception system of traditional methods (E.Ya. Golant, I.T. Ogorodnikov, S.I. Perovsky): verbal methods (story, conversation, lecture, etc.); visual (display, demonstration, etc.); practical ( laboratory works, essays, etc.).

2) By the nature of the mutual activity of the teacher and students - the system of teaching methods by I. Ya. Lerner. Skatkina M.N.: explanatory and illustrative method, reproductive method, problem presentation method, partial search or heuristic method, research method.

3) According to the main components of the teacher’s activity Yu.K. Babansky’s system of methods, including three large groups teaching methods: a) methods of organizing and carrying out educational activities (verbal, visual, practical, reproductive and problem-based, inductive and deductive, independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher); b) methods of stimulating and motivating learning (methods of generating interest educational games, analyzing life situations, creating situations of success; methods of forming duty and responsibility in learning explaining the social and personal significance of learning, presenting pedagogical requirements); c) methods of control and self-control (oral and written control, laboratory and practical work, machine and machineless programmed control, frontal and differentiated, current and final).

4) By the combination of external and internal in the activities of the teacher and student M.I. Makhmutov’s system of methods: includes a system of methods of problem-based developmental teaching (monological, demonstrative, dialogical, heuristic, research, algorithmic and programmed).

Different points of view on the problem of classifying methods reflect the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them. But a holistic approach to characterizing their essence is becoming increasingly clear. What classification of methods should a teacher follow? The one that is more understandable to him and convenient in his work. From modern classifications of methods, we will consider the methods of problem-based developmental teaching developed by M.I. Makhmutov. In our opinion, this system of methods is modified to more high level system of Lerner-Skatkin methods.

In the system of general didactic teaching methods, I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkin identified two groups: reproductive (information-receptive and actually reproductive) and productive (problem presentation, heuristic, research). The specifics of these teaching methods, related to the activities of the teacher (teaching) and the activities of students (learning), are presented in the table.
Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students.

The following methods are inherent in this classification:
Explanatory-illustrative, or information-receptive (reception - perception), method. The essence of this method is that the teacher communicates ready-made information through various means, and students perceive it, understand it and record it in memory. This includes techniques such as story, lecture, explanation, working with a textbook, demonstration.
Reproductive method. Consists of reproduction by the student educational activities according to a predetermined algorithm. Used to help students acquire skills and abilities.
A problematic presentation of the material being studied. When working using this method, the teacher poses a problem to the students and himself shows the way to solve it, revealing the contradictions that arise. The purpose of this method is to show an example of the process of scientific knowledge. At the same time, students follow the logic of solving a problem, become familiar with the method and technique of scientific thinking, and an example of a culture of deploying cognitive actions.
Partial search (heuristic) method. Its essence is that the teacher breaks down a problematic problem into subproblems, and students carry out individual steps to find its solution. Each step involves creative activity, but there is no comprehensive solution to the problem yet.
Research method. In this case, students are presented with a cognitive task, which they solve independently, selecting the necessary techniques for this. This method is designed to ensure the development of students' abilities creative application knowledge. At the same time, they master the methods of scientific knowledge and accumulate experience in research and creative activities.

Speech development during literacy learning

Teaching first-graders to read and write is permeated by work on the development of speech and the culture of speech behavior

The first school week of September is devoted to familiarization with the concept of “speech”, determining the main requirements for speech (to be understandable and polite), highlighting the basic rules of communication at school and in the classroom (keep quiet, do not shout, speak so that you can be heard, etc. .). Students practically become familiar with the stylistic varieties of speech depending on the conditions and tasks of communication (you can say something in a businesslike manner, without expressing your emotions, or you can paint a picture with words, conveying your feelings and attitude).

Purpose of these lessons

help children:

realize the need to study speech;

develop the ability to choose the right words taking into account the communication situation (with whom, when, where, why are you talking);

introduce students to different positions of speakers depending on their role in communication (teacher, student, senior, junior, acquaintance, stranger);

enter a sufficient number of words of speech etiquette into the active dictionary

The communicative and speech development of students during the period of literacy training is carried out at all levels: phonetic, lexical, grammatical. On their basis, there is a targeted development and improvement of coherent speech.

From the first pages of the alphabet, much attention is paid to the development of the pronunciation culture of first-graders (diction, voice strength, intonation, speech rate, etc.). For these purposes, the alphabet contains numerous tongue twisters, tongue twisters, riddles and other works of small folklore genres. All this improves the pronunciation culture of children, stimulates the speech activity of schoolchildren, the development of coherent speech, sensitivity to the “sound beauties of their native language” (K. D. Ushinsky). The linguistic development of students is also facilitated by exercises in the alphabet with synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, tasks on word formation and inflection. During the period of literacy training, all this work is carried out without introducing special terminology.

Among the techniques that activate the cognitive activity of students are:

Speech warm-ups“Ask each other”, “Why a Minute”, dialogue-dramatization of a poem, formulation of questions for a drawing, acting out dialogues (dialogues real persons, dialogues of plants and animals, dialogues of animated objects), acting out pantomimic scenes.
Logic problemsguessing riddles; reading a logical story riddles and answering questions; selection of riddles, solution problematic issues, test questions; solving a logical problem in the form of a picture-riddle, rebus
Creative tasks:

Creative stories plot story based on direct perception, plot and descriptive story based on generalized knowledge, descriptive story based on comparison different phenomena, story-sketch, story essay, story-dialogue. Their distinctive features transmission own opinion schoolchild, the content goes beyond what has been studied, the topic of the story requires reflection.
Creative tasks using music and painting comparison piece of music with the mood of the landscape, determining the character and mood of a musical work, creating an imaginary picture for it, determining the nature of a painting and creating an imaginary musical work for it;
Educational role-playing games creating an imaginary situation and acting it out, games dialogues using dolls, remaking fairy tales and acting them out.

4) Creating problematic situations

When using entertainment in the learning process, one should take into account the degree of difficulty of questions and tasks, the individual characteristics of students, and their attitude to the subject. The teacher must carefully approach the selection of entertaining material, take into account in practice that some entertaining tasks influence the child’s imagination, imaginative ideas, feelings, others sharpen and deepen observation, require intelligence, the ability to use studied material, use reference and other literature.

The activation of cognitive activity becomes higher when teachers purposefully organize the interaction of students in cognition, subject-related practical activities, play and communication, that is, they organize cognitive activity in the lesson so that everyone has the opportunity and desire to become its subject. It is necessary that the content and forms create conditions for satisfying those needs that are sources of personality activity.

In the process of working on some sections of the Russian language program, the following are widely used:

Games competitions (competitions of fairy tales, riddles “Who is more faithful and faster?”, “Don’t yawn!”, etc.)
Task games (“Find...”)
Guessing games (“What will happen if...”)
Role-playing games(Differentiated by the presence of a specific role that each student and teacher takes on, a given plot and the actions of the participants determined by the role).

Didactic games and entertaining exercises are used to increase the efficiency of the educational process.

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But we must not forget that for younger schoolchildren, motives can be present in the process of activity itself. Thus, A. N. Leontyev wrote: “For a child playing with blocks, the motive of the game lies not in making a building, but in making it, that is, in the content of the action itself.” This is said about a preschooler, but a junior schoolchild is still little different in this respect from a preschooler; the methodology should provide for motives in the process of reading and writing, and not only in their perspective.

Therefore, learning to read and write involves various types of speech and mental activity: live conversations, stories, observations, guessing riddles, retelling, recitation, playing sound recordings, films, TV shows. These types of work contribute to the creation of speech situations that comprehend the processes of reading and writing.

What is the essence of reading, what is its mechanism?

All information that a person uses in his activities is encoded; this means that each unit of value corresponds to a conventional sign, or code unit. Spoken speech uses a sound code, or our sound language, in which the meaning of each word is encoded in a specific set of speech sounds; the letter uses a different code - an alphabetic one, in which the letters are correlated with the sounds of the first, oral, sound code. The transition from one code to another is called recoding.

By the way, the above view of the process of reading and writing determines the need for unity in teaching these two skills: direct and reverse recoding must alternate and run in parallel.

Simple graphic pencil drawings. Pencil Drawing Basics

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