Conditional geographical. Cartographic symbols

The symbols on a map or plan are a kind of their alphabet, by which they can be read, find out the nature of the area, the presence of certain objects, and evaluate the landscape. As a rule, symbols on a map convey common features with geographical objects that exist in reality. The ability to decipher cartographic symbols is indispensable when making tourist trips, especially to distant and unfamiliar areas.

All objects indicated on the plan can be measured on a map scale to represent their actual size. Thus, the symbols on a topographic map are its “legend”, their decoding for the purpose of further orientation on the terrain. Homogeneous objects are indicated by the same color or stroke.

All outlines of objects located on the map, according to the method of graphic representation, are divided into several types:

• Area
• Linear
• Spot

The first type consists of objects that occupy a large area on a topographic map, which are expressed by areas enclosed within boundaries in accordance with the scale of the map. These are objects such as lakes, forests, swamps, fields.

Line symbols are outlines in the form of lines and can be seen on a map scale along the length of an object. These are rivers, railways or roads, power lines, clearings, streams, etc.

Dotted outlines (out-of-scale) indicate small objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale. These can be either individual cities or trees, wells, pipes and other small individual objects.

Symbols are applied in order to have as complete an idea as possible about the specified area, but this does not mean that absolutely all the smallest details of a real individual area or city have been identified. The plan indicates only those objects that are of great importance for the national economy, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, and military personnel.

Types of symbols on maps

To recognize map signs, you need to be able to decipher them. Conventional symbols are divided into scale, non-scale and explanatory.

• Scale symbols indicate local objects that can be expressed in size on the scale of a topographic map. Their graphic designation appears in the form of a small dotted line or thin line. The area inside the border is filled with symbols that correspond to the presence of real objects in this area. Using scale marks on a map or plan, you can measure the area and dimensions of a real topographical object, as well as its outline.
• Off-scale symbols indicate objects that cannot be displayed on a plan scale, the size of which cannot be judged. These are some separate buildings, wells, towers, pipes, kilometer posts, etc. Out-of-scale symbols do not indicate the dimensions of an object located on the plan, so it is difficult to determine the actual width or length of a pipe, elevator or free-standing tree. The purpose of off-scale symbols is to accurately indicate a specific object, which is always important when orienting yourself while traveling in an unfamiliar area. The exact location of the indicated objects is carried out by the main point of the symbol: this can be the center or lower middle point of the figure, the vertex of a right angle, the lower center of the figure, the axis of the symbol.
• Explanatory signs serve to disclose information about scale and non-scale designations. They give additional characteristics to objects located on a plan or map, for example, indicating the direction of river flow with arrows, designating the forest type with special signs, the load capacity of the bridge, the nature of the road surface, the thickness and height of the trees in the forest.

In addition, topographic plans contain other symbols that serve as additional characteristics for some of the specified objects:

• Signatures

Some signatures are used in full, others in abbreviated form. The names of settlements, rivers and lakes are fully deciphered. Abbreviated labels are used to indicate more detailed characteristics of certain objects.

• Digital legend

They are used to indicate the width and length of rivers, roads and railways, transmission lines, the height of points above sea level, the depth of fords, etc. The standard map scale designation is always the same and depends only on the size of this scale (for example, 1:1000, 1:100, 1:25000, etc.).

In order to make it as easy as possible to navigate a map or plan, symbols are indicated in different colors. More than twenty different shades are used to distinguish even the smallest objects, from intensely colored areas to less vibrant ones. To make the map easy to read, there is a table at the bottom with a breakdown of the color codes. So, usually water bodies are indicated by blue, cyan, turquoise; forest objects in green; terrain – brown; city ​​blocks and small settlements – gray-olive; highways and highways - orange; state borders are purple, neutral area is black. Moreover, neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and structures are indicated in orange, and neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant structures and improved dirt roads are indicated in yellow.

The unified system of symbols for maps and site plans is based on the following provisions:

• Each graphic sign always corresponds to a specific type or phenomenon.
• Each sign has its own clear pattern.
• If the map and plan differ in scale, objects will not differ in their designation. The only difference will be in their sizes.
• Drawings of real terrain objects usually indicate an associative connection with it, and therefore reproduce the profile or appearance of these objects.

To establish an associative connection between a sign and an object, there are 10 types of composition formation:

Cartography as a science dates back to the Bronze Age. Archaeological excavations have demonstrated that the oldest examples were created in Egypt, ancient Babylon, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), the Marshall Islands and Italy. Without a schematic drawing of the terrain, precise movement and implementation of military tactics is impossible. Despite completely different ideas about the shape of the planet, the inhabitants of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Century and the present tried to record all the features of the landscape as reliably as possible. Ancient people allowed many geographical inaccuracies in cartography, and the creation of diagrams could be equated to art - they were performed by real masters and supplemented with many artistic elements. For example, cities were drawn in the form of castle towers with family coats of arms, forests were represented by several types of trees, trading ports were indicated by the type of ships popular in the region (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Maps used until the last century

Samples more similar to modern ones appeared only after the 18th century, when humanity gained a complete understanding of the geography of the planet, the location of all rivers, seas, and oceans.

However, the most accurate plans became available by the mid-twentieth century.

In everyday life, knowing what the symbols of geographic maps mean will help you quickly get to any destination. In wilderness and survival situations, if you get lost in the forest but have a map with you, you can save your life and get out easily. Despite the popularity of GPS navigators, electronic equipment can always fail, incorrectly determine coordinates or run out of power. Paper analogues are at hand and come to the rescue in any situation. They are easy to use not only to find out your location in a wild or populated area, but also to plot a shorter driving route. Without the use of diagrams, it is difficult to imagine the work of military personnel, foresters, fishermen, geological engineers and builders. What types of symbols exist on maps and how to determine their exact meaning, we will consider further.

Symbols of geographical maps

Conventional signs on the map are presented in the form of simplified graphic symbols indicating landscape objects, for example, mountain ranges, lakes, forest plantations, paths, highways, public and residential buildings, boundaries between settlements. The icons vary depending on the type of application. For example, for urban plans they will be the same, but for suburban plans they will be completely different.

The following groups of signs are distinguished (Figure 2):

1. Scientific or reference. Includes soil types, landscape and soil details, local fossils, types of water bodies and trees, common animals, birds and fish, buildings, municipal and socio-cultural monuments, transport links and much more. The purpose of such diagrams is a detailed display of all important features of the landscape for accurate orientation. Also used for informational purposes;
2. Educational. Developed for teaching children of preschool and school age. Often interactive and intuitive;
3. Tourist. It is impossible to imagine any traveler’s luggage without them. Contains accurate landscape details. However, more attention is paid to paths in forests and mountains, crossings over rough or swampy terrain. This group also includes urban options that clearly explain the new city. With their help, it is easy to visit all excursion places without getting lost in the interweaving of residential areas and numerous streets.

The newer the diagram, the more closely it corresponds to the actual location of all objects. Often presented in color for easier orientation.

The structure of all geographical maps - both outdated and modern - is divided into two main parts:

• Schematically depicted landscape. The colors evoke the correct associations with the real components of the relief: forest plantations are green, ponds are blue or blue, hills are brown, highways are red or orange, and railway tracks are black. Sometimes details are specified, such as the material of the bridge or the type of scaffolding. However, on each plane there are many more signs displayed, many of them may seem incomprehensible at first glance;
• Legend (Figure 3). A legend is an explanation for each individual diagram. There is no general standardization in cartography, but decoding of symbols and content must be present, otherwise it is considered invalid. You can find the legend in the free fields. Sometimes a separate place is allocated for it. Even if you have forgotten what the pictograms on the plan mean, turning to the legend, you can intuitively figure it out.

Contrary to prevailing stereotypes, reading a geographic map does not require specialized skills, and even a schoolchild can cope with this task. When faced with a new scheme, it is enough to familiarize yourself with the legend and start getting your bearings.

Types of symbols on maps

Symbols of geographical maps are necessary to display schematic objects, their features and characteristics on the terrain plan. They are divided into three types, which are determined by scale: linear, area and point. Each of them includes objects with similar features: industrial buildings and administrative facilities (bridges, railway crossings, borders between regions and countries) or details of the natural landscape. Each group is indicated by a simple and easy to remember icon. For example, coniferous forests are represented by the schematic symbol of a pine tree (Figure 4). It reliably displays the type of object and is universal for most terrain plans, which will provide convenient and instant orientation in any conditions.

Basic requirements for icons that can be used to select a suitable geographic map:

1. Readability and recognition;
2. No overload of elements;
3. Ease of remembering;
4. Compact and reliable.

We will consider further what the symbols of topographic maps include.

Linear signs

Linear symbols on the map depict objects that have a certain extent (Figure 5).

Among them:

1. Roads (motorways, highways, highways, paths). They are divided into dirt and asphalt. Modern and roadworthy are highlighted in orange. Gray or black represent unpaved sections of the road or trail;
2. Railway and tram tracks. They are divided by the number of tracks (one or several pairs of rails), width (narrow or standard), and general condition (working, closed, and under construction). They are indicated by a horizontal line on which perpendicular lines are applied in the order: one track - one line. A rectangle is drawn on the line, which indicates the station building or platform;
3. Bridges. They vary depending on the material (reinforced concrete, wood, stone and others), the number of tiers, dynamics (solid, sliding or lifting). Pontoon (floating) vessels are indicated by separate symbols;
4. Gas or oil pipelines;
5. Power lines;
6. Cellular or radio towers;
7. Rivers of any length or streams, canals;
8. Any fences or walls,
9. Borders between settlements and countries.

Represented by colored thin, bold and bold lines (straight, curved). It is worth noting that only their length in millimeters with translation to scale is accurate.

On geographical maps there is no correct indication of the width of linear symbols.

Exaggerated width makes reading easier. This group also includes isolines (isohypses), necessary for three-dimensional designation of the shapes and features of the territory.

Area signs

Area (also known as scale) symbols on a local map are needed to correctly convey the shape and outline, relief, size and location of large geographical objects (Figure 6). Also called “contour”. These include both individual areas and entire cities. They have a reliable length and width in a two-dimensional plane, presented on a reduced scale (for example, 1:10000) and forms as close as possible to reality. Their structure is divided into an outline and a colored background, shading or a grid of identical symbols indicating the properties of the object.

Any card has its own special language - special symbols. Geography studies all these designations, classifies them, and also develops new symbols to designate certain objects, phenomena and processes. Having a general understanding of conventional cartographic signs is useful for absolutely everyone. Such knowledge is not only interesting in itself, but will certainly be useful to you in real life.

This article is devoted to conventional signs in geography, which are used in the preparation of topographic, contour, thematic maps and large-scale terrain plans.

ABC cards

Just as our speech consists of letters, words and sentences, so any map includes a set of specific symbols. With their help, topographers transfer this or that terrain onto paper. Conventional signs in geography are a system of special graphic symbols used to designate specific objects, their properties and characteristics. This is a kind of “language” of the map, created artificially.

It is quite difficult to say exactly when the very first geographical maps appeared. On all continents of the planet, archaeologists find ancient primitive drawings on stones, bones or wood, created by primitive people. This is how they depicted the area in which they had to live, hunt and defend themselves from enemies.

Modern symbols on geographic maps display all the most important elements of the area: landforms, rivers and lakes, fields and forests, settlements, communication routes, country borders, etc. The larger the image scale, the more objects can be plotted on the map . For example, on a detailed plan of the area, as a rule, all wells and sources of drinking water are marked. At the same time, marking such objects on a map of a region or country would be stupid and impractical.

A little history or how the symbols of geographical maps changed

Geography is a science that is unusually closely related to history. Let's delve into it to find out what cartographic images looked like many centuries ago.

Thus, ancient medieval maps were characterized by an artistic representation of the area with the widespread use of drawings as symbols. Geography at that time was just beginning to develop as a scientific discipline, therefore, when compiling cartographic images, the scale and outlines (borders) of area objects were often distorted.

On the other hand, all the drawings on the old drawings and portolans were individual and completely understandable. But these days you have to use your memory to learn what certain symbols on geographical maps mean.

From about the second half of the 18th century, there was a tendency in European cartography towards a gradual transition from individual perspective drawings to more specific plan symbols. In parallel with this, a need arose for a more accurate display of distances and areas on geographic maps.

Geography: and topographic maps

Topographic maps and terrain plans are distinguished by fairly large scales (from 1:100,000 or more). They are most often used in industry, agriculture, geological exploration, urban planning and tourism. Accordingly, the terrain on such maps should be displayed in as much detail and detail as possible.

For this purpose, a special system of graphic symbols was developed. In geography, it is also often called the “map legend.” For ease of reading and ease of memorization, many of these signs resemble the real appearance of the terrain objects they depict (from above or from the side). This system of cartographic symbols is standardized and mandatory for all enterprises that produce large-scale topographic maps.

The topic “Conventional signs” is studied in the school geography course in the 6th grade. To check the level of mastery of a given topic, students are often asked to write a short topographical story. Each of you probably wrote a similar “essay” at school. Sentences with symbols on geography look something like the photo below:

All symbols in cartography are usually divided into four groups:

• scale (area or contour);
• off-scale;
• linear;
• explanatory.

Let's take a closer look at each of these groups of signs.

Scale signs and their examples

In cartography, scale signs are those that are used to fill in any area objects. It could be a field, a forest or an orchard. Using these symbols on the map, you can determine not only the type and location of a particular object, but also its actual size.

The boundaries of area objects on topographic maps and site plans can be depicted as solid lines (black, blue, brown or pink), dotted or simple dotted lines. Examples of large-scale cartographic symbols are presented below in the figure:

Off-scale signs

If a terrain feature cannot be depicted on the real scale of a plan or map, then non-scale symbols are used. We are talking about too small things, for example, a windmill, a sculptural monument, a rock outcrop, a spring or a well.

The exact location of such an object on the ground is determined by the main point of the symbol. For symmetrical signs this point is located in the center of the figure, for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base, and for signs based on a right angle - at the apex of such an angle.

It is worth noting that objects expressed on maps by out-of-scale symbols serve as excellent landmarks on the ground. Examples of off-scale cartographic symbols are presented in the figure below:

Linear signs

Sometimes the so-called linear cartographic signs are included in a separate group. It is not difficult to guess that they are used to designate linearly extended objects on plans and maps - roads, boundaries of administrative units, railways, fords, etc. An interesting feature of linear designations: their length always corresponds to the scale of the map, but the width is significantly exaggerated.

Examples of linear cartographic symbols are presented in the figure below.

Explanatory signs

Perhaps the most informative is the group of explanatory symbols. With their help, additional characteristics of the depicted terrain objects are indicated. For example, a blue arrow in a river bed indicates the direction of its flow, and the number of transverse strokes on a railroad symbol corresponds to the number of tracks.

As a rule, maps and plans are labeled with the names of cities, towns, villages, mountain peaks, rivers and other geographical features. Explanatory symbols can be numeric or alphabetic. Letter designations are most often given in abbreviated form (for example, a ferry crossing is indicated as the abbreviation “par.”).

Symbols of contour and thematic maps

A contour map is a special type of geographic map intended for educational purposes. It contains only a coordinate grid and some elements of a geographical basis.

The set of symbols for contour maps in geography is not very wide. The very name of these maps is quite eloquent: to compile them, only contour marks of the boundaries of certain objects - countries, regions and regions - are used. Sometimes rivers and large cities are also marked on them (in the form of dots). By and large, a contour map is a “silent” map, which is precisely intended to fill its surface with certain conventional symbols.

Thematic maps are most often found in geography atlases. The symbols of such cards are extremely diverse. They can be depicted as a color background, areas or so-called isolines. Diagrams and cartograms are often used. In general, each type of thematic map has its own set of specific symbols.

Definition 1

Cartographic symbols- symbolic graphic symbols that are used to depict various objects and their characteristics on cartographic images (maps and topographic plans).

Sometimes conventional signs are called map legend.

Types of symbols by scale

Depending on the scale, $3$ groups of conventional signs are distinguished:

• scale (area and linear);
• off-scale (point);
• explanatory.

Using area scale symbols, extended objects are displayed on a map scale. On a map, scale marks allow you to determine not only the location of an object, but also its size and outline.

Example 1

Scale symbols are the territory of the state on a map of scale $1:10,000,000$ or a reservoir on a map of scale $1:10,000$.

Linear symbols are used to display objects that are significantly extended in one dimension, such as roads. Only one dimension (in which the object is most extended) is consistent with the scale on such signs, while the other is scale-free. The position of an object is determined by a conventional or explicit centerline.

Out-of-scale point symbols are used on maps to display features whose dimensions are not expressed on the map. The largest cities on the world map are displayed with out-of-scale signs - dots. The actual placement of the object is determined by the main point of the point symbol.

The main point is placed at off-scale signs as follows:

• in the center of the figure for symmetrical signs;
• in the middle of the base for signs with a wide base;
• at the vertex of a right angle, which is the base, if the sign has such an angle;
• in the center of the bottom figure, if the sign is a combination of several figures.

Explanatory signs are intended to characterize local items and their varieties. Explanatory signs may indicate the number of railway tracks and the direction of river flow.

Note 1

On large-scale maps, the signs of individual objects are indicated separately; on smaller-scale maps, objects of the same type are grouped and marked with one sign.

Conventional signs by content

1. signs and signatures of settlements;
2. signs of individual local facilities;
3. signs of individual relief elements;
4. transport infrastructure signs;
5. signs of hydrographic network objects;
6. signs of soil and vegetation cover;

Signs and signatures of settlements

On maps of scale $1:100,000 and larger, all settlements are indicated along with a caption of their names. Moreover, the names of cities are written in upright capital letters, rural settlements - in lowercase letters, urban and holiday villages - in lowercase slanted letters.

Large-scale maps display external contours and layout, highlighting major highways, businesses, prominent knowledge and landmarks.

Example 2

On maps of scale $1:25\000$ and $1:50\000$ the type of building (fireproof or non-fireproof) is shown in color.

The figure below shows signs of settlements used on maps of various eras.

Signs for individual local facilities

Individual local objects, which are landmarks, are depicted on the map mainly with off-scale signs. These can be towers, mines, adits, churches, radio masts, rock outcrops.

Signs of individual relief elements

Relief elements are marked on the map with appropriate symbols.

Note 2

An object of natural origin is depicted with brown lines and marks.

Transport infrastructure signs

Transport infrastructure objects displayed on topographic maps include road and railway networks, structures and bridges.

When plotted on a map, paved roads (freeways, improved highways, improved dirt roads) and unpaved roads are distinguished. All paved roads are shown on the map, indicating the width and material of the pavement.

The color of the road on the map indicates its type. Motorways and highways are painted orange, improved dirt roads are yellow (occasionally orange), unpaved country roads, field, forest and seasonal roads are uncolored.

Signs of hydrographic network objects

The map depicts the following elements of the hydrographic network - the coastal part of the seas, rivers, lakes, canals, streams, wells, ponds and other bodies of water.

Reservoirs are plotted on the map if their area in the image is more than $1 mm^2$. In other cases, a pond is applied only because it is of high importance, for example in arid areas. Next to the objects their name is indicated.

The characteristics of objects of the hydrographic network are indicated next to the signature of the name of the object. In particular, they indicate in the form of a fraction the width (numerator), depth and nature of the soil (denominator), as well as the speed (in m/s) and direction of the flow. Hydraulic structures - ferries, dams, locks - are also indicated along with their characteristics. Rivers and canals are mapped in full. In this case, the type of display is determined by the width of the object and the scale of the map.

Note 4

In particular, at a map scale of more than $1:50,000$, objects with a width of less than $5$ m, at a scale of less than $1:100,000$ - less than $10$ m are represented by a $1$ line, and wider objects - by two lines. Also, $2$ lines indicate channels and ditches with a width of $3$ m or more, and with a smaller width - one line.

On large-scale maps, blue circles indicate wells, with the letter “k” or “art.k” in the case of an artesian well placed next to them. In dry areas, wells and water supply facilities are shown with enlarged signs. Water pipelines on maps are shown by lines with blue dots: solid lines - above-ground, broken lines - underground.

Land cover signs

Often, when displaying land cover on a map, a combination of scale and off-scale symbols is used. Signs denoting forests, shrubs, gardens, swamps, meadows, and character are large-scale, and individual objects, for example, free-standing trees, are non-scale.

Example 3

A swampy meadow is displayed on the map as a combination of symbols of meadow, bushes and swamp in a closed contour.

The contours of areas of terrain occupied by forest, bushes or swamps are drawn with a dotted line, except when the border is a fence, roads or other linear local object.

Areas covered with forest are indicated in green with a symbol indicating the type of forest (coniferous, deciduous or mixed). Areas with forest growth or nurseries are shown in pale green on the map.

Example 4

The picture below on the left shows a coniferous pine forest with an average tree height of $25$ meters and a width of $0.3$ m, and a typical tree trunk spacing of $6$ m. The picture on the right shows a deciduous maple forest with a tree height of $12$ m and a trunk width of $0.2$ m, the distance between which is on average $3$ meters.

Swamps are shown on the map by horizontal shading in blue. In this case, the type of hatching shows the degree of passability: intermittent hatching – passable, solid – difficult and impassable.

Note 5

Swamps with a depth of less than $0.6$ m are considered passable.

The blue vertical shading on the map indicates salt marshes. Just like for swamps, solid shading indicates impassable salt marshes, intermittent shading indicates passable ones.

Symbol colors on topographic maps

The colors used to depict objects on maps are universal for all scales. Black line marks – buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and borders, brown line marks – relief elements, blue – hydrographic network. Area signs are light blue - water mirrors of hydrographic network objects, green - areas of trees and shrubs, orange - blocks with fire-resistant buildings and highways, yellow - blocks with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads.

Note 6

On military and special maps special symbols are applied.

Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are freely circulating on the Internet. We all love to download them, look at them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased maps printed in modern times will not carry as much accuracy and specificity. The symbols and symbols on the topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other symbols on maps purchased in the store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical to other types of cards (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

Speed ​​and direction of river flow (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Soil type ( TO - rocky, P - sand, T - solid, IN - viscous)
Water line mark, shore height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky soil, 1,0 - speed (m/sec)
The swamp is passable
The swamp is impassable
Characteristics of bridges: D- construction material ( D - wood, TO - stone, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete), 43 - length of the bridge, 4 - width of the roadway (m), 10 - load capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Winter road, a functioning road only in the winter season, during the cold period. Can go through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the roadway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - width of the roadway
Go away
Railway track
Gas pipeline
Power lines (PTL)
Dismantled railway
Single track railway, narrow gauge. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 —width of the covered part, 8 — the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - crushed stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, Parma
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous area without vegetation cover, covered with kurum stones and rock outcrops
Mountainous area with vegetation cover and sparse trees, the forest border is visible
Outlier rocks with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and rocky cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. Near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photos of some geographical objects

The main winter road laid through the taiga forest. In summer there are thickets here (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, Northern Urals)

Gat - road with wooden covering (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Remnant rocks (Old Stone rock, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of walking along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check in advance the reliability of the information from other sources. There may no longer be any paths or roads at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and look like wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still provide more accurate information, and using them you can more productively calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother your heads with unnecessary symbols and symbols of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those interested in details can take a look.

Maps of the USSR General Staff were made using the Soviet system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance of the pre-war period. “The maps are compiled in a conformal transverse cylindrical Gauss-Kruger projection, calculated using the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone,” - and if you don’t understand, it doesn’t matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) the points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using GPS.