This means the most important difference between Hellas. Lada Ellada: legends of "Ellada" based on "Kalina"

Many Greeks do not call themselves Greeks. They save long traditions and they call their country Hellas, and themselves Hellenes. The very concept of "Greece" comes from Latin word. A small place in the northeastern part of the country was called Greece several centuries BC. But later this name spread throughout the state. For some reason, they are called Greeks in most countries of the world, and the inhabitants of this country themselves imagined themselves to be Hellenes in Hellas.

Where did the name "Hellas" come from?

In ancient times, not all of Greece was called Hellas. Now cultural scientists associate this name exclusively with Ancient Greece. In journalism, and indeed in scientific literature, the word “Hellenes” is constantly used. Hellas and Greece are identical concepts. Modern Greece did not always have the same borders. Territorial boundaries have changed over the centuries. Now some part of Greece belongs to the Turkish state, another to Italy. The lands occupied in ancient times by Italy passed to Greece. Undoubtedly, the civilization that is part of Europe today began a long time ago. Scientists call Ancient times- Antiquity. If we translate this word into Russian from Latin, we get the term “antiquity.” Scientists associate both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with Antiquity. Researchers are accustomed to calling the north of the Mediterranean, along with North Africa, some part of Asia, and all of Europe, Antique. The places where today scientists find imprints of Greek and Hellenic civilization are usually considered to be the heritage of European and Greek culture.

Greece. Where is this, what country is it?

The southern part of the Balkans is Greece. People in this state are accustomed to valuing their wealth. Among them are not only minerals, but also water resources. The country is washed by the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Ionian Seas. The water element of Greece is beautiful. Picturesque seascapes, delightful island part. The lands of this state are fertile, but there is very little land. It is always dry and hot here, which at any time favored livestock rather than crop production.

Ancient myths gave the basis for the cultural traditions of this country. So, Pandora, who gave birth to several children, was married to the Supreme Thunderer Zeus. One of the sons was named Grekos. Two more - Macedon and Magnis. All historians unanimously say that Greece was named after the eldest son of Zeus. Grekos inherited courage, belligerence, and bravery from his father. But at first, only one of the areas in the north-west of Athens was called Greece.

The eldest son of the supreme celestials never sat still. He traveled a lot, not for the sake of conquest, but more for the founding of new cities on empty lands. This is how a number of states appeared in Asia Minor. Grecos formed colonies in Italy. He took control of almost the entire Apennine Peninsula. It is known that the inhabitants of Italy called the townspeople ruled by Grekos Greeks. Other researchers believe that Greece is a Roman term, and the Greeks themselves called themselves Hellenes.

But the word “Greece” was well entrenched in the minds of foreigners, so much so that to this day few foreigners do not think of officially calling the Greeks Hellenes. This concept is typical only for scientific world cultural scientists, historians and Greek scholars. Even Aristotle wrote that the Hellenes did not always call themselves that. There is evidence that in ancient times they were called Greeks. Here, apparently, it makes itself felt Ancient Greek mythology. Later the Greeks had a ruler named Hellenes. Allegedly, after the name of the king, they called themselves Hellenes. But this is just another theory that has the right to life.

Let's take a look at Homer's poem Iliad. In the part where the Greeks’ campaign against Troy is described, there is a mention that among the alien warriors from almost the same region, there were those who called themselves residents of the city of Gray (Greeks) and Hellenes (from a place in Thessaly). All of them, without exception, were strong and courageous. There is another speculation about the origin of the concept of “Hellenes”. There is evidence that there were once several policies and cities in the possessions of Achilles. One of them was called Hellas. And the Hellenes could have come from there. The writer Pausanias mentioned in his works that Gray was quite big city. And Thucydides spoke about Farrow as about Gray. That's what they called him before. Aristotle says that even before the inhabitants of present-day Greece began to be called Greeks, they called themselves that in the pre-Hellenic period.

As a result of simple conclusions, we can say that the Greeks and Hellenes are 2 tribes that existed in the neighborhood or practically on the same territory, and arose in approximately the same period of time. Perhaps they fought among themselves, and someone became stronger. As a result, culture and traditions were borrowed. Or perhaps they lived in peace and subsequently united. Scientists say that both the Hellenes and the Greeks existed until the adoption of Christianity. Later, people who did not want to become followers of the new religion were still called Hellenes (they were more “friends” with the gods of Olympus and the thunderer Zeus), and adherents of Christianity were called Greeks. Researchers believe that the term “Hellene” means “idolater.”

Modern painting

Outside of Greece, it is still called differently. The inhabitants themselves now call themselves Greeks, the country - Hellas with the Hellenic language, sometimes Greece. However, all Europeans are accustomed to alternating names. In the Russian understanding, Hellas is Ancient Greece. Residents are Greeks. Language – Greek. In almost all European and Russian languages, Greece and Hellas have similar sounds and pronunciations. The East calls the inhabitants of this country differently. In some cases, the names change dramatically. Among them:

Jonan.
Yavana (in Sanskrit).
Yavanim (Hebrew).

These names come from the concept of “Ionians” - residents and migrants from the coast of the Ionian Sea. According to another theory, Ion was the ruler of the Greek islands. This is what the Persians, Turks, Jordanians, and Iranians called the inhabitants of Hellas and the coastal islands. According to another version, “ionan” are rounded headdresses that Greeks still wear to this day to protect themselves from the sun’s rays. The inhabitants of the East were the first to notice this, and now they call the Greeks Ionans. The practice of Georgians regarding the perception of Greeks is interesting. Georgians call the Hellenes “berdzeni”. In their language, this concept means “wisdom.” There are nationalities that call the Greeks “Romios”, since a large period of the life of this state is associated with the history of the Roman Empire.

The experience of the Russians is noteworthy. The ancient Rosichi people never forgot the phrase “The path from the Varangians to the Greeks...”. The foundations of the Greek culture of that period, when the main trade routes intersected with Russia, will never be forgotten, since they are reflected in folk epic Slavs At that time they were called Hellenes in Europe, but in Russia they are Greeks. However, scientists believe that the Greeks were the traders. The goods arrived in Russia from Byzantium, which was populated by people from Greece. They were Christians and brought the foundations of their faith and culture to the Rosichi people.

And today in Russian schools they study the legends and myths of Ancient Greece, the history and culture of Greece and Rome. In Russia it is customary to refer to the inhabitants of this country as “Greeks”. This country has always been proud of its talented poets, historians, architects, sculptors, athletes, sailors, and philosophers. All figures left an indelible mark on the minds of researchers and scientists around the world. Greece influenced the development of the culture of Europe and even the countries of Asia and the East.

Modern researchers have found evidence that the Greeks called certain “graiks”. This is the Illyrian people. According to mythology, the progenitor of this nation was named “Greek”. The concept of “Hellenism” began to revive by the beginning of the 19th century among the Greek intelligentsia. Over time, the assertion that the Greeks are not Greeks spread to the broad masses.

As soon as the Greeks did not call themselves and heard different addresses addressed to them. The reason for everything is the origin of nationalities, linguistic dogmas, customs, and traditions. Achaeans, Dorians, Ionians, Hellenes or Greeks? Nowadays, the inhabitants of this country have quite diverse roots and have the right to name themselves, according to the legends and myths that have developed in some areas.

Funeral rites in Greece

Since ancient times, the Greeks thought about what was there, “beyond the line.” Is there any possibility of existence human soul after physical death? What happens to the soul when it passes into another world? Humanity has not found answers to these questions to this day. However, from some assumptions about the existence of the afterlife in ancient Greek civilization The peculiarities of people’s burials also depended.

Ancient Agora in Athens

The ancient Agora played a large role in the cities of Ancient Greece. It was spiritual, administrative, as well as shopping mall cities. From the beginning of the sixth century, in connection with the reorganization of the state by the legislator Solon in 594 BC, the Agora began to play a vital role in the life of the city.

From the history of Sparta - the city of warriors

This is a special lifestyle and worldview. The Spartans have always amazed enemies and supporters with their courage, invention, endurance and... cruelty. These ancient warriors are no less great inventors than the ancient Hellenes or other peoples. The Spartans brought to life the idea of creating a recruit camp, training at state basis, frontal attack.

Theater in Ancient Greece

An ancient legend says that God, when creating the world, accidentally dropped a handful of stones into the sea. And these stones miraculously turned into flowering islands and rocky atolls. This is how Greece was born, which thousands of years ago was called Hellas. Its inhabitants - the Hellenes - told the whole world about the beauty of Aphrodite and the power of Zeus, about the bloody mysteries of the Cretan labyrinth and the 12 labors of Hercules. And the Hellenes also taught us the word “democracy”.

Once upon a time, many centuries ago, numerous islands and the southern coast of the modern Balkan Peninsula were inhabited by people who proudly called themselves Hellenes and their country Hellas.

Hellas - the self-name of Greece - was originally the name of a city and region in southern Thessaly (Greek province) and only then gradually spread to the whole of Greece.

Many mountain ranges with snow-capped peaks entangled Hellas. Day after day, sea waves turned the coastline of Hellas into rocky bays full of reefs and dangerous undercurrents. But the Hellenes loved their country so much that with their tireless labor they decorated its rare plains blooming gardens and vineyards. It was impossible to imagine more diligent and patient farmers than the Hellenes. They turned the earth strewn with stones into fields of wheat, working tirelessly and sweating every piece of it. And thanks to the care of the Hellenes, the mountain slopes were covered with neat rows of countless grape bushes, the fruits of which turned into sparkling wine, allowing you to forget about fatigue and enjoy life. The Hellenes were also famous as excellent sailors. It couldn’t be otherwise - after all, the sea surrounded them on all sides.

The life of the Hellenes was full of numerous myths and ancient legends. They were carefully passed down from generation to generation. One of these legends tells about a terrible flood that covered the whole world in just a few days. Almost no one managed to escape from this disaster. Tradition says that only one man named Deucalion managed to survive. He became the founder of a new generation of people. One of his sons, Ellin, settled in this region. The Hellenes are his direct descendants.

Hellas is the ancient name of Greece. This state had a significant influence on further development Europe. It was here that such a concept as “democracy” first appeared, here the foundation was laid, the main features of theoretical philosophy were formed, and the most beautiful monuments of art were created. Hellas is amazing country, and its history is full of secrets and mysteries. In this publication you will find the most interesting facts from the past of Greece.

From the history of Hellas

In the history of Ancient Greece, it is customary to distinguish 5 periods: Crete-Mycenaean, Dark Ages, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. Let's look at each of them in more detail.

The Creto-Mycenaean period is associated with the emergence of the first state formations on the islands of the Aegean Sea. Chronologically it covers 3000-1000 years. BC e. At this stage, the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations appeared.

The Dark Ages period is called the “Homeric” period. This stage is characterized by the final decline of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, as well as the formation of the first pre-polis structures. Sources practically do not mention this period. In addition, the Dark Ages are characterized by the decline of culture, economy and the loss of writing.

The Archaic period is the time of the formation of the main cities and the expansion of the Hellenic world. In the 8th century BC e. The Great Greek Colonization begins. During this period, the Greeks settled along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. During the Archaic period, the early forms of Hellenic art took shape.

The classical period is the heyday of the Greek city-states, their economy and culture. In the V-IV centuries. BC e. the concept of “democracy” appears. During the classical period, the most significant military events in the history of Hellas took place - the Greco-Persian and Peloponnesian wars.

The Hellenistic period is characterized by close interaction between Greek and Eastern cultures. At this time, there was a flourishing of art in the state. The Hellenistic period in the history of Greece lasted until the establishment of Roman rule in the Mediterranean.

The most famous cities of Hellas

It is worth noting that in Greece during the period of antiquity there was no single state. Hellas is a country that consisted of many policies. In antiquity, a city-state was called a polis. Its territory included an urban center and a chora (agricultural settlement). The political administration of the polis was in the hands of the People's Assembly and the Council. All city-states were different in both population and territory size.

The most famous policies of ancient Greece are Athens and Sparta (Lacedaemon).

Athens is the cradle of Greek democracy. Famous philosophers and orators, heroes of Hellas, as well as famous cultural figures lived in this polis.
Sparta is a shining example of an aristocratic state. The main occupation of the population of the polis was war. It was here that the foundations of discipline and military tactics were laid, which were later used by Alexander the Great.

Culture of Ancient Greece

The myths and legends of Ancient Greece played a unifying role for the culture of the state. Every sphere of Hellenic life was subordinated general ideas about deities. It is worth noting that the foundations of the ancient Greek religion were formed back in the Cretan-Mycenaean period. In parallel with mythology, cult practice arose - sacrifices and religious festivals, accompanied by agons.

Ancient Greek is also closely related to mythology. literary tradition, performing arts and music.

In Hellas, urban planning actively developed and beautiful architectural ensembles were created.

The most famous figures and heroes of Hellas

Hippocrates is the father of Western medicine. He is the creator of a medical school that had a huge influence on all ancient medicine.
Phidias is one of the most famous sculptors of the classical era. He is the author of one of the seven wonders of the world - the statue of Olympian Zeus.
Democritus is the father of modern science, the famous ancient Greek philosopher. He is considered the founder of atomism, the theory that material things are made of atoms.
Herodotus is the father of history. He studied the origins and events of the Greco-Persian wars. The result of this research was the famous work “History”.
Archimedes - Greek mathematician, physicist and astronomer.
Pericles is an outstanding statesman. He made a significant contribution to the development of the Athenian polis.
Plato is a famous philosopher and orator. He is the founder of the first educational institution in Western Europe - Plato's Academy in Athens.
Aristotle is one of the fathers of Western philosophy. His works covered almost all spheres of social life.

The importance of ancient Greek civilization for the development of world culture

Hellas is a country that has had a huge influence on the development of world culture. Here such concepts as “philosophy” and “democracy” were born, and the foundations of world science were laid. Greek ideas about the world, medicine, civil society and man also influenced the destinies of many Western European states. Any field of art is connected with this great state, be it theater, sculpture or literature.

Creto-Mycenaean period (3000 -1100 BC)
Dark Ages (1100 - 800 BC)
Archaic period (800 - 500 BC)
Classical period (500 - 336 BC)
Hellenistic era (336 - 30 BC)

The beautiful nature of Hellas, which poets sang many times, was not too generous, especially for farmers. There is little fertile land in Greece. The climate here is arid, there are no large rivers, and it was impossible to create an irrigation system, as in the river civilizations of the East. Therefore, agriculture became the main branch of the economy only in some regions of the country. Moreover, as arable farming developed, the soil began to quickly deplete. As a rule, there was not enough bread for the entire population, whose numbers increased over time. More favorable conditions were for gardening and cattle breeding: the Greeks have long raised goats and sheep, planted grapes and olives. The country was rich in minerals: silver, copper, lead, marble and gold. But, naturally, this was not enough to ensure a livelihood.

Another “wealth” of Greece was the sea. Convenient bays and numerous islands located close to each other created excellent conditions for navigation and trade. But for this it was necessary to master the elements of the sea.

Civilization has managed to give a worthy “answer” to the “challenge” of the environment. Having become skilled navigators, the Greeks gradually turned their country into a strong maritime power.

The Greeks themselves well understood the advantages of the sea power they created, its independence from the changing nature: “Bad harvests are the scourge of the most powerful powers, while sea powers easily overcome them.” The struggle for existence took place primarily through the development of new spaces, colonization and trade. Greek civilization constantly expanded its borders.

The first center of civilization arose on the island of Crete at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. Around the 15th century BC e. Cretan culture, bright and original, tragically quickly dies (apparently after a volcanic eruption).

It was replaced by a new culture - the Achaean. The Achaean tribes spread to most Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Having survived in the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. flourished already in the XIII-XII centuries. BC e. she dies as unexpectedly and tragically as her predecessor. Perhaps the Achaean culture was destroyed during the invasion northern peoples, among whom, obviously, were the Dorian Greeks.

The eras of the Cretan and Achaean cultures can be considered a kind of preliminary stage, after which the history of Greek civilization itself begins.

Creto-Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations.

Greece, on the one hand, consisted of many completely independent, isolated states, often at war with each other, on the other hand, there was a certain early realized community, manifested in a single, despite dialectical differences, language, a single religion, pan-Greek sanctuaries and festivals. Geographically, Ancient Greece includes, along with mainland Greece, the islands of the Aegean Sea, Crete, Cyprus and the western coast of Asia Minor.

The creator of the most ancient civilization in the Aegean region was the pre-Greek population. The Greeks penetrated to Crete, where civilization already existed in the 3rd millennium BC. e. reached high development only in the 2nd millennium BC. e.

By the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. the population of the Balkan Peninsula began to use metals - bronze, lead and silver for the manufacture of weapons, jewelry, and religious objects. If metal tools were used, they were used in crafts, but not in agriculture: metals were expensive and inaccessible. Only in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. metals are widespread in the Aegean Sea basin. The area's own metal reserves were insufficient: copper and then iron had to be imported. There is an assumption that the famous Troy owed its heyday to the role of intermediary that it played in the delivery of metals through Asia Minor to the Aegean world.

The flourishing of culture in Crete dates back to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. This is the period of construction of palace complexes with amazing fresco paintings, creation of the best examples artistic ceramics, jewelry, carved seals. The basis of the economy is a new multicultural type of agriculture, focused on the cultivation of three main crops - cereals (mainly barley), grapes and olives (the so-called Mediterranean triad). On this basis, reserve funds of agricultural products began to be created in individual communities, which not only covered food shortages in lean years, but also provided food for people not directly involved in agricultural production, for example, specialist craftsmen. Part of the community reserve funds could be used for intercommunity and intertribal exchange. The development of trade in Crete, as well as in the Aegean basin in general, was closely connected with the development of navigation. It is no coincidence that almost all the Cretan settlements known to us now were located either directly on the sea coast or not far from it.

The highest flowering of the Minoan civilization occurred in the 16th - first half of the 15th centuries. All of Crete was united under the rule of the kings of Knossos. Stone roads were actively built, which were laid throughout the island and connected Knossos with its most remote corners. During this period in Crete there was one system measures, apparently forced by the rulers of the island. It is very possible that the unification of Crete around the Palace of Knossos was carried out by the famous Minos, about whom later Greek myths tell so much. Greek historians considered Minos the first Thalas-Socrates - the ruler of the sea. They said about him that he created a large navy, eradicated piracy and established his dominance over the entire Aegean Sea.

At this time, the Cretans established lively trade and diplomatic relations with Egypt and the states of the Syro-Phoenician coast. Traces of their settlements, or perhaps just ship moorings, were also found on the shores of Sicily, in southern Italy and even on the Iberian Peninsula.

In the middle of the 15th century. BC e. the situation changed dramatically. A catastrophe hit Crete, the like of which the island has never experienced in its entire centuries-old history. Almost all palaces and settlements, with the exception of Knossos, were destroyed. The Minoan culture never recovered from this blow. Crete is losing its position as the leading cultural center of the Aegean.

The causes of the disaster, which played such a fatal role in the fate of the Minoan civilization, have not yet been established. According to the most plausible guess put forward by the Greek archaeologist S. Marinatos, the destruction of palaces and other Cretan settlements was a consequence of a grandiose volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (modern Santorini) in the southern Aegean Sea. Other scientists believe that the culprits of the disaster were the Achaean Greeks, who invaded Crete from mainland Greece (most likely from the Peloponnese). They plundered and devastated the island and subjugated its population to their power.

In parallel with the Cretan-Minoan culture, Mycenaean culture developed. It originated on the mainland Peloponnese peninsula and surrounding areas. The founders of this culture were the Achaean Greeks, who invaded the Balkan Peninsula at the turn of the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. e. from the north, their region of the Danube lowland or from the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region.

Border III - II millennium BC e. can be considered the beginning of a new stage in the history of Ancient Greece - the stage of formation of the Greek people. The basis of this process was the interaction and gradual merging of two cultures: the culture of the alien Achaean tribes and the culture of the local pre-Greek population.

In the first centuries of the formation of a new culture, regression is observed. Monumental monuments are disappearing architectural structures. Instead, nondescript adobe houses appear, sometimes rectangular, sometimes oval, or rounded on one side.

Gradually, powerful aristocratic families emerged within the Achaean communities, settling in impregnable citadels and thereby sharply separating themselves from the mass of ordinary tribesmen. Great wealth is concentrated, partly from local peasants and artisans, partly captured during military raids on the lands of neighbors. In various regions of the Peloponnese, Central and Northern Greece, the first and still quite primitive state entities. Thus, starting from the 15th century. BC. Greece entered a new, or, as it is usually called, Mycenaean, period of its history.

During the Mycenaean era, there was no political unity on the Greek mainland, much less an official empire. The earth was fragmented into dozens of kingdoms competing with each other. The main centers of Mycenaean culture were, like in Crete, palaces. The architecture of Mycenaean palaces has a number of features that distinguish them from the palaces of Minoan Crete. The most important of these differences is that almost all Mycenaean palaces were fortified and were real citadels, reminiscent in appearance of the castles of medieval feudal lords.

The palace center controlled the local bureaucracy. The fortress strictly monitored the surrounding cities, the number of which could be more than 20. At the same time, the palace was also an industrial and commercial center with many divisions. Architects, masons, carpenters, mechanics, gunsmiths, shipwrights, furniture makers, bronze makers, jewelers and many others worked here. Slaves (prisoners) stood below everyone else. There was no money or market trade. Everyone received in kind for their work.

The bulk of the communal land was obviously divided into plots with approximately equal returns. These plots were distributed within the community itself among its constituent families. The land remaining after the division was rented out. Communal lands, as well as lands that belonged directly to the palace, were under the control of the palace administration and were exploited by it in the interests of the centralized state economy.

The state monopolized the most important branches of handicraft production, imposed restrictions on blacksmithing and established control over the distribution of scarce raw materials, all metal.

The main type of taxes collected from the districts was metal - gold, bronze, and agricultural products. Unlike the river civilizations of Egypt. In Mesopotamia and India, the agricultural resources of the Greek states were more scarce. Rocky soils and the absence of overflowing rivers oriented the economy of the Greek states towards fishing and the development of exchange crafts and trade. The dominant role was played by mining.

The growth of the power of individual cities led to inevitable clashes for the seizure of territories and wealth. XVI - XIII centuries BC e. - a period of active redistribution of internal borders. Around I235 BC. e. The ten-year period of the Trojan War begins. From the end of the 16th century. BC e. The Mycenaean civilization begins military expansion of the surrounding territories. In the 15th century BC. e. The Achaeans colonize Crete, turning it into a stronghold for advancing east and south.

During the XIV - XIII centuries. BC e. The Mycenaean palace kingdoms experienced their highest rise. Successfully combining trade with piracy, the Achaeans soon became one of the most prominent political forces in the Eastern Mediterranean. However, clouds were already gathering over Achaean Greece. Recent decades XIII century BC e. were anxious and restless. In many places, old fortifications are being hastily restored and new ones are being built. Historians attribute the events of this period to the movement of Dorian tribes from the territory of Macedonia and Epirus and Phrygian-Thracian tribes to the territory of Greece. The Mycenaean civilization could not withstand the onslaught of barbarians and disappeared forever. Archaeologists call other possible reasons for the death of the Mycenaean civilization a civil war, a social revolution, a powerful slave uprising, a foreign invasion from land or sea, a severance of trade ties with the East, which resulted in famine, devastating epidemics...

By 1100 BC. e. Cretan-Mycenaean civilization disappeared. With its disappearance, the art of writing was forgotten, and historians have no written sources period 1100 - 800 BC e., that's why it's called Dark Ages. During this period, the Greeks had little contact with other peoples, so there are few references to them in foreign sources. In Greece, the population decreased sharply, agriculture and crafts decreased in volume and deteriorated the quality of products.

In the VIII - VI centuries. (archaic period) intensive development occurs ancient society. The population grew and its standard of living increased. Private ownership of movable and immovable property appears.

A characteristic feature of the economy of this period in the history of Hellas is the presence of a fairly developed exchange, which is associated with the process of colonization and the departure of the mass of the population to the colonies, with the import of products from the colonies to the metropolis, as well as with the development of crafts in the metropolis and the export of handicrafts to the colonies. The most important indicator of the development of exchange during the era of the colonial expansion of Hellas can be the emergence and development of coins in the Greek world.

As productive forces and exchange develop, new workers appear - imported slaves. Slave labor is used in mines, in crafts, in port and ship work.

New population groups are appearing - shipowners, owners of craft workshops, which over time increasingly determine not only the economic, but also the political character of city-states - policies that arose in the 8th - 6th centuries. BC e. in Greece as a result of the struggle of new social groups and forces with the aristocracy.

The polis included the city and the surrounding rural area and was considered an independent state. The largest polis was Athens, which occupied an area of 2500 km 2. Other policies were much smaller, their territory did not exceed 350 km 2. By the beginning of the Archaic period, most policies were ruled by aristocrats, and the system of government was oligarchy (the power of the few), but as trade expanded, the middle class of merchants, artisans and bankers began to strengthen and prosper. Deprived of political rights, it begins to seek the opportunity to participate in decision-making.

One could become a member of the community under two conditions: if the person was Greek by nationality, if he was free and owned private property. All members of the community - free owners - had political rights (although not always equal), which allowed them to take part in government activities. Therefore, the Greek polis is called a civil community.

The state in Greece did not exist above the community (as it was in the East), it grew out of the community; more precisely, the community itself turned into a small state, with its own laws, authorities and management system. Members of the community, townspeople and farmers, who did not know the problem of alienation from the state, rallied into a single, rather closed collective that made up an economic, political and ideological whole.

Belonging to the civil collective of the polis determined the right of ownership of land, but within this collective land property was freely circulated at least from the end of the 5th century. BC e. Fast development commodity-money relations led to the economic prosperity of the Greek city-states, in which various sections of the free population were interested to one degree or another.

Greece of the archaic and classical periods

Among the population of policies, its citizens occupied a privileged position. Other free people who were not citizens of the polis were considered not to have full rights. These included primarily dependent peasants who had lost ownership of their plots of land, and foreigners (meteks). The number of foreigners grew as Greece conquered more and more colonies. Many metics were rich, but nevertheless, as a rule, they were forbidden to buy land, and this, naturally, denied access to the management of the policy.

Slaves were at the lowest rung of the social ladder. In Greece, as in Rome, slavery differed from domestic slavery in the East in its particular rigidity and certainty. (The exception was Sparta, where helot slaves retained some independence.) Debt slavery of fellow tribesmen was eliminated quite quickly; Only prisoners of war became slaves, and perhaps that is why, as historians suggest, the border separating slave from free was so clear.

Slaves in Greece did not have any rights and were truly equated to “talking instruments”: they were deprived of all property, were the subject of purchase and sale, could not marry, the children of slaves were called offspring and were also considered slaves. Even in those cases when slaves were set free, they remained without full rights and still depended on the former owner, who became their patron.

Slavery in Ancient Greece was taken for granted; freedom was considered a gift that was not available to all people. So, great philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed that “some are naturally free, and others are naturally slaves, and ... in relation to these latter, the slave position is as useful as it is fair.”

With the transition to arable farming from common ownership, individual farms began to be allocated special plots (klers), which turned into private property their owners. While some grew rich, concentrating more and more in their hands more land, others, on the contrary, became poorer and lost their land. This is how the community split into large landowners and landless people (feta). The first formed the noble class, which Homer already calls the best people. Nobility consisted precisely in coming from good kind, whose ancestor was considered a god or hero.

The abolition of royal power, which took place in the 8th and 7th centuries. in most of the Greek cities, was by no means the result of any sudden upheavals. The royal power was more and more limited, from lifelong it was made urgent, and from hereditary in a certain family, it was generally accessible to all noble families. Even the hereditary king-priest - where he was preserved - turned into an elected dignitary. Thus, the landowning nobility, divided into separate clans, became the ruling class of the state. The former royal council became the main body of aristocratic rule. He decided his sentences on the basis of old customs, and since the latter were not written down, the decisions of the judges were very often arbitrary and unfair. That is why one of the first demands of the lower stratum of free citizens was written laws.

The most important states in Greece were Laconia (Sparta) and Attica (Athens).

The state system of Sparta also corresponded to the goals of the militarized state. At its head were two kings, who performed the duties of military leaders, judges and priests, as well as a council of elders (gerusia), consisting of representatives of noble families at least 60 years old, and ephors, a kind of controlling body. Unlike elders, kings were not elected - it was a hereditary title. The kings had great privileges, but could not make decisions without the approval of the council of elders, which, in turn, had to rely on the opinion of the people's assembly. But the elements of democracy did not develop in Sparta: the people’s assembly, although formally considered the highest body, did not have great influence to political life. Unlike Athens, at meetings, ordinary Spartiates did not make speeches, did not prove their point of view, but shouted their approval or disapproval of the proposed decisions. The structure of Sparta can be called oligarchic.

The immutability of the system and the archaic nature of customs were also maintained through strict isolation from other states. The historian Xenophon wrote that the Spartans “could not travel abroad so that citizens would not become infected with frivolity from foreigners.”

Laconia to its population. Laconia occupied the southeastern part of the Peloponnese and consisted of the valley of the Eurotas River and the mountain ranges that bordered it. In this country there were arable lands, and pastures, and forests, in which there was a lot of game, and in the mountains there was a lot of iron: from it local residents made weapons. The population of the country consisted of the descendants of the Dorian conquerors and the Achaeans they conquered. The first, the Spartiates, were some full-fledged citizens of the state, the second were divided into two classes: some were called helots and were serfs, subordinate, however, not to individual citizens, but to the whole state, while others were called perieki and were personally free people, but stood to Sparta in relation to subjects without any political rights. Most of the land was considered the common property of the state, from which the latter gave the Spartiates separate plots for food, which were initially approximately the same size. These areas were cultivated by helots. The Periecians were left with part of their land, they lived in cities, engaged in crafts and trade, but in general these occupations were little developed in Laconia; already at a time when other Greeks had coins, in this country iron rods were used as an instrument of exchange. Perieks were required to pay taxes to the state treasury. The Spartiates had no right to leave their country, and foreigners were forbidden to live in Laconia.

In Sparta, the old royal power was preserved, but there were two kings at the same time. Most likely, either these were descendants of the royal families of two communities that merged together, or the position of the second king was established to limit royal power in an era when a similar phenomenon occurred in other parts of Greece. The elders, or geronts, were chosen for the rest of their lives from men at least 60 years old, but there were only twenty-eight of them. Together with both kings, they formed a government council called the gerusia (council of elders). Another important institution was the college of five ephors, elected by the people only for a year. Ephors were investigators in criminal cases, judges in civil cases, overseers of the behavior of citizens and officials themselves. This political system remained unchanged for a very long time. The Spartan Republic was a stronghold of antiquity and oligarchic rule.

In addition, the principle of egalitarianism prevailed in the polis, which was a source of pride for the Spartans, who called themselves a “community of equals.”

The Spartans lived in the same modest dwellings, wore the same simple clothes, devoid of decorations, gold and silver coins were withdrawn from circulation - instead of them, iron bars were in circulation. The legendary king Lycurgus introduced shared meals, for the construction of which everyone had to contribute their share (in products and money). Infants with physical disabilities were destroyed. Boys from 7 to 20 years old received quite cruel public education. Having reached adulthood, they enlisted in the army and served until old age. The harsh, strictly regulated life of Sparta resembled a barracks. And this is natural: everything pursued one goal - to make courageous, hardy warriors out of the Spartans.

Athens was the main city of Attica, a region located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. The population of Attica gradually united around Athens. This area was rich in minerals (clay, marble, silver), but agriculture could only be practiced in small and few valleys.

The main sources of strength and wealth of this policy were trade and shipbuilding. A large port city with a convenient harbor (it was called Piraeus) quickly turned into an economic, commercial and cultural center. The Athenians, having created the most powerful fleet in Hellas, actively traded with the colonies and resold the goods they received to other policies. Sciences and arts flourished in Athens, and huge amounts of money were spent on urban planning. In the 5th century The Acropolis began to be erected - the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture, the center of which was the famous Parthenon temple, dedicated to Athena, the patroness of the city. The flourishing of Greek theater is also associated with Athens. Flocked to Athens famous sculptors, writers. The philosophers Plato and Aristotle created their schools there.

Athenian state. The population of Attica was classified as the Ionian tribe. Initially there were several states here, but they merged into one state, making it the center of Athena. In addition to the citizens of the state, people lived in Attica tags- newcomers from other places who were engaged in fishing and trade, paid taxes and were even obliged to participate in the army, but were not considered citizens. The citizens themselves were divided into three classes: landowning nobility, small landowners and artisans. The Athenian nobility constituted the noble class, or eupatrids(i.e. having good fathers). Free peasants who lived on their small plots were called geomors, artisans were called demiurges: geomors and demiurges, taken together, constituted the demos.

Athens was initially headed by a king who ruled with a council consisting of the elders of the most important families and called Areopagus. Tsarist power, however, gradually passed to elected dignitaries. First of all, they began to elect a special commander to assist the king in the war, polemarch, then they began to entrust some government and judicial affairs to a special dignitary archon(ruler), who was appointed by the Areopagus, and even later created the position of six judges, fesmothets. Thus, royal power was divided among nine dignitaries, who all began to be called archons. In the middle of the 8th century BC. e., they began to be elected for ten years, and not for life, as before, at the beginning of the 7th century. - only for one year. As the royal power was fragmented between individual dignitaries, the former royal council, the Areopagus, on the contrary, received more and more higher value. It began to be replenished with archons who performed their duties well and became lifelong members of this institution. Athens became a real oligarchy, in which the Areopagus was the focus of the interests, aspirations and traditions of the Eupatride class.

The forces of Athens and Sparta especially strengthened during the era of wars with Persia. While many city-states of Greece submitted to the conquerors, these two policies led the fight against the seemingly invincible army of King Xerxes and defended the country's independence.

In 478 BC. e. Athens formed the Delian Maritime League (its center was on the island of Delos) of equal states, which soon turned into the Athenian maritime power. Athens, violating the principles of autarky, began to interfere in the internal affairs of its allies, managed their finances, tried to establish its own laws on the territory of other policies, i.e., pursued a real great-power policy. The Athenian power at the time of its heyday was a very significant force: it included about 250 poleis.

The Attic nobility not only dominated the people politically, but also enslaved them economically. In Attica there were a lot of geomors, sitting on small plots and running their own farms on them. With the growth of the population, these areas became more and more fragmented, and soon it became very difficult for the geomors to live, especially since, thanks to the import of grain from abroad, farming in the infertile Attica could not be a very profitable activity. In the event of a bad harvest, for example, it was necessary to resort to loans from the eupatrids, but high interest had to be paid for the loans issued. The debtor's plot served as security for the debt, and the lender placed a stone on it with a mortgage deed carved on it, and if the price of the plot was lower than the amount of the debt, then the debtor himself and his family were responsible and had to work off the missing amount of the debt, i.e. fell into slavery. As a result, part of the rural population of Attica not only went bankrupt, but also lost their freedom.

The ruling class yielded to the wishes of the people and in 621 commissioned one of the Thesmothetes to draw up written laws that would guide the archons, instead of old customs and their own discretion. Subsequently, when morals softened, these laws (the laws of Dracon) were considered as an example of cruelty, but, in essence, the Athenian legislator of the 7th century. BC e. only reproduced in his decisions the views of that time on crimes and punishments. Their correspondence with the general consciousness of the people can be concluded from the fact that these criminal laws remained in force, apparently, until the 4th century. BC e. This legislation left the previous debt law intact. The irritation of the people became such that the nobility was forced to make concessions in order to prevent an uprising, and the result of this was the famous legislation of Solon.

Solon himself belonged to the Eupatride class, but his main occupation was trade, which forced him to visit many foreign countries, which enriched him with knowledge and life experience. Solon had already managed to provide important services to his native state when, in 594 BC. e. was elected first archon with the authority to issue the necessary laws. His task was to “remove the burden” (sisakhfiyya) from the people and the land, as he called it the destruction of all debt obligations with their consequences. All debts were canceled, the collateral stones encumbering the lands of the geomors were removed, everyone who was only enslaved because of a debt incurred was freed, and henceforth it was forbidden for lenders to enslave their debtors. Solon took up reforms in civil law, allowing citizens, among other things, to make spiritual wills - an indication that at this time the principle of ancestral or family property was in decline in Attica, since the right to bequeath one's property at one's discretion presupposes the existence of purely personal property. In litigation over property, it was possible to complain (appeal) against the verdicts of officials to the so-called heliye, a jury that was chosen by lot from all citizens over 30 years of age.

Solon introduced a new division of citizens into classes in Athens, basing it on a property qualification, i.e. the amount of income received from property (but only from real estate). There were four of these classes: pentacosiomedimne, the richest citizens who had at least five hundred medimni of barley (or wine and olive oil) annual income; hippeas, i.e. horsemen, whose income was equal to three hundred medimni; zeugites, i.e. teamsters who received at least two hundred medimni, and feta, whose income was less than this figure. (Horsemen are called that because they could come to war with a horse, but harnessers got their name because they had a pair of mules for plowing the field). Rights and responsibilities were distributed between these classes, namely, the richer had greater rights, but also bore heavier duties. The main positions in the state were available only to the pentacosiomedimnas, while the fetas could only take part in the national assembly. But the first class was entrusted with such responsibilities as the construction of ships, the organization of public celebrations, etc., in addition to personal service in the army in good armor and on horses, while people of the fourth class went to war lightly armed (with a shield, bow and arrows) or were made rowers on military ships. (Persons of the second class appeared in the army on their horses and “fully armed” - in a helmet, armor, greaves, with a shield and a spear; persons of the third participated in the heavily armed infantry, i.e. they served as hoplites and were also fully armed.) Such a distribution There were no rights between citizens either aristocracy or democracy and therefore received the special name timocracy (from the Greek timnia - qualification).

Solon converted and government system Athens. Nine archons were left at the head of the board, but they were no longer elected from the eupatrides alone and not from the eupatrides alone, but from all citizens of the first class and by the entire people, to whom they reported in their rule. Next to the Areopagus, which retained supreme supervision over the observance of religious precepts and laws and the behavior of citizens, as well as a murder trial, Solon established new advice four hundred. The council became the main government institution, since it was in charge of state revenues and expenses, communicated with foreign governments, preliminarily considered government measures, etc. All citizens, not excluding the fetes, had the right to participate in the national assembly, which elected all officials, decided all the most important matters and adopted legislative decisions, but only under the supreme supervision of the Areopagus, who could repeal everything that, in his opinion, was contrary to the laws and it was dangerous for the state.

Solon's reform irritated the Eupatrides, but did not completely satisfy the people. In essence, she still left behind the old nobility great importance. On the other hand, there were many people dissatisfied with the fact that Solon did not equalize land ownership, as many had hoped. Finally, the sysachphia eliminated the old debt obligations, but the previous economic conditions, which created the need to enter into debt and pay high interest, remained in force. That is why popular unrest continued even after the reform carried out by Solon. The outcome of this state was the establishment of tyranny in Athens, as was done at the same time in other cities of Greece. Tyranny dominated Athens for half a century (560-510). First, Pisistratus ruled the city (until 527), then his two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus.

Subsequently, after the expulsion of the tyrant from Athens, the struggle of parties began again in Attica. In 508-506. BC e. Cleisthenes' reform was carried out, marking the beginning of Athenian democracy. Representatives of the demos received the right to hold elected positions. True, the title of archon remained available only to the first two classes, but the archonty itself lost its former meaning, and even the poorest citizen could get into the Council, since election to this institution was made by lot from all citizens seeking this position. The archonty suffered greatly in its significance even under tyranny, but now special colleges were established, to which the responsibilities of the archons were transferred. To ensure transformed political system from tyranny, Cleisthenes introduced the so-called ostracism. Every spring, the people had to vote on the question of whether any of the citizens posed a danger to freedom, and if an affirmative answer was received, then a new meeting of citizens was convened, at which everyone present wrote on a shell or shard (ostracism). Whoever had the majority of votes against him was expelled from Attica for ten years, but did not lose his property and upon his return again enjoyed all his rights.

Thanks to Cleisthenes' reform, the people gradually gained a decisive voice in all the most important affairs of the state, and the people's council (ekklesia) began to acquire major importance in the internal life of Athens.

The transformation of Athens into a maritime and trading state should have entailed changes in its internal structure simply because the timocracy introduced by Solon and maintained by Cleisthenes was based on land ownership, which now, as the basis of influence in society, gave way to industry and trade. A whole series of changes took place in Athenian state life in the first half of the 5th century. BC e., led to the triumph of democracy. First of all, at this time, government positions, which were the property of only the rich, became equally available to all citizens without distinction of class. But there still remained in Athens an institution that was contrary to the very spirit of democracy. It was an Areopagus, consisting of life members and enjoying the right of supreme supervision over the people's council itself. The Areopagus was dominated by old religious traditions that were not very conducive to the desire for change, and its composition consisted of former archons who fell into this position by lot, i.e. by chance, did not at all contain a guarantee that the Areopagus would use his rights particularly wisely.

Ephialtes decided to strike the Areopagus. He put forward a proposal according to which only cases of murder were left to the named institution (due to their connection with religious ideas about the propitiation of the gods). All other rights of the Areopagus were divided between the people's assembly, the Council of Five Hundred and the Heliia, i.e. by a jury chosen by lot from all citizens at least 30 years of age. officials Now they had to submit their annual reports directly to the people, and the people could even remove them before the deadline in the event of any misconduct on their part. The people were allowed to propose new laws only by proving the worthlessness of the old ones in front of helium.

Death prevented Ephialtes himself from completing this reform, but he found a successor to his work in the person of Pericles. During the reign of Pericles, Athenian democracy reached its greatest development. Four times a month, a public assembly was held in the city, in which all citizens were supposed to participate and everyone could express their opinion, and matters were decided by a majority vote. The Council of Five Hundred prepared proposals that were to be made to the people and was in charge of current affairs. All legal cases were tried by a jury consisting of six thousand citizens, chosen by lot and divided into ten sections. Almost all government positions were mixed by lot, but each one elected before taking office had to prove that he would be able to fulfill the duties associated with it. The strategoi alone continued to be elected by direct vote and to be re-elected again after a one-year term. Thus, the supreme power in Athens was directly in the hands of the people. In order for the people to have the opportunity to actually perform, for example, the duties of judges, who had a lot to do with litigation that arose in other cities, but were considered in Athens, Pericles introduced a small remuneration for the exercise of judicial office, in the amount of two or three obols per day - the amount , for which one could have daily food.

Greek democracy reached its peak. However, the endless conflicts between the Greek city-states brought into the arena new strength- Macedonia. Alexander the Great became the “gravedigger” of Greek democracy, which disappeared in the cauldron of the first redistribution of the world.

Alexander the Great, who ascended the throne of Macedonia in 336 BC. e., realized the plans that his father had in mind: he launched a campaign against the Persians, the longtime enemies of the Greeks. The Persian power, at that time already quite weak, covered a vast territory: the Iranian highlands, most of Central Asia, all of Western and Minor Asia, part of India and Egypt. After the first victories, Alexander the Great had the idea of conquering the entire Persian state, and then world domination. Only in 324 BC. e., having brought his exhausted army to the Indus River, Alexander was forced to end a long military campaign and died a year later at the age of 33.

Thanks to the conquests of Alexander the Great, a gigantic empire was created, which included, in addition to the Balkan Peninsula and the islands of the Aegean Sea, Egypt, Asia Minor, the south of Central Asia and part of Central Asia. The campaigns of the great commander brought both destruction and creation. Streams of Greek and Macedonian settlers poured into the East, establishing new social relations everywhere, founding cities, laying out communication routes and spreading culture Greek world, in turn, absorbing the achievements of ancient civilizations.

In many conquered cities, public schools were established, where boys were taught in the Greek way, and theaters, stadiums, and hippodromes were built. Greek culture and way of life penetrated the East, absorbing traditions oriental cultures. Together with Greek gods Isis and Osiris and other eastern deities were revered, in whose honor temples were erected. Hellenistic kings propagated, according to Eastern custom, the royal cult. Some cities became the largest cultural centers, competing with the Greeks. Thus, a huge library was created in Alexandria, which contained about 700 thousand scrolls. There were large libraries in Pergamon and Antioch.

Political life and value system

The Empire was an extremely fragile entity. It included areas that were very different from each other both economically and culturally. Their population professed different religions. Alexander the Great, capturing primarily large cities, was content with collecting taxes from the conquered regions, changing little in their lives. After his death, the power was divided between Alexander's successors - commanders who fought with each other for power. Military alliances arose and fell apart again, governors rose and suffered defeat. Hellenistic Greece was a series of separate states in which local traditions were intertwined with Greek and Macedonian ones.

These states represented a peculiar combination of eastern despotism and the polis system. At its head was a monarch who had his own lands, a standing army and a centralized administration. But cities with rural areas assigned to them retained self-government. True, the size of the city lands depended on the king, the polis lost the right to conduct an independent foreign policy, and for its internal affairs The royal official was watching.

There was no real stability within the Hellenistic states: from time to time they were shaken by dynastic wars, conflicts between the city nobility and the royal administration, the struggle of cities for complete autonomy and the protests of the lower classes against the tax system. The situation was aggravated by the fact that already in the 3rd century. BC e. The young warlike Roman civilization began an attack on the Hellenic world, conquering one state after another.

The Hellenistic world was gradually absorbed by the Roman Empire. In 196 BC. e. Rome proclaimed the “freedom” of the Greek city-states, that is, the elimination of the monarchical system - a slogan that had some popularity among the Greeks. Roman garrisons were now stationed in the major cities of Hellas, Rome determined the boundaries of states, and intervened in the internal affairs of policies. Unions of policies were dissolved, instead of democracy, an oligarchy was established, a huge number of people were sold into slavery and taken out of the country. In 30 BC. e. Roman troops conquered Egypt - the last of the Hellenistic states that retained their independence.

During the Hellenistic era, for the first time in human history, contacts between East and West became constant and sustainable. These contacts manifested themselves in many areas: trade ties strengthened, new forms of statehood were created, and cultural interaction grew. But ultimately, Greece's emergence as a world power did not inject new energy into ancient civilization. The foundations of Greek civilization (democracy, isolation of city states - autarky) were eroded, and new civilizational foundations were never created.

I went after the first Russian electric car with the obsession of the Argonauts, who once dared to travel for the Golden Fleece. The crush on the tram, the sea of people in the metro - and here it is, the treasured island of the technical center, where “Hellas” awaits. But, like the ancient Greek navigators, with the achievement of my goal, my adventures had only just begun.

“IF THE SAIL FALLS, WE WILL STRIKE WITH OARS...”

Externally, the electric Kalina is an ordinary station wagon (only the front bumper is different). Everything inside is also familiar, so no special emotions arise at first.

I turn the key in the lock. There is a second pause, and a small green car appears on the instrument panel. Selector in “drive” - the car moves silently under the rustling of the tires.

The sensitive gas pedal takes some getting used to. He touched it and the electric car jumped forward! For traditional Kalinas, such acceleration is the ultimate dream. I have never seen such dynamics in AvtoVAZ cars before. But the excitement was cooled by the on-board computer: the color display showed a verdict - 13 km before recharging. And this is with fully charged batteries... I immediately remembered the winter test of the Mitsubishi-iMiEV (ЗР, 2012, No. 6), in which we never made it to the editorial office. I called my colleagues: they say, stretch Ariadne’s thread in the form of a towing sling, otherwise, I’m afraid I won’t make it to the outlet. It’s good that it’s -1 ºС outside, and not -20 º, as it was then.

I turn off the headlights and heater and drive calmly, no faster than 50 km/h. On the descent from the bridge, I press the brake and feel how at the end of the pedal stroke the force increases, and the arrow in the left saucer of the instrument panel drops into the blue zone - regenerative braking encourages the on-board computer, it mercifully shows 14 km. This is already better, but this does not make the left pedal any more informative. The deceleration is indistinct, and at a snail’s speed, it’s as if someone is grabbing the wheels with tongs. The iMiEV and Renault Zoe have much better brake settings.

CAN I LIGHT A SMOKE?

I arrived safely at the editorial parking lot and admired the magic numbers displayed on the monitor: 30 km. Inspired by the result, I recharged the car overnight (about 8–10 hours) and drove back onto the city streets. When I turn on the heater, I notice that the interior takes a long time to warm up. But it feels like the heat goes away more slowly than in the Mitsubishi iMiEV, although the Kalina is noticeably larger. After driving around the city for about 20 km, I discharged the car by almost 60%. I decided to carry out the next charge on the nearest console - there are already a lot of them in Moscow. There is a detailed map on the website of the Revolta company (Revolta, which is developing a network of charging stations). Seeing the column glistening in the sun, I understand that this is not an ordinary visit to a gas station!

Alas, it is impossible to get to the life-giving current: the charging places are filled with gasoline cars! Yes, and there is no special payment card in your pocket. However, this is all a first for me, and owners of electric vehicles think through the process in advance. Revolta can install a console for its client at home for free, but then for each kilowatt you will have to pay almost twice as much. However, the worst thing is that you still won’t be able to charge Hellas from these stations, because the standards for charging the car and the consoles are different!

Lada-Ellada must be charged not only from a household outlet, but also from charging consoles that meet international standards. Then life with a Russian electric car will become easier

Standards determine the type of cables, sockets, and connectors allowed for use in chargers. And electric car developers in Europe and America follow these rules. That is, Tesla, iMiEV and others are ready to charge, but Hellas is not. And this makes life very difficult for owners of Russian electric vehicles. In most foreign cars, the cable is equipped with a Mode 2 voltage converter (slow charging with alternating current from a household network using protection inside the cable), again described in the standard and protecting against electric shock or fire, but the AvtoVAZ electric car has a cable without this “excess”.

BATTLE WITH THE MINOTAUR

Progressive thinking, like Hercules, gradually defeats the ignorance of the Minotaur. The reduction in duties on electric vehicles made it possible to reduce the price of Mitsubishi-iMiEV from 1,799,000 to 999,000 rubles. The price tag for the serial “Hellas” is promised to be significantly lower.

But if the plant really wants to turn the myth about electric cars into reality, it needs to make sure that Hellas is recharged from various charging consoles. Then explain to dealers the structure of their future income from the sale of an exotic car. Finally, train rescuers like Tesla does. After all, if the car gets into a serious accident, you need to know where to cut the body and how to break the power circuit, which is under high voltage.

Then AVTOVAZ will have a chance to take possession of a truly golden fleece. I am sure that the emergence of mass-produced electric vehicles in Russia and high demand for them among the population and corporate clients is only a matter of time.

PLUS Excellent dynamics, good equipment and silence in the cabin. MINUS Limited mileage and slow heating of the interior, uninformative brakes.

We thank the AutoHermes car dealership for providing the electric car for testing and the Revolta company for their assistance in preparing the material.

FIVE FACTS ABOUT ELECTRIC CARS

The first Russian electric car was built in 1899 in St. Petersburg.

In 1917, Woods Motor Vehicle showed the first hybrid.

In 1971, an electric car visited the Moon as part of the Apollo 16 expedition.

By 2011, almost half European countries introduced incentives for the purchase of cars with zero CO 2 emissions.

At the beginning of 2014, Russia abolished customs duties on electric vehicles for two years. legal entities. Previously it was 19%.

LET'S REMEMBER THE OLD

Electric cars are by no means an invention of the modern world. Frenchman Gustave Trouvé showed the first three-wheeled electric car back in 1881. And in 1897, the Americans made electricity make money. Then the first electric cars began operating in New York City taxis. Later, in 1912, another one appeared in the USA interesting car- Detroit Electric Clear Vision Brougham (pictured). With a power of 4 hp. it developed 37 km/h and could travel about 160 km. The main buyers were women, since starting an electric motor, unlike a gasoline engine, did not require much physical effort. Initially, the model was equipped with lead-acid batteries, but soon they began installing an Edison iron-nickel battery for about $600 additional payment. The growth in sales (about 1,500 copies per year) was helped by high gasoline prices, because the First World War was in full swing.