XP history of the emergence of the most ancient haplogroups. The Russian people are the most ancient people on earth. Peoples with the largest brains and haplogroups.
We begin the analysis of the gene pool of Europe by considering the genogeography of individual haplogroups. This is partly a continuation of the previous section, which briefly summarized what was known about the distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups before our study, but we will now look at modern, detailed maps of the distribution of all major European haplogroups and those subvariants for which frequencies are already known in a number of populations in Europe.
Our Y-base database contains almost all published information on the frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in the world (and in Europe in particular), but not all of this information is suitable for studying the geographical distribution of haplogroups. As with the creation of other genogeographic atlases, to create maps of the distribution of the Y chromosome in Europe, data was carefully selected and created data array for maps Y chromosomes in Europe. Let's consider the criteria by which this data array was formed.
DATA ORGANIZATION
DATA SET FOR MAPS: POPULATIONS.
To reliably determine the frequency of uniparental genetic markers (Y-chromosome and mtDNA), a sample volume twice as large as for autosomal markers is required - therefore, the lower limit of the sample should be at least 70-100 samples. Small samples were either combined with geographically adjacent samples of the same people, or (if combining was not possible) were not included in the analysis. As a result, the average sample size in the map data set is N=136 samples. But exceptions to the rule were also made. For some peoples or regional groups within a people, which for the sake of completeness it was necessary to present on the map, only small samples were available. Then, reluctantly, we had to include smaller samples in the array for maps. But such exceptions were rarely made - of the 251 mapped populations, only a tenth (29 populations) have a sample size below N=50, and the vast majority (192 samples) have a sample size of N=70 and above.
If for a nation there was data on its regional populations, then for mapping, samples of this people, for which the geographical location is unknown, were not used (if the authors only indicated their affiliation with the nation during publication).
As a result, the array for maps included data on 251 populations (samples), and the total number of samples in all samples was 34,294 samples. It is worth noting that a significant part of this data was obtained through research by our team under the leadership of the author of these lines: 45 populations and 4,880 samples. This is our data on the Russian populations, Ukrainian, Belarusian and some additional Russian populations, populations of the North Caucasus, as well as our yet unpublished data on the populations of the Crimean and Kazan Tatars, Moksha and Erzi. (Data on haplogroup frequencies from three published articles are given in Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3.) It turns out that out of the entire array of data on Y-chromosome variability in Europe, every fifth population and every seventh sample was studied by our team (in Fig. 2.1. “our » populations are shown in blue circles), although several dozen laboratories throughout Europe have been and are engaged in research in this area. If we add that Europe is the most studied region of the world, this partly explains why our team has undertaken a general analysis of the gene pool of Europe. To construct the maps, Y-base data were also used not only for European populations, but also for populations of nearby regions included in the mapped area.
In addition to the 251 European populations studied using panels of haplogroups covering their entire spectrum, about 200 more populations were studied using subvariants of only one haplogroup. These are mainly articles devoted to haplogroups R1b and R1a, and a number of articles on haplogroups N, E, and J. As a rule, the samples used in these articles for in-depth genotyping of individual haplogroups have previously been studied across the entire spectrum of haplogroups. Figure 2.1. gives an idea of the density of coverage of Europe and adjacent regions by populations studied not according to one haplogroup, but across their entire spectrum with the usual level of phylogenetic resolution.
DATA ARRAY FOR MAPS: HAPLOGROUPS.
This concept of the “usual phylogenetic level” of study of haplogroups is very conditional, and this level is growing every year. If in 2000 the number of haplogroups in a typical article did not reach a dozen, then in the 2010s most articles use panels of 40-70 haplogroups. Of course, since about 2013, the number of known haplogroups discovered through full sequencing has already numbered in the thousands. But discovering them is only the first step, which requires many further steps and efforts to analyze a large array of very different populations for the presence of new haplogroups. And until their frequencies have been determined in a wide range of populations, the significance of these newly discovered haplogroups for gene pool research is small.
Combining data from dozens of articles from different years in one table, it inevitably turns out that some haplogroups have been studied in a very large number of populations, and some have been studied only for a few populations. Fortunately, this does not pose a big problem for mapping (almost all haplogroups selected for mapping have been studied in two to three dozen populations, and this number of reference points is usually enough to identify the main trends). But still, when considering maps, it is worth keeping in mind that the detail of the source data for different haplogroups is not the same.
For mapping, haplogroups were selected that made up a noticeable part of the gene pool in at least some populations of Europe and were studied, as just mentioned, in several dozen populations. 40 haplogroups met these criteria: E1b1a1-DYS271, E1b1b1a1b-L142.1, E1b1b1a1c-V22, E1b1b1b1-M81, E1b1b1c-M123, G2a1-P16, G2a3a-M406, G2a3b1-P303, I1-L118, I2a-P37.2, I2b-L35, J1-L255, J1c3-P58, J2-L228, J2a-L152, J2a3b-M67, J2a3h-L207.1, J2b-L282, L-M11, N1b-P43, N1c-M46, O3-M122, Q-M242, R1a1-L120, R1a1a1g-M458, R1a-M558, R1a-Z284, R1a-Z93, R1b1a1-M478, R1b1a2-L265, R1b-L10, R1b1a2a1a1a-M405, R1b1a2a1a1a1-M467, R 1b1a2a1a1b-P312, R1b1a2a1a1b2a- M153, R1b1a2a1a1b2b1-M167, R1b1a2a1a1b4b-M222, R1b1c-V88, R2a-L266, T-L206.
Table 2.1. Our data on the frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in Russian populations
Table 2.2. Our data on the frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of Balto-Slavic peoples (published in).
Table 2.3. Our data on the frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroups in the populations of the Caucasus
Rice. 2.1. Geographical location of populations in Europe and adjacent regions studied by Y-chromosome polymorphism. Blue circles show our own data, green circles show data from the literature.
HAPLOGROUP R1a AND ITS VARIANTS
HAPLOGROUPR1 a(without division into subbranches).
As indicated in the review of previous works, the haplogroup R1 a is one of the two most common haplogroups in Europe. Moreover, it is also the most widespread haplogroup in Eurasia as a whole. For its genotyping, different markers are used - M198, M17, SRY1542, the phylogenetic difference between which is almost absent, and many other markers are known that define this haplogroup, so any of these can be used to designate it. In the data array for maps it appears as R1 a- L120 .
In Fig. 2.2 you can see a clear trend of geographical distribution R1 a- L120 : Although it is distributed throughout Europe, its wide area of maximum frequency is in Eastern Europe, and in these populations it makes up almost half of the gene pool. In the east, the maximum zone is limited by the Volga, and along its entire length - from the Upper Volga to the lower reaches. In the south, the maximum zone reaches almost the Black Sea, in the northwest – to the Baltic Sea, and in the southwest it is limited to the Carpathians and the Alps. But the most interesting boundaries of this area are in the west: although there are no geographical barriers there, the high-frequency zone R1a is still quite clearly limited, and the frequency drop over some two hundred to three hundred kilometers reaches almost 30% (from about 35-45% for the Poles and sorbs up to 10-15% among the Germans). Several articles were devoted to the analysis of this “Polish-German genetic border”.
I have not yet mentioned the border of the zone of maximum frequencies R1a in the north - although the difference in frequencies there is not as pronounced as in the west (not from red to green, but only from red to yellow tones, that is, by fifteen percent), but the northern border is also revealed The map is quite clear. In this case, it passes within the area of one people – the Russians – marking the differences between the gene pool of the Russian North and other Russian populations. These yellow tones of moderate frequencies occupy not only the Russian North, but also the entire space of Eastern Europe between the Volga and the Urals, and only beyond the Ural range of frequencies R1 a fall to the same low values (green tones on the map) as in Western Europe, Scandinavia, the Balkans and Western Asia.
SUBVARIANTS OF HAPLOGROUPR1 a
Within such a huge range of haplogroups R1a-L120 There are undoubtedly almost as many subvariants of this haplogroup, many of which may have distinct and relatively small geographic ranges. But over time the subtypes within R1 a were unknown. Until, thanks to the work of Peter Underhill's laboratory at Stanford University, first the first two, and then several more subvariants, were discovered. Of course, at present the number of known subvariants R1 a numbers in the hundreds: each sample for which the entire genome or Y chromosome has been fully sequenced forms its own branch on the phylogenetic tree. But until at least some of these variants have been screened for their prevalence in populations and the frequencies of their occurrence in different populations of Europe have been determined, the construction of genogeographic maps is impossible. Now we can only speculate about the distribution areas of this sub-branches, based on sometimes shaky information about the places of origin of those single samples from which each of these hundreds of branches was discovered. The interest in this haplogroup is so great that, of course, such population screening will be carried out by different laboratories around the world (including our team) in the very coming years, and then the genogeography of subvariants R1 a will be much more detailed. But at the moment we are limited to those markers for which mass population screening was carried out in articles and in the work of our team: these are the three main markers of the European branch R1 a and an Asian branch marker.
ASIAN BRANCHR1 A- Z93.
It should be noted that the division into European and Asian branches appears on the phylogenetic tree R1 a very clearly. The marker of the Asian branch is Z93 (and its synonyms), and in Europe this branch is almost absent. To prove this, we present a map of its distribution (Fig. 2.3.), which shows only low frequencies (1-3%) and only in very few populations of Eastern Europe, and move on to considering European subvariants.
Rice. 2.3. Geography of haplogroupssR- Z93 Y chromosomes inEurope.
EUROPEAN BRANCHR1 A-M458.
The first one, R-M458, identifies the Central European subvariant in the general array of the haplogroup R1a, occupying half of Europe. Therefore, after the discovery of this marker, we specifically genotyped it in many Slavic and North Caucasian populations, which made it possible for the first time to construct a detailed map of its distribution, taking into account Eastern Europe and the Caucasus (Fig. 2.4).
The map shows the highest frequencies of this marker among the Western Slavs (Poles and Czechs), where it makes up a quarter of the gene pool, and slightly reduced frequencies in surrounding populations. The westward spread of this marker is limited to adjacent populations of Germans (who probably assimilated West Slavic groups that previously inhabited these areas). But to the east of the high-frequency zone of the haplogroup R-M458 spreads far, capturing the entire range of the Eastern Slavs. It is characteristic that this eastern expansion is more pronounced in the forest-steppe zone (among Ukrainians) than in the forest zone (Belarusians and Russians). Even more curious is the limited expansion to the south: among the southern Slavs and non-Slavic peoples of the Balkans (Hungarians, Romanians) the frequency of this haplogroup is low, and there is a correspondence to the genetic “border” of high frequencies R-M458 and the geographical border of the Carpathians. To the north of this mountain range there is a zone of maximum frequencies of the haplogroup, and to the south of the Carpathians the frequency sharply decreases. Apparently, the Carpathians acted as a geographic barrier to gene flow, preventing the spread of this haplogroup to the Balkans. Note that, unlike R1 a in general, occurring at least with low frequencies in any region of Europe, R- M458 distributed only throughout Eastern Europe, neighboring territories of Western Europe and the Balkans, but is almost completely absent in most of Western Europe - the Iberian Peninsula, France, the British Isles, large parts of the Apennine and Scandinavian Peninsulas, and is also absent outside Europe - and in the Western Europe Asia and Siberia.
EUROPEAN BRANCHR1 A-M558.
Second European sub-variant R1 a is indicated by the name of the marker R- M558 (Fig. 2.5.) Phylogenetically, it is fraternal (for mtDNA in such cases it is customary to say “sister”, but here we are talking about the Y chromosome) for R- M458 . Both of these markers are distributed in a similar way: R- M558 also distributed mainly in Eastern Europe, also less common in the Balkans, enters neighboring regions of Western Europe with low frequencies, and just like R- M458 , is practically absent outside of Europe. The areas of these subtypes also overlap in the zone of their maximum frequencies among the Western and Eastern Slavs. Main Difference Between Spread Patterns R- M458 And R- M558 consists only of being more confined to the western or eastern part of their common range.
R- M458 has a tendency towards the west of its range. Among the Western Slavs it occurs with an average frequency of 25% (i.e., a quarter of the gene pool), and among the Eastern Slavs it occurs with an average frequency of 15%, although it rises to 23% in Western Belarusians and in some Ukrainian populations (but not Western, and central ones).
R- M558 tends to the east of their common range. It occurs with a frequency above 30% in both populations of southern Russians studied for this marker; is 20-25% among Belarusians, Poles, Slovaks, Western Ukrainians; declines below (or significantly below) 20% among central Russians, Czechs, central and eastern Ukrainians, and Czechs. However, R- M558 studied in significantly fewer populations than R- M458, and therefore the map of its distribution may still be significantly refined in the future. We see that even this basic difference between the distribution patterns R- M458 And R- M458 is expressed in small differences in frequencies and has a rather complex geography.
This example clearly shows that an increase in phylogenetic resolution does not always lead to an increase in geographical resolution: although within the European branch R1 a and it was possible to identify two subtypes, but their geographical distribution is very similar. Apparently, they arose in related populations and spread together during the same migrations. Or, even having arisen in different parts of the range of populations that intensively exchanged migrations with each other, they spread throughout this entire range. Of course, it is necessary to increase phylogenetic resolution, and, as a rule, the identified subtypes have a clearer geographic location than the branch as a whole; subtypes of the next level have an even narrower distribution zone within the zones of subtypes of the previous level, and so on. But this geographical clarity depends not only and even not so much on the level of phylogenetic resolution, but on the structure of the gene pool, on the historically given ratio of isolation and crossbreeding, that is, in terms of population genetics, on the balance of genetic drift and migration.
If this balance is shifted towards isolation (as in the Caucasus or Siberia), then the frequencies of haplogroups will differ sharply between populations, haplogroups will have geographically narrow areas with little overlap with each other, and haplogroups will reach very high frequencies in “their” populations . If the balance is shifted towards migrations, then the frequencies will not differ so dramatically, the areas will be quite wide and overlapping with each other, and the subhaplogroups will not reach too high frequencies, because the rest of the gene pool will be represented by other haplogroups, the areas of which overlap the same territory. All these features are clearly visible in the example R- M458 And R- M558 , because the shift in balance towards migration rather than isolation is especially characteristic of Europe.
EUROPEAN BRANCHR1 A-Z284.
But there is one more sub-option R1 a– haplogroup R- Z284 (Fig. 2.6.) has a completely different pattern, which can be called “Scandinavian” or “Northern European”. According to currently available data, its frequency is 20% in Norway, 7% in Denmark, and 3% each in England and Sweden, and outside Northern Europe R- Z284 found only in a few samples. These frequencies will certainly be adjusted as new populations are studied and sample sizes of already studied peoples are increased, but the general association with the populations of Northern Europe is already undoubted.
HAPLOGROUP R1b AND ITS VARIANTS
HAPLOGROUPR1 b(GENERALLY)
Haplogroup R1 b, “brotherly” in relation to the haplogroup R1 a and the second most frequent in Europe, also has a wide range (Fig. 2.8), but the main zone of its maximum frequencies is in Western Europe. An important contribution to the study of the European gene pool was the discovery of new informative SNP markers within one of the branches of the haplogroup R1 b- haplogroups R-M269(indicated on maps using a phylogenetically close marker as R-L265 ). This large-scale study was carried out by a large international team with the participation of the author and published in.
R1 b generally ( R- L10 , rice. 2.8.) clearly shows that this is the main component, constituting more than half of the Y-chromosomal gene pool of Western Europe. Only the population of the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula carries reduced frequencies of this haplogroup, since Mediterranean haplogroups predominate among them, and even Scandinavia, in terms of the geography of haplogroups, does not belong to Western Europe, but forms an independent northern domain, in which another haplogroup predominates - I1 .
Haplogroup R1 b even more characteristic of Western Europe than R1 a characteristic of the East, because R1 b in many populations (British Isles, Basques and a number of other populations of the Iberian Peninsula) it makes up not even half, but more than two-thirds of the gene pool. Overall, the haplogroup trend R1 b- maximum frequencies in the Basques and a gradual decrease in frequency east of the Iberian Peninsula - very similar to the geography of the classical marker Rh-d(Rh factor). Frequency surge in eastern Europe reflects increased frequency R1b in some Bashkir populations, known from [Lobov, 2009]. However, our team is now completing a detailed study of the diversity of the Y chromosome in Bashkir populations (more than 1000 samples). This study found that the frequency R1 b is high only in a few clan groups, while most clan groups of the Bashkirs are characterized by other haplogroups, and the frequencies R1 b theirs are small. Therefore the splash R1 b in the east of Europe does not reflect a pan-European pattern, but only local patterns of the origin of individual generic groups of the steppe populations of Eurasia.
Although R1 b reaches high frequencies mainly in Western Europe, the map (Fig. 2.8.) shows that it (like R1 a) is distributed everywhere, occupying the entire mapped range and extending far beyond its borders throughout Eurasia. It is believed that R1 b is of Western Asian origin, and its various branches spread to various parts of the Old World, but only the branch that spread to Europe and reached such significant frequencies in it was especially “lucky”.
The figure shows only branches that are examined in detail using genogeographic maps; the structure of the diagram corresponds to the complete tree of haplogroup R1b-L10 according to the ISOGG version as of October 2015.
SUBVARIANTS OF HAPLOGROUPR1 b
Maps in Fig. 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11 show three main branches R1 b(Fig. 2.7.), which - with many reservations - can be called African, steppe Eurasian and Western European haplogroups. Indeed, when we look at the map R1 b in general (Fig. 2.8.), we see its presence in North Africa as well.
AFRICAN BRANCHR- V88.
Map R- V88 (Fig. 2.9.) just shows the frequencies, albeit low (1-6%, with an increase to 26% in only one population), but throughout North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt), and the almost complete absence of this haplogroup in Europe and Asia. That is, the “African” part R1 b– this is almost exclusively a branch R- V88 . It reaches its maximum far beyond the mapped area - in Central Africa.
STEPPE BRANCHR- M478 .
Map of the next branch - R- M478 – shows its association with the steppe populations of Eurasia (Fig. 2.10). The zone of its maximum frequencies is also located for the most part outside the mapped area - in the spaces from the Urals to Altai. However, as you can see on the map, in separate “languages” this haplogroup reaches the Caucasus, remaining confined to the steppe regions of the Southern Urals and Ciscaucasia, and making up only 1-10%, rarely in any populations up to 20% of the gene pool.
WESTERN EUROPEAN BRANCHR- L265.
The third of the main branches of the haplogroup R1 b- haplogroup R-M269, or, as we denote it here on maps, R- L265 — constitutes the main (in frequency and area) part of R1b. Therefore, the map of its distribution (Fig. 2.11) generally echoes the map L10 , only without the African part of its range. This haplogroup is subdivided into many subhaplogroups, many of which are specific to a particular area within the branch's range. Let's focus on the two main branches inside R- L265 : Central European haplogroup R- M405 and her Iberian-British “brother” R- P312 with all their “filial” branches (Fig. 2.12. - 2.17.).
CENTRAL EUROPEAN BRANCH R-M405 IN GENERAL.
Haplogroup R-M405(Fig. 2.12) is found throughout almost all of Western, Central and Northern Europe (with the exception of the southern regions of the Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas, as well as the Balkan Peninsula in the south, Finland and the Kola Peninsula in the north), as well as in the western part of Eastern Europe . However, with maximum frequencies (18-36%), the haplogroup R-M405 found mainly in the population of Central Europe (in Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Denmark and southern Britain). Dating of both the emergence and identification of internal subvariants of the haplogroup R-M405 according to www.yfull.com are about 5 thousand years ago (in the range of 4.4-5.3 thousand years ago), i.e. date back to the Bronze Age. It seems that already at this time migration processes were taking place, leading to the spread of the haplogroup R- M405 to different parts of Europe. It is possible that the data on the haplogroup R- M405 indicate one of the episodes of the spread of speakers of Indo-European languages in Europe. To one of the directions of distribution of haplogroup carriers R- M405, perhaps indicated by the geography of one of its subbranches - the haplogroup R- M467.
"GERMAN-BRITISH" BRANCHR- M467.
Modest distribution of the haplogroup R- M467 (Fig. 2.13) - both in its frequencies (from a maximum of 4% in eastern Germany through values of about 3% in northern and southern Germany, Holland and southern Britain to 0.5% in France), and in geography (not the most vast, by European standards, areas around the North Sea) - nevertheless, it is of interest. Geography of the haplogroup R- M467 suggests the migration of its speakers from the territory of modern Germany along the North Sea to the shores of the British Isles. Dating for haplogroup R- M467, presented on the website www.yfull.com indicate its emergence about 4.7 thousand years ago (in the range of 4.1-5.4 thousand years ago), and the time of expansion (division into subbranches) a thousand years later is about 3.4 thousand years ago (in the range from 2.8-4.0 thousand years ago). Comparing the range of the haplogroup R- M467 on the map with the indicated dates of occurrence and spread, we can assume two models for the emergence of such a situation. The first is when migration processes from the territory of the central regions of modern Germany during the Bronze Age passed along the coast of the North Sea to the British Isles and left their mark on the modern gene pool. The second is when this haplogroup could have been distributed somewhat wider to the south, west and east, but as a result of the arrival of another population there, the already low frequency of the haplogroup R- M467 decreased in the south to values almost undetectable with current sample sizes.
PYRENEAN-BRITISH BRANCHR- P312 OVERALL.
Haplogroup distribution R- P312 (Fig. 2.14) is interesting in that it largely reflects the general features of the distribution in the population of Europe as its ancestral haplogroup R- L265 , and the entire haplogroup R1 b generally. Highest haplogroup frequencies R- P312 in the very west of Europe (the Iberian Peninsula, the territory of western France, the British Isles) with a gradual decrease in frequency to the east and a local surge in the southern Urals - these are almost the same features that were described above when characterizing the area of the haplogroup R1 b generally. However, following a general trend does not mean complete similarity. Thus, a vast area of red-violet shades (frequencies 50-75%) in most of Western Europe, which was previously observed on haplogroup maps R1 b- L10 And R- L265 (Fig. 2.8. and Fig. 2.11.), on the haplogroup map R- P312 (Fig. 2.14) turns into a local burst of frequency (up to 75%) in the north of the British Isles and an area of yellow-red shades (frequency 30-50%) in the Iberian Peninsula and France. South Ural red-violet burst of general frequency R1 b on the haplogroup map R- P312 is reduced to a small “eye” at the point for the northern Bashkirs, which is surrounded on all sides by low-frequency regions (no more than 3%).
Haplogroup R-P312, thus covering a significant part of both the diversity of the entire haplogroup R- L265 , so its range. It can be assumed that in this case, within the haplogroup R- P312 There are also a number of local subbranches with narrower areas. And this assumption is justified: today five large branches are known, which in turn are divided into several dozen deeper ones. However, we will focus only on three branches R- P312 , the distribution of which in Europe is well studied: haplogroup R-M167 and its subvariant R- M153 , as well as haplogroup R- M222 (Fig. 2.15-2.17.).
"BASCO-ROMAN" HAPLOGROUPR- M167.
This is the name for the haplogroup R- M167 conditionally: its geography (Fig. 2.15) covers the population of the Iberian Peninsula and Western France, a small area in the south of Germany and a single “peephole” in Holland, as well as an area in the Western Black Sea region (Romanians and Bulgarians). The majority of the haplogroup's range is thus inhabited by peoples speaking languages of the Romance (Spanish, Portuguese, French and Romanians) group of the Indo-European language family and the Basque language family. However, southern Germans and Bulgarians, who also have a haplogroup R- M167 , speak the languages of other groups of the Indo-European family.
Area of maximum haplogroup frequencies R- M167 (yellowish-greenish tones in Fig. 2.15, haplogroup frequency from 6% to 25%) covers the territory of the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France. This same area is the only territory of distribution of the daughter haplogroup R- M167 – subvariant R- M153 (Fig. 2.16).
"BASQUE" BRANCHR- M153.
As can be seen on the map (Fig. 2.16), the haplogroup R- M153 reaches its maximum frequency (almost 16%) among the Basques, is half as common in the population of the Spanish Pyrenees, and covers the rest of its range with very low frequencies (1-3%). Due to this geography, the haplogroup R- M153 can be conditionally called “Basque” and assume that it appeared and spread mainly in the populations of this people. The age of origin of this haplogroup according to www.yfull.com is about 2.5 thousand years (ranging from 3500 to 1500 years ago). In other words, this haplogroup most likely appeared in the populations of the Pyrenees Mountains at the dawn of our era and managed to spread on both sides of the mountain range (and more effectively to the south of the Pyrenees) as a result of local migrations.
BRITISH BRANCHR- M222.
The haplogroup can be considered surprising, only not in terms of the breadth of its range, but precisely in terms of its compactness R- M222 (Fig. 2.17). The distribution of this haplogroup almost exclusively in the British Isles suggests a local origin. According to www.yfull.com estimates, the expansion of the haplogroup R- M222 dates back to only 1.8 thousand years ago (in the range of 1.3-2.4 thousand years ago). In other words, the haplogroup appeared in the populations of the British Isles in the 2nd millennium BC, and the migrations that spread it occurred at the beginning of our era, that is, around Roman times.
Example of haplogroup phylogeography R-L265 shows how detailed genetic information is hidden within each haplogroup of the Y chromosome. We can only hope that as data on complete genomes accumulates, informative markers will be discovered within other haplogroups.
INDIAN HAPLOGROUPR2 (R- L266).
Haplogroup R2 (R- L266 ) comes from the same root as the haplogroup R1 , which gave rise to haplogroups R1 a And R1 b. Haplogroup distribution map R2 (R- L266 ) (Fig. 2.18) shows that for the population of Europe as a whole R2 is not typical: it occurs with extremely low frequencies (less than 3%) only in the north of the Apennine Peninsula and in Sardinia, among the Turkish population near the Dardanelles Strait, in central Anatolia and Transcaucasia. With a slightly higher frequency of 5% haplogroup R2 (R- L266 ) seen in southeastern Turkey, with a frequency of 6% among Kalmyks. Such a meager geography of the haplogroup within the mapped area is perhaps not surprising: after all, the main area R2 (R- L266 ) covers distant territories of the Indian Peninsula and Central Asia, and with low frequencies the haplogroup reaches China in the east and South-West Asia in the west of its range.
HAPLOGROUP I AND ITS SUBVARIANTS
Continuing the topic of the high information content of identifying subtypes and analyzing their geographical distribution, let me remind you of the classic work in which the haplogroup I-M170 was phylogenetically divided into three subtypes. It turned out that these subtypes have completely different geographical locations : haplogroup I1-M253(on maps — I-L118) is confined to northern Europe, I2a-P37– to the Balkan region, and I2b-M223(on maps - I-L35) is localized primarily in Northwestern Europe. It was after this work and a number of similar ones that it became clear that the discovery of new SNP markers dividing the haplogroup into subbranches is the main way to increase the information content of the Y-chromosome analysis. But for a long time, progress along this path was slow, and only after the introduction of complete sequencing of the Y chromosome, new markers began to accumulate like an avalanche. Thus, for a long time it was not possible to discover new SNP markers within the haplogroup I, or the newly discovered SNP markers did not identify new branches with a clear geography. For example, the work discovered new markers and reorganized the topology of the haplogroup branches I-M170, but the same three main branches were preserved, albeit under new names, and the new discovered variants were rare and not characterized by clear geographical trends.
"SCANDINAVIAN" HAPLOGROUP I-L118.
Distribution map of the “Scandinavian” haplogroup I-L118(Fig. 2.19) shows its maximum frequencies not only in geographical Scandinavia, but also in territories closely associated with it historically: Denmark, Scotland, and the western regions of Finland. Therefore, the region of moderate frequencies in Russian populations north of the Volga, which stands out against the background of low frequencies in most Slavic populations, is interesting. It cannot be ruled out that this reflects historical contact with Norman populations. Although these contacts were more intense for the northwestern Russian populations (on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks”), the territories of the northwest were relatively densely populated, so the influence of the “Varangians” could be more significant for the smaller populations of the Trans-Volga region.
"BALKAN" HAPLOGROUP I-P37
Distribution map of the “Balkan” haplogroup I-P37(Fig. 2.20) shows its high frequencies also in Italy. In general, this haplogroup is distributed throughout almost all of Europe, except Scandinavia. In Eastern Europe, a smooth gradient of decreasing frequency from the southwest (Ukraine) to the north and east is very reminiscent of the map of the first principal component based on classical genetic markers [Rychkov et al., 2002]. It is also worth noting the rather pronounced coincidence of the area of this haplogroup with the geographical borders of Europe - with a high frequency in the Black Sea region, the haplogroup is very rare in the North Caucasus and almost absent in Transcaucasia, and with maximum frequencies in the Balkans it is very rare in neighboring Asia Minor.
“VARYAGO-GREEK” HAPLOGROUP I-L35
Along the shores of the North and Baltic seas, and a little inland from them - this is how one could describe the geography of the haplogroup I-L35, if not for two more additions in the northeast and southeast. Although the maximum frequency of the haplogroup I-L35 ( 17%) is noted in Sweden (Fig. 2.21), a zone of rarer occurrence of the haplogroup (3-7%) covers the northern part of Central Europe, in the southeast a separate area of very low frequencies (1-3%) covers the Balkan Peninsula and the western part Asia Minor, and in the northeast it manifests itself in the Russian populations of the Tver and Kostroma regions. It can be noted that the range of the haplogroup I-L35 — the haplogroup is quite moderate and homogeneous in frequency values (in most of the area the frequency varies from 2-3% to 7%, only the peak in Sweden is up to 17%) - it connects several extreme regions of Europe: Scandinavia, the northern regions of Eastern Europe and the east of Southern Europe. It is quite possible that the geography of the haplogroup I-L35 indeed reflects one of the genetic traces of trade routes between the north and south of Europe. It is no less likely that each of these zones is associated with its own subvariant of this haplogroup.
HAPLOGROUP N AND ITS SUBVARIANTS
Haplogroup N within the European region it is represented by two large branches - haplogroups N1c And N1b(further and on maps N-M46 And N-P43 respectively). Although the general areas of these two haplogroups in Europe overlap, the zones of their maximum frequencies are delimited in the north by the Pechora River, and to the south by the Ural Range: from the west of this conditional “border” there remain zones of increased occurrence of the haplogroup N-M46, and from the east - the zone of maximum frequencies N-P43. Let's consider the geography of these two “brotherly” branches of the haplogroup N a little more detail.
NORTH EUROPEAN WESTERN HAPLOGROUP N-M46
Haplogroup distribution map N-M46(Fig. 2.22) shows its maximum frequencies among the Finns. Its frequencies are also high in other populations of northeastern Europe. Although in general this haplogroup appears to be confined to Finno-Ugric populations, it is just as common among northern Russians (which, apparently, is explained by the assimilation of the pre-Slavic population, as will be described in the following chapters). The most interesting area seems to be the high frequency of this haplogroup among the Balts (Latvians and Lithuanians). In this case, the genetic boundaries coincide well with the linguistic ones: the boundary of the areas of the Balts and Western Slavs coincides with a pronounced “cliff” in the frequency of the haplogroup. A similar picture is observed on the border with Belarusians.
"NORTH URAL" HAPLOGROUP N-P43
Haplogroup distribution map N-P43(Fig. 2.23) also reveals a northern, but much narrower range. The maximum frequencies of this haplogroup are observed in the extreme northeast of Europe and smoothly transition to the world maximum of this haplogroup in Western Siberia. With moderate frequencies, this haplogroup is distributed throughout the Urals and the Urals. A smooth gradient of decreasing frequency to the west and south is noticeable, so that in populations of Central Russia and the lower Volga this haplogroup is still found (albeit with minimal frequencies), and in other populations of Europe it is almost completely absent.
HAPLOGROUP E AND ITS SUBVARIANTS
Most of the haplogroups described above mainly characterized the conditionally northern half of the European continent. Considering the geography of the following haplogroup - E– we will shift our attention to the south, to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Four main branches of the haplogroup are found in Europe E: E- L142 And E- V22 (going back to a common root - haplogroup E-M78), E- M81 And E- M123 .
EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN HAPLOGROUPE- L142
Haplogroup map E- L142 (Fig. 2.24) somewhat resembles a haplogroup map I-P37(Fig. 2.20) - the maximum frequencies of both of these haplogroups are confined to the Balkan Peninsula. Their patterns are also very similar: frequency decreases to the north, west and east. The main differences between the trends of these two haplogroups are, firstly, the lower frequency E- L142 (in most territories it is “inferior” I-P37 per map scale interval) and, secondly, in the distribution E- L142 not only in Europe, but throughout the Mediterranean, including the Middle East and the northern reaches of Africa. Within the Balkans I-P37 especially common among Bosnians and Croats, and E- L142 predominates to the south - among the Serbs, Albanians and Greeks.
"EGYPTIAN" HAPLOGROUPE- V22
Two small “eyes” in the north and south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Apennine Peninsula - territories with the frequency of the haplogroup E- V22 up to 5%, a small area in the north-west of Asia Minor (in the vicinity of Istanbul) with a frequency of up to 6%: this could complete the description of the geography of the haplogroup E-V22 within the geographical boundaries of Europe (Fig. 2.25). However, the geography of the haplogroup E-V22 in Europe it mainly follows the Mediterranean coast, so it is worth tracing its distribution further south. Map in Fig. 2.25 shows a smooth increase in the frequency of the haplogroup E- V22 in two opposing regions: the southwest and southeast of the Mediterranean. In the southwestern Mediterranean off the coast of the Strait of Gibraltar and deep into Morocco, the frequency of the haplogroup E-V22 rises to 7%. In the southeastern Mediterranean, an increase in the frequency of the haplogroup E- V22 It is noted from Asia Minor to the south - through the Levant up to the Nile Delta, where it reaches 14%, and even further south along the Nile, where among the Egyptian Arabs of the Bahariya oasis it reaches a world maximum of 22%. From these two non-European regions of distribution of the haplogroup E- V22, It is likely that it was the latter (with higher frequencies and wider distribution) that served as the main source of distribution of the haplogroup E- V22 to Europe.
SAHARAN HAPLOGROUPE- M81
If the two previous branches of haplogroup E are E- L142 And E-V22 - demonstrated mainly distribution along the northern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, sometimes with a deepening to the north and east of the continent, then the geography of the third branch - haplogroups E- M81- more follows the southern Mediterranean. Haplogroup distribution map E- M81 in Fig. 2.26, although it shows a noticeable presence of the haplogroup in the Middle East (frequency up to 20%), however, the main zone of high frequencies is in northwestern Africa. From this maximum, a smooth decrease in frequency was noted in a northerly direction through the Strait of Gibraltar with a moderate distribution (2-10%) of the haplogroup E- M81 on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France, narrow areas of low frequencies (no more than 3%) in the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas, as well as in the northeast of Asia Minor.
NEAR ASIAN HAPLOGROUPE- M123
Haplogroup E- M123 reaches a maximum in Western Asia (20-25%), closer to Europe (in Asia Minor) it decreases to 15%. In Europe itself, it is distributed with low frequencies along the northern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and appears in isolated patches in Central Europe (Fig. 2.27).
HAPLOGROUP G AND ITS SUBVARIANTS
Haplogroup distribution maps of two branches of the haplogroup G- P15 – haplogroups G- P303 andG- P16 – in general, they have a similar distribution and even on a pan-European map scale it is clear that both are confined primarily to the Caucasus. However, they reach their maximum frequencies in different parts of the Caucasus region: haplogroup G- P303 predominates in the extreme north-west among the Black Sea Shapsugs, and the haplogroup G- P16 - in the Central Caucasus among the Ossetian-Ironians (Fig. 2.28 and Fig. 2.29). This is fully confirmed by a separate study of the gene pool of the Caucasus.
WESTERN CAUCASIAN HAPLOGROUPG- P303
The map shows that the haplogroup G- P303 (Fig. 2.28) is also common in the Middle East, and in Europe it is found mainly in its southeastern regions. High frequency haplogroup zones G- P303 stretch along the eastern coast of the Black Sea and are confined to populations of the peoples of the Western Caucasus, mainly of the Abkhaz-Adyghe linguistic group. With lower frequencies (up to 10%) haplogroup G- P303 distributed in the Northern Black Sea region (on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula and in the Azov region), the region of low frequencies (3-5%) extends further north into the Ukrainian forest-steppe zone. Local increase in haplogroup frequency G- P303 up to 13% is also observed in the Volga region among the Mordovian Moksha population and is surrounded by a region of low frequencies.
CENTRAL CAUCASIAN HAPLOGROUPG- P16
Geography of the haplogroup G- P16 (Fig. 2.29) narrower compared to its “brother” branch G- P303 . It covers exclusively the Caucasus region and Asia Minor. Within this area, the frequency of the haplogroup G- P16 sharply drops from maximum values among Ossetians (73% among Ossetian-Ironians and 56% among Ossetians-Digorians) to values in the range of 10-20% among the peoples of the North-West Caucasus (Abkhazians, Circassians, Balkarians and Karachais) and then decreases to a minimum marks among Turks, Armenians and Azerbaijanis.
HAPLOGROUP J AND ITS SUBVARIANTS
Haplogroup J represented by two major branches: J- L255 (J1) And J-L228 (J2), of which the second is more widespread in Europe. Although both of these branches are Middle Eastern in origin and reflect ancient relationships between the population of Europe and the inhabitants of much more southern regions of Eurasia, it makes sense to consider separately the geography of each of these lines as a whole, and each of the internal branches of the more widespread haplogroup in Europe J-L228 (J2).
HAPLOGROUPJ- L255 (J1): from Western Asia to the peaks of the Eastern Caucasus
Haplogroup distribution J- L255 (Fig. 2.30) in the mapped area covers mainly its south-eastern regions: the Caucasus, Asia Minor, the Northern Black Sea region, the Balkan Peninsula; small zones - the south of the Apennine Peninsula and France, the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Within the region of maximum frequencies - the Caucasus - haplogroup J- L255 highlights the peoples of the Eastern Caucasus, where it accounts for the lion's share of the entire gene pool. Maximum haplogroup J- L255 reaches in Dagestan (among the Kubachi, Dargins, Tabasarans and Avars its frequencies range from 63 to 98%), and decreases to 44% among Lezgins and 21% among Chechens. On the territory of Asia Minor, the share of the haplogroup J- L255 ranges from 5% to 15%.
HAPLOGROUPJ-L228 (J2) IN GENERAL
Haplogroup distribution map J-L228 (J2) paints a different picture (Fig. 2.31). Unlike most of the haplogroups discussed above, J-L228 (J2) distributed with high frequencies not in Europe, but in the Middle East and North Africa. Of course, its range also extends into the southern regions of Europe neighboring these regions: Spain (especially its southern regions), Italy (also especially southern), and the south of the Balkan Peninsula. But this haplogroup reaches its maximum frequencies (red on the map) in some populations of the North Caucasus. As was shown in our study, as well as in the work, the Caucasian maximum is confined to the populations of the Nakh group (Chechens and Ingush).
HAPLOGROUPJ- L152 AND ITS SUBVARIANTJ- M67
Geography of the haplogroup J- L152 in Europe is quite extensive: the low frequency zone stretches from the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula through Central Europe and to the Iberian Peninsula. The zone of high frequencies (from 15%) covers Asia Minor and the Caucasus. Almost repeats this pattern, but somewhat in a narrower geographical scope and generally with lower frequencies, the distribution of its “filial” branch - the haplogroup J-M67(Fig. 2.32). However, the haplogroup J-M67 in its frequency it is more confined to the Caucasus, making up no more than 13% of the gene pool in the territory of Asia Minor.
HAPLOGROUPJ- L282
Haplogroup distribution J- L282 in Europe (Fig. 2.33) is noticeably different from the previous branch. Against the background of a vast zone of low frequencies, three areas stand out, where the proportion of the haplogroup J- L282 in the gene pool is increased to 10-15%: the north of Fennoscandia (however, this maximum is based only on data on one population), the Volga region (Moksha population of Mordovians) and the north of the Balkan Peninsula (several Albanian populations).
RARE HAPLOGROUPSL, Q, T
HAPLOGROUP L-M11
Haplogroup L-M11(Fig. 2.34) in Europe is confined to the southeastern regions (with the exception of an isolated case in Belgium): the Crimean Peninsula, the European part of Turkey and the North Caucasus. Moreover, the frequency of the haplogroup L-M11 gradually increases in the southeast direction, reaching 14% in the Eastern Caucasus among the Chechens and 13% in the northeast of Asia Minor among the Turks. Further, its frequency increases in the Near and Middle East, reaching the Indian maximum already far beyond the mapped area.
HAPLOGROUP Q-M242
Haplogroup Q-M242 in Europe it is practically not found, with the exception of a few points with low frequencies (up to 3%) in Central and Eastern Europe, on the Crimean Peninsula and in the eastern half of Asia Minor (Fig. 2.35). A smooth corridor from the northwestern coast of the Caspian Sea further east with a gradual increase in frequency is the area of the haplogroup Q-M242 passes to Central Asia and Siberia, where it reaches its maximum.
HAPLOGROUP T
Haplogroup frequency T-L206 in the European population does not exceed 5% (Fig. 2.36). Its range in Europe is patchwork and is reduced in the west to three narrow regions on the Iberian Peninsula and Sardinia, and in the east to a zone in the Northern Black Sea region with a transition to the northeast into the Ukrainian forest-steppe, isolated cases in the Volga region among the Kazan Tatars and in the North Caucasus among the Kuban Nogais. Outside Europe, the frequency of haplogroup T is equally low, but its range is no longer patchy, but almost continuous, covering all of Asia Minor, the Middle East and northeast Africa.
Y-GENE POOL OF EUROPE - THE PRINCIPLE OF PUZZLES
Thus, the study of Y-chromosome variability in European populations, based on the combination of extensive own data with literature, confirmed and clarified the conclusion that the main feature of the structuring of the gene pool is the clear identification of geographical zones, each of which is dominated by its own haplogroup. This is convincingly demonstrated by the distribution maps of haplogroups (Fig. 2.2.-2.36).
However, when placing data for each haplogroup on a separate map, it is difficult to track the overlap - or, conversely, non-overlap - of the areas of haplogroups. Therefore, we combined the distribution zones of all haplogroups on one map (Fig. 2.37). In this figure, the outline of each of the nine main European haplogroups strictly corresponds to the territory in which the frequency of this haplogroup is above 35%, i.e. more than a third of the gene pool. It can be seen that each haplogroup actually occupies its own range. The areas that remain white are small - these are those areas where the diversity of haplogroups is high and no single haplogroup reaches the 35% level.
The resulting map clearly demonstrates the “puzzle principle”—the high geographic specificity of Y-chromosome haplogroups. Thanks to this, in each territory, although there are many haplogroups, only one or two dominate. Thus, the gene pool of Europe turns out to be composed, as if from a puzzle, from the areas of predominant distribution of different haplogroups.
Each geographical part of Europe is dominated by one haplogroup, rarely found in other parts. The map shows which parts of Europe each of the main haplogroups is confined to. The map is based on exact frequency values. Zones with a haplogroup frequency above the threshold value of 0.35 are shown in color (that is, in the areas highlighted in color, more than a third of the gene pool belongs to this haplogroup).
Let us note in parentheses that the objective association of this haplogroup with Slavic populations in this very limited territory, unfortunately, became one of the reasons for attaching the “Slavic” label to the entire R1a haplogroup so widespread on amateur forums on the Internet. But such a linking of a haplogroup - throughout its Eurasian range in space and extended existence incommensurable with the Slavs in time - to the Slavic linguistic group alone, alas, not only borders on pseudoscience, but also crosses this line.
20 genera of humanity: what mark does each bear within itself?
Why can’t you read about haplogroups on Wikipedia? How does DNA genealogy work? How many gene mutations have there been during the development of the human race? What was the first human ancestor like 200-250 thousand years ago? What is the difference between the 20 main DNAs - the 20 genera of humanity? Do ethnic groups, nations, and religions have anything to do with the haplogroup? How did it happen that Pushkin is a carrier of haplogroup R1a? Why are there so many representatives of haplogroup R1b in Africa? Can different races meet along the path of a clan? Why do the races continue to be kept separate? Is there a Russian genome? Anatoly Klyosov, founder of DNA genealogy, Doctor of Chemistry, vice president of the American pharmaceutical company Galectin Therapeutics, tells how anthropology is changing, but the haplogroup remains unchanged.
Anatoly Klesov: Firstly, when you ask about haplogroups, do not open Wikipedia. Wasting time and getting incorrect information. The fact is that Wikipedia is a wonderful source, but then when you are looking for established information, say, how many digits are in the number "pi", there are no questions here, or the definition of a triangle. These things have long been debugged and linked to consensus, for such things Wikipedia. When you want to look at haplogroups, I’ll say right away that the people who write there are people who don’t understand anything about it. People who think, perhaps, that they understand, but in fact do not understand anything, are guided by something unclear, there is simply a dump of information that is absolutely empty and distorted. The fact is that for this purpose it will be necessary to answer the question of what a haplogroup and a genus are, and why they are completely unrelated, these are such perpendicular concepts. Let's say, ethnicity, nationality, party affiliation, profession, all these things, in fact, are not connected to the same extent with the concept of haplogroup and clan. The point is, what is a haplogroup? And there is a scientific explanation for this, there are scientific criteria. When they began to study DNA, this, I think, is a well-known concept; even people don’t know the details of what it is, but they know that DNA is something in us, in the body, that determines our anthropology and appearance, and hair color, often behavior, in short, all the characteristics that we express and show to each other, it’s all embedded in DNA. DNA is a giant molecule, there are billions of links in this DNA, and every generation it intertwines, half comes from mom, half from dad, and therefore contributes from both the male and female sides, and again a new interweaving is formed. DNA looks like a double helix. One part of the spiral is from mom, the other from dad, here it is a double helix, to some extent, this is also connected, and then the next children again come from the new mom, the dad is intertwined, so each branch is a change. However, part of the DNA is called the Y chromosome, scientifically speaking, the male sex chromosome, it is precisely the sex chromosome, because it determines gender, only men have it, women do not have it, so now archaeologists who are digging are finding the little finger, a fragment of the little finger , before, of course, it was impossible to determine male or female. And then the DNA is extracted, if it works, and there is a Y chromosome, then it is a man, a boy, if there is no Y chromosome, it is a woman. Such things are now much easier to determine in archeology, things that were practically not determined before. So, the fact is that a woman does not have a Y chromosome, and it has nothing to do with gender; she bears a child, a boy or a girl. This is actually such a function from the point of view of the DNA of things. And so a person receives DNA, that is, a man, in this case, he receives the Y chromosome only from his father, not from his mother. And the father from his father, the father from his father, and so on for millions of years without involvement. The same Y chromosome comes from the ancient ancestors of man, the most ancient ancestors of man. Moreover, its structure is almost identical to the one we have. Now, if you take a chimpanzee from a zoo, and take its Y chromosome and analyze it for DNA, then it is 98% the same as ours. Can you imagine how much time has passed? one side and 5 million years in the other direction, that is, our chimpanzee is separated by 10 million years, back to the ancestor and there, it is impossible to measure directly. And over 10 million years, 98% of the Y chromosomes remained unchanged, so the data here is reliable and can be determined, DNA is being studied. And since this is almost unchanged, the chromosome is transmitted, the Y chromosome, it is clear that there are few changes from father to son. Indeed, in the entire Y chromosome, only one mutation occurs per generation, that is, in 22 years, mathematically let’s take approximately a generation, just for the entire Y chromosome. And therefore, this is one mutation per generation, some 1000 generations, 25,000 years, only 1000 mutations are formed, which is elementarily determined by modern methods, each of them can be counted, and each one has already been counted and numbered. And it turned out that if we start from about 200,000 years ago, this was the common ancestor of Homo Sapiens, Homo sapiens, the data may be as follows - the first human ancestor lived 200,000-250,000 years ago, and before that there were already deeper, more archaic ancestors , they had a different anthropology, a different chest shape, they are no longer considered Homo Sapiens, Homo sapiens. It turned out that there are 20 lines of basic DNA, over these 200,000 years they diverged, here are 20 lines, they called it 20 human genera. And each line is determined by one specific mutation, which only this line has. Here the word “line” can be misunderstood; it’s not a line, but actually a bush. At the base of each line there is a point, that is, a person, from him a bunch of descendants, from another line, from him his own cluster of descendants, and the third has his own. These 20 bushes are all of humanity, and each has its own mark, which no other bush has, so this mark determines which bush any of us belongs to. This is a haplogroup, this bush, it’s also a genus. Why genus? The same definition, at the core there was an ancestor, a patriarch, from whom the bush was formed. The word “genus”, in everyday life it has a somewhat vague concept, let’s say. For example, I am from the Klyosov family, and before that there were no surnames, but the family continued to exist, so you can say I am from the family of my grandfather, great-grandfather, and I am from the family of Prince Golitsyn. But before that there were no princes either, so the clan, it shifts, what concept they put into the clan is what they put into it, it’s in everyday life. But this does not contradict anything with what is in science, because in science it is all one big genus, but breaks up into many small subgenera, right down to families, everyday units of humanity. Therefore, I repeat, a haplogroup is one bush, and the age of the haplogroup is often, and it happens that a bush, it then diverges into different bushes, some of which are more massive, and they cover a large part of the population, there are hundreds of millions of people in one bush. And sometimes a bush is singled out, which later formed, but is very massive, while the others almost all died out from the previous bush, so this bush, which is very massive, is called a haplogroup. Now a conditional definition has been adopted, let’s say that a haplogroup is a bush in which there are at least 100 million people, this is a genus, at the heart of this genus there was also one person. Moreover, you understand that it has nothing to do with nationality, because the haplogroup was formed according to different sources, some young 20 thousand years ago, some 40 thousand years ago, 60 thousand years ago, and the oldest 200 thousand years ago. Of course, the concept of “nationality” does not correspond in any way with the concept of “haplogroup”; nationalities were formed quite recently by historical standards. Ethnic groups quite recently too. Ethnicity is again a community of territory, language and place of residence, well, yes, territory is a place of residence, language, and often cultural things, often religion includes the concept of “ethnicity”. Let's say there is an ethnic group, a common large group of Slavs, but the ethnic groups are different. The ethnicity of the Poles, say, is not the ethnicity of the Russians. The ethnicity of Ukrainians, the ethnicity of Belarusians may well, because the language is slightly different, again they have differences in language and territory, and cultural characteristics. Therefore, ethnic groups, nationalities, religion, party affiliation have nothing to do with the haplogroup, with the clan, but it happens that it so happened that this group was formed, it lives in one place, and this ethnic group was formed just within these frameworks, and then This may be quite consistent with the haplogroup; this cannot be ruled out. For example, there are Basques, they have 90% the same haplogroup, R1B. And there is the Basque ethnicity, that is, in this case, the ethnicity and the haplogroup, they are almost simpatico, almost overlapping each other. The fact is that race is a very flexible concept, let's remember Pushkin, such a visiting example. Pushkin has haplogroup R1A, we learned this from his children, his grandchildren, great-grandchildren, this question is already clear. Moreover, Pushkin comes from such a not very important, but noble family, his long-standing ancestor was the governor Radsha, who is sometimes called Racha, and he served under Alexander Nevsky. He has just R1A, the classic Russian titular, if you like, haplogroup in terms of size. And he is R1A, but we know that he is not black, not to a small extent, he is, scientifically speaking, a mestizo, that is, he has anthropology, race, he already has somewhere at the junction between the Caucasian race and the Negroid, African . And, let’s say, he would marry a black woman again, and his children would be even more in the black direction, and they would marry again, that is, 2-3 generations, and it would no longer be distinguishable from black Africans, but the haplogroup was would be R1A, Pushkins. Here is an example that R1A, and these are Negroid. All haplogroups live in Africa, I don’t know, R1A has not yet been found, but R1B millions of people, that is, those who at one time did not come to Europe, but chose freedom, South Africa, their migration path, they settled in the Cameroon region and Chads, and there are millions of people there, they speak local Bantu languages, but they are in haplogroup R1B. Same thing, race is black and R1B. Therefore, the race changes, I repeat, literally in 2-3 generations. I have a collection of photographs, let's say one of them is Khakass. The Khakass, they are Mongoloid, a Siberian people, and he, a Khakas, purely Mongoloid in face, married a blonde Muscovite, it happened, and they had children, the children have grandchildren. And I have a photograph of my granddaughter, they are already Muscovites, as I understand it, and they are playing somewhere in the sandbox, completely blond blondes, indistinguishable from Russians, and my grandfather or great-grandfather was a complete Mongoloid. So here anthropology is changing at the moment. You will leave, I repeat, although it is already clear to everyone, you will go to the American Indians, 2-3 generations cannot be distinguished, but the haplogroup will remain. Therefore, the usual concept, they ask, how can this be, R1A in Altai, where the Mongoloids live, this cannot be, that is, people do not understand that these are different things. A genus that has been going on since ancient times, along this genus path there can be any variations in race, there is no correlation here. For the same reason that in their time the ancient Aryans, they passed through the entire Russian Plain, went further through the southern territories, passed through Central Asia and left many descendants among the Kyrgyz. Among the Kyrgyz, anyone who lived there, was there or passed by knows that there are many blue-eyed, fair-haired Kyrgyz, completely different, he is a Kyrgyz, and therefore here, again, the anthropology of the race, the shape of the eyes, etc. are in no way connected with R1A. Related, in what sense, if you go to a Russian village, of course, you are unlikely to meet many Australian aborigines, American Indians or black Africans there, everyone there will more or less look the same, they will all be fair-haired, the type is known. Why? Yes, because they marry their own people. The point is, why do the races continue to be kept separate? Because they usually marry their own people. Why would a peasant from a Russian village rush to marry the daughter of an American Indian? This happens, but extremely rarely. Firstly, this is true, purely geographically, according to possibilities, we are always on our own. Further, the Mongols have their own standards of beauty, a flat round face, they are like the moon, but for a Russian this is not included in the standard of beauty, he has his own ideas about beauties, so they choose again according to their standards of beauty. And so it turns out that he is more or less alone. If we take the genome, by the way, the question is asked, but what about the genome, is there a Russian genome? No, there is no Russian genome, but, nevertheless, because the Russian genome is again three different, as a rule, basically, three different genera put it together, and each made contributions, some more, some less, but if you take all of Russia go through, make an average genome, and then for Africa an average genome, for Australia, let’s say, an average genome for an aborigine, then, of course, it will be different, so the question always comes down to what we want to see, and what question can you answer with this answer, and what methods we work with, what we actually do. Therefore, the answer, I repeat once again, is important, a haplogroup is neither an ethnicity, nor a race, nor a nationality, and as I say, nor a party affiliation, to emphasize that this is in no way connected, and not a profession, a profession can have different types. This must be differentiated because thousands of people are mistaken in thinking that it has to do with nationalities and races.
It arose about 15,000 years ago in Asia and subsequently split into several subclades, or, as they are also called, daughter haplogroups. We will look at the main ones - Z283 and Z93. R1a1-Z93 is an Asian marker, characteristic of Turks, Jews, and Indians. With the participation of haplogroup R1a1-Z93, the wheel was invented in the steppe, the first carts were constructed and the horse was domesticated. These were the cultures of the Andronovo circle. The haplogroup quickly mastered the entire strip of Eurasian steppes from the Caspian Sea to Transbaikalia, breaking up into many different tribes with different ethnocultural characteristics.
R1a1-Z283 is a European marker and is characteristic for the most part of the Slavs, but not only, the Scandinavians and the British also have their own separate subclades. In general, today it is ancient haplogroup R1a1 most typical for Slavic, Turkic and Indian ethnic groups.
Excavations of the “Country of Cities” in the Southern Urals confirmed that already about 4000 years ago in the fortified settlement of Arkaim there were premises for personal and public use, residential and workshops. In some rooms, not only pottery workshops were discovered, but also metallurgical production.
During the excavations, about 8,000 square meters were uncovered. m of the settlement area (about half), the second part was studied using archaeomagnetic methods. Thus, the layout of the monument was completely established. Here the reconstruction method was used for the first time in the Trans-Urals, and L.L. Gurevich made drawings of a possible type of settlement. R1a1-Z93 was probably one of the main haplogroups in Arkaim and Sintasht.
Currently, most of Europe speaks Indo-European languages, while haplogroup R1b more specific to Western Europe, and R1a - to Eastern Europe. In countries closer to central Europe there are both of these haplogroups. So haplogroup R1a occupies about 30% of the population of Norway, and about 15% in East Germany - apparently the remnants of direct Y-lines of the Polabian Slavs once assimilated by the Germans. 
In the second millennium BC, presumably due to climate change or as a result of military strife, part of R1a1 (subclade Z93 and other haplogroups of Central Asia) began to migrate to the south and east beyond the steppe, part (subclade L657) went towards India and, joining to local tribes, took part in the creation of a caste society. Those distant events are described in the oldest literary source of humanity - the Rigveda.
The other part began to move towards the Middle East. On the territory of modern Turkey, they allegedly founded Hittite state, which successfully competed with ancient Egypt. The Hittites built cities, but could not become famous for the construction of huge pyramids, since, unlike Egypt, the Hittite society was a society free people, and the idea of using forced labor was alien to them. The Hittite state disappeared suddenly, swept away by a powerful wave of barbarian tribes known as the “peoples of the sea.” In the middle of the last century, archaeologists found a rich library of clay tablets with Hittite texts; the language turned out to belong to the Indo-European group of languages. This is how we gained detailed knowledge about the first state, part of whose male lines supposedly consisted of the haplogroup R1a1-Z93.
Slavic subclades haplogroup R1a1-Z283 form their own cluster of haplotypes, which are completely unrelated to any Western European subclades haplogroup R1a, nor Indo-Iranian and the separation of European speakers of R1a1-Z283 with Asian R1a1-Z93 occurred approximately 6,000 years ago.
In October 539 (BC), the Iranian Persian tribe captured Babylon, the Persian leader Cyrus decided not to leave, but to seriously settle in the captured city. Subsequently, Cyrus managed to significantly expand his possessions, and thus the great Persian Empire arose, which lasted longer than all the empires in the world - 1190 years! In 651 AD, Persia, weakened by civil strife, fell under the onslaught of the Arabs, and this may have led to a change in the haplogroup composition of the population. Now in modern Iran haplogroup R1a makes up approximately 10% of the population.
Three world religions are associated with the Indo-Aryans - Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster was a Persian and possibly a carrier of R1a1, and Buddha came from the Shakya tribe of Hindus, among whose modern representatives haplogroups O3 and J2 were found.
Most peoples consist of many haplogroups, and there is no genus that dominates the rest. There is also no connection between the haplogroup and a person’s appearance and, as can be seen, many representatives haplogroup R1a1 They even belong to different races. To many R1a1-Z93 are characterized by Mongoloid features (Kyrgyz, Altaians, Khotons, etc.), while carriers of R1a1-Z283 have a mostly European appearance (Poles, Russians, Belarusians, etc.). A large number of Finnish tribes have high percentages haplogroup R1a1, some of which were assimilated with the arrival of Slavic colonists in the 9th century.
Achievements that R1a1 may be related to:
The wheel, carts, horse taming, metallurgy, trousers, boots, dresses, the world's first paved "autobahn" with a length of more than 1000 km with "refueling" stations - replacing horses, and much more.
It is difficult to tell the entire history of the first Indo-Europeans in a short article; only a few historical fragments can awaken interest in the history of the ancient ancestors of the Slavs. Type the words in the search engine Indo-Aryans, Turks, Slavs, Scythians, Sarmatians, Persia, and you will plunge into a fascinating journey through the glorious history of the Indo-European and Slavic peoples.
Haplogroup tree.
Until 2007, no one had carried out detailed reconstructions of childbirth, no one had come up with this idea, and it was not possible to solve such a grandiose task. Many population geneticists have worked with small samples of short 6-marker haplotypes, which allow them to obtain general genographic ideas about the distribution of haplogroups.
In 2009, a professional population geneticist set out to build a detailed family tree of this haplogroup. Faced with a number of problems, for example, calculating large samples of extremely long haplotypes using conventional methods was impossible due to the astronomical number of operations, not a single computer was able to sort through the required number of combinations, but thanks to resourcefulness and the desire to build a tree of one’s haplogroup, these problems were overcome.
After R1a1 many haplogroups began to create their trees.
The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.
Haplogroup R1b
Haplogroup R1b is a parallel subclade to haplogroup R1a. The founder of haplogroup R1b was born about 16,000 years ago in central Asia from the parent genus R1. About 10,000 years ago, haplogroup R1b split into several subclades, which began to diverge in different directions. Some scientists associate the eastern branch - subclade R1b-M73 with the ancient Tocharians, who took part in the ethnogenesis of such a people as the modern Uyghurs.
The movement of haplogroup R1b westward into Europe probably occurred in several stages. Some may be associated with Neolithic migrations from Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, and some with post-Neolithic migrations and the spread of the archaeological culture of the Bell-shaped Beakers. There is also a version about migration along the North African coast to the Strait of Gibraltar, with further transportation to the Pyrenees in the form of the archaeological culture of the Bell Beakers - but this hypothesis is too much of a stretch. In any case, most European representatives of haplogroup R1b have the P312 snip, which definitely originated in Europe.
After Egyptian scientists analyzed the mummy Tutankhamun, it was found that Pharaoh turned out to be a representative of the haplogroup R1b.
Now the majority of representatives haplogroup R1b1a2 lives in Western Europe, where haplogroup R1b1a2 is the main haplogroup. In Russia, only the Bashkir people have a large percentage of this haplogroup. In the Russian people, haplogroup R1b makes up no more than 5%. In the Peter and Catherine eras, a state policy was pursued to massively attract foreign specialists from Germany and the rest of Europe, many Russian R1b are their descendants. Also, some part could have entered the Russian ethnic group from the East - this is primarily the R1b-M73 subclade. Some R1b-L23 may be migrants from the Caucasus, where they came from Transcaucasia and Western Asia.
Europe
Modern concentration haplogroup R1b maximum in the territories of the migration routes of the Celts and Germans: in southern England about 70%, in northern and western England, Spain, France, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more. And also, for example, among the Basques - 88.1%, Spaniards - 70%, Italians - 40%, Belgians - 63%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9% and others.
In Eastern Europe haplogroup R1b much less common. Czechs and Slovaks - 35.6%, Latvians - 10%, Hungarians - 12.1%, Estonians - 6%, Poles - 10.2%-16.4%, Lithuanians - 5%, Belarusians - 4.2% , Russians - from 1.3% to 14.1%, Ukrainians - from 2% to 11.1%.
Asia
In the Southern Urals it is significantly widespread among the Bashkirs - about 43%.
Distribution of haplogroups I1 And I2b1 correlates relatively well with the historical boundaries of the distribution of speakers of Germanic languages, however, initially these lines spoke one of the Paleo-European languages. Haplogroup I2b1 found in more than 4% of the population only in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, England (except Wales and Cornwall), Scotland, the southern tip of Sweden and Norway, as well as in the provinces of Normandy, Maine, Anjou and Perche in northwestern France , in Provence in southeastern France, in the historical regions of Italy - Tuscany, Umbria and Latium; as well as in Moldova, in the Ryazan region and in Mordovia. In the course of a study of dDNA from the region of northern Central Europe, it was possible to establish that back in the 1st millennium BC there were ethnic groups with 80% I2b1. It seems quite likely that the presence of I1 and I2b1 in modern France, England and Italy, as well as in eastern Europe, is already associated with Celtic and Germanic expansion, and in pre-Indo-European times these haplogroups were concentrated only in northern Europe. One of the branches of the haplogroup I2b1, namely I2b1a(snp M284), found almost exclusively in the British population, which may indicate its long history of existence in the British Isles. Interestingly, with a low frequency of haplogroup I1 And I2b are found in the historical regions of Bithynia and Galatia in modern Turkey, where they could have been brought by the Celts, who migrated there at the invitation of Nicomedes I of Bithynia.
Haplogroup I2b1 also occurs in approximately 1% of the Sardinian population.
It is assumed that I2b stands out from I2 in central Europe, near the edge of a slowly retreating glacier about 13 thousand years ago, I2b1- from I2b even further north, in what is now Germany, about 9 thousand years ago. Specific British branch I2b1a stood out from I2b1 approximately 3 millennia ago.
I2b2
Haplogroup I2b2 was discovered in skeletal remains found at Lichtenstein Cave, a Bronze Age archaeological site in central Germany where artifacts from the Urn Fields culture were also found. Of the 19 male remains in the cave, haplogroup I2b2 was found in 13, R1b in one, and R1a in two. Presumably, the cave was located at the epicenter of the then spread of haplogroup I2b.
Haplogroup E and E1b1b1
Haplogroup E1b1b1 (snp M35) unites about 5% of all men on Earth and has about 700 generations to a common ancestor. The ancestor of haplogroup E1b1b1 was born approximately 15 thousand years ago in East Africa (possibly in Ethiopia).
For several millennia, the carriers of this haplogroup lived in their historical homeland in Ethiopia and were engaged in hunting and gathering. By race, initially E and E1b1b1 were Negroid, but later, after migrations to the north, the Hamites belonged to the Cushitic large branch of the Western racial trunk and spoke a Nostratic or Afroasiatic proto-language. According to the Dyakonov-Bender theory, in Ethiopia the Hamito-Semitic proto-language emerged from the Nostratic language approximately 14 thousand years ago.
About 13 thousand years ago, the climate on Earth began to change, and not for the better. The era of heat and high humidity is over. A long period of cold and dry climate ensued. It is likely that these climate changes contributed to the fact that the tribes of East Africa, belonging predominantly haplogroup E1b1b1, began their movement from Ethiopia to the north, to areas more favorable for life: to Nubia, Egypt and the Middle East. In the Neolithic, the genus E1b1b1 spread to the Mediterranean region and South Africa. This dispersal contributed to the isolation of individual E1b1b1 groups. Separate peoples emerged with their own language and culture: Egyptians, Berbers, Libyans, Cushites, Ethiopians, Himyarites, Canaanites and South African pastoralists. The men of these new peoples developed new SNP mutations on the Y chromosome, which they passed on to their descendants.
Thus, subclades appeared in the genus E1b1b1-M35:
1. E1b1b1a (snp M78). Ancient Egyptians and their descendants, including in Europe: Mycenaeans, Macedonians, Epirotes, partly Libyans and Nubians.
2. E1b1b1b (snp M81). Berbers. Descendants of the Moors in Europe.
3. E1b1b1с (snp M123). Descendants of the Canaanites.
4. E1b1b1d (snp M281). Southern Ethiopians (Oromo).
5. E1b1b1e (snp V6). Northern Ethiopians (Amhara)
6. E1b1b1f (snp P72). Tanzanians or Ethiopians.
7. E1b1b1g (snp M293). Tanzanians (Datog, Sandawe) and Namibians (Khoe).
Haplogroup E1b1b1a (snp M78) is the main haplogroup of the ancient Egyptians.
The common ancestor lived 11-12 thousand years ago. The genus E1b1b1a (snp M78) stood at the origins of ancient Egyptian civilization.
During the Bronze Age, the Egyptians or their descendants moved to the Balkans. Currently, haplogroup E1b1b1a is most common among Albanians and Greeks, and is represented by Balkan subclades:
E1b1b1a2 (snp V13) - descendants of the Mycenaeans, Macednians and Epirotes and
E1b1b1a5 (snp M521) possibly descendants of the Ionians.
In addition to the above two subclades, three more are distinguished in the E1b1b1a haplogroup:
E1b1b1a1 (snp V12) - descendants of southern Egyptians
E1b1b1a3(snp V22) - descendants of northern Egyptians and
E1b1b1a4 (snp V65) - Libyans and Moroccan Berbers.
The descendants of biblical Mizraim made enormous contributions to world history, art, science and religion. Perhaps it was the representatives of haplogroup E1b1b1a who developed the first agricultural crops, invented one of the earliest writings, and founded one of the majestic states on Earth - Ancient Egypt.
The first E1b1b1 (V13) appeared in Southern Europe already 7 thousand years ago according to dDNA.
The descendants of the ancient Egyptians were the Wright brothers - the creators of the world's first aircraft capable of controlled flight, the Portuguese navigator and explorer of West Africa Joan Afonso de Aveiro, US Vice President John Caldwell Calhoun and many other outstanding people.
Haplogroup E1b1a is found almost exclusively among inhabitants of western, central and southern Africa. This is the only Y haplogroup that is common to all of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as to the descendants of African slaves in the Americas and the Caribbean. Elsewhere it occurs with vanishingly low frequency, and its presence is usually explained by the slave trade conducted by the Arabs in the Middle Ages.
Haplogroups E1 and E2 are the most common in Africa
Haplogroup G
Haplogroup G arose more than 20,000 years ago, probably even before the start of the last ice age in the region of modern Iran. This haplogroup, along with haplogroups J2a, J2b, J1, were probably one of the first people to take part in the Neolithic revolution and the spread of agriculture and cattle breeding, first in the Middle East region between the Tigris and Euphrates, and then in Southern Europe in the west, in Egypt in the south, and in Iran in the east. The demographic explosion of haplogroup G was ensured by the enormous advantages of the Neolithic revolution.
Control over the production and distribution of plant foods led to the emergence of civilization and centralized control. Instead of small clans of hunter-gatherers moving behind herds of wild animals, large sedentary communities of farmers and pastoralists appeared with a previously unprecedented complex system of social relations, a social ladder underlying the hierarchy. The transition of mankind to agriculture led to the emergence of trade, writing, astronomical calendars and the emergence of large cities - conglomerates. Along with the spread of agriculture, the ancestors of the haplogroup began to move from the Middle East, so G came to Turkey, the Balkans and the Caucasus, where the highest haplogroup density in the world is currently observed. Haplogroup G has many subclades, which have their own ancient and interesting history.
Spreading
Caucasus
Currently, among fairly large peoples, haplogroup G is found with the highest frequency among Ossetians (found in 68% of Ossetian men), in the Digorsky and Alagirsky regions of North Ossetia - up to 76%.
Of small populations, the frequency of occurrence of haplogroup G is very high among the Shapsugs (subclade G2a3b-P303) and the Kazakh clan Madjar - about 80%.
Europe
Elsewhere in Europe, haplogroup G is quite common in mainland Greece, northern Spain and Italy, Crete, Sardinia and Tyrol (up to 15%). In southern Germany and Hungary it occurs with a frequency of up to 6%.
In the rest of Europe, haplogroup G is rare (less than 4% across the continent) and is represented in its central part by a separate subgroup G2c. The penetration of this subgroup is relatively recent (less than 1000 years ago) and is associated with the settlement of Ashkenazi Jews, among whom it occurs in approximately 8% of cases.
In the 80s of the twentieth century, in connection with the study of the structure of the genetic code, a “silent revolution” occurred in anthropology. A new branch of science has emerged called paleogenetics or molecular paleontology. It turned out that in a person himself, or more precisely, in his genotype, which is the totality of all the genes of an organism, one can find traces of the evolutionary history of the species. For the first time, genes appeared as reliable historical documents, the only difference being that they were written not in ink, but in the chemical components of the DNA molecule. Geneticists have learned to extract information literally from the “dust of the earth” - fossilized remains that belonged to very ancient creatures. The data obtained by paleogenetics radically transformed previous ideas about the early stages of “human” evolution.
Mitochondrial Eve is the name given by molecular biologists to the woman who was the last common maternal ancestor of all living humans. Since mitochondrial DNA is inherited only through the mother's line, all living humans now have such DNA from "Eve." Likewise, the DNA of the male Y chromosome in all male humans must come from the “molecular biological Adam.”
Unlike nuclear DNA, which contains the vast majority of genes and undergoes recombination during sexual reproduction, so that offspring receive half of the genes from the father and the other half from the mother, the child receives mitochondria and their DNA only from the mother's egg. Since mitochondrial DNA does not undergo recombination, changes in it can only occur through rare random mutations, approximately once every 3,000 years. By comparing the sequence of mitochondrial DNA and the mutations that have arisen in it over time, it is possible not only to determine the degree of relatedness of living people, but also to approximately calculate the time required for the accumulation of mutations in a particular population of people.
Having carried out a comparative analysis of mtDNA, in 1980 A. Wilson constructed a family tree that clearly showed the greatest differentiation of mitochondrial genes in Africa. Moreover, the entire six billion modern human population traces its origins to a single woman who once lived in eastern Africa, since all studied mtDNA samples can be traced back to a single original nucleotide sequence. A. Wilson, having found a place that is the “cradle” of humanity, moved on. Knowing the rate of mutation, he was able to determine the approximate time when “Eve” appeared on Earth. The “mitochondrial clock” showed that she lived approximately 200-150 thousand years ago (surprisingly, “Eve” turned out to be even older than the Neanderthal, whom the “evolutionary fathers” persistently imposed on her).
Data from mtDNA analysis have been independently obtained by many other researchers. “Analysis of mtDNA,” writes Satoshi Horai,- indicates that modern man arose about 200 thousand years ago in Africa, from where he moved to Eurasia, where he quickly replaced Homo erectus and presumably completely (if Bigfoot is not found) Neanderthal. At the same time, there was practically no mixing of mitochondrial genotypes.”
In 1987 Rebecca Cann and colleagues suggested that mitochondrial Eve could have lived between 140 and 280 thousand years ago. According to more recent calculations in 2004, mitochondrial Eve lived about 140 thousand years ago in East Africa. Modern MP and ME estimates from 2009 generally give an age range for Eve of 140,000-230,000 years, with a maximum probability of about 180,000-200,000 years.
Of particular interest is the effort undertaken L. Cavalli-Sforza an attempt to compare data from molecular genetics and linguistics. He showed that the spread of genes correlates surprisingly well with the spread of languages. Thus, the family tree constructed on the basis of genetic research corresponds to the linguistic family tree. Thus, genogeography was combined with ethnic geography.
Even during A. Wilson’s lifetime, an attempt was made to analyze the Y chromosome of men in order to trace the “line of fathers” in the pedigree of humanity. The preliminary data he reports, obtained by the French scientist J. Lucotte, also confirmed the African origin of “Adam”.
More detailed studies were conducted by a professor at Stanford University P. Underhall, who collected material for analysis in almost all regions of the world. As is known, the Y chromosome is present only in the genotype of men, and, therefore, is passed down through generations strictly from father to son. The result of studying several thousand samples taken from representatives of different nationalities showed that the birthplace of “Adam” was the same East Africa. According to researchers, the time of appearance of the male representative of Homo sapiens is about 150-160 thousand years. Some variation in the ages of “Eve” and “Adam” is within the limits of the method’s error.
Similar data were obtained by another independent group led by Michael Hammer(University of Arizona, USA). The specified age of the hypothetical “Adam” is 160-180 thousand years.
So, it was on the African continent that our ancestors appeared about 150-200 thousand years ago. About 100 thousand years ago, their descendants migrated throughout the ecumene, replacing all the other hominids who lived there, but, importantly, without interbreeding with the latter. About 40-60 thousand years ago they reached Europe.
But the surprises presented by paleogeneticists to anthropologists did not end there. To the professor Svante Paabo succeeded in extracting mtDNA from a fragment of a Neanderthal vertebra, first discovered in 1856 and living about 50 thousand years ago. This work is truly the highest peak of molecular genetic art, and its result is difficult to overestimate. As comparative studies of the mitochondrial DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals have shown, the latter is not at all our ancestor, nor even a close relative. Through a comparative analysis of “our” and “Neanderthal” genes, it was found that the differences between them are so great that the evolutionary branches of these two species could (or should have) diverged 600 thousand years ago, that is, at a time when the species themselves were still simply didn't exist.
conclusions S. Paabo are changing ideas about anthropogenesis so radically that the question arose of verifying these results by an independent group of researchers. This time I worked with a fragment of Neanderthal bone Mark Stoneking, scientist from the group A. Wilson, also the highest authority in the field of paleogenetics. Having conducted mtDNA studies from another sample (the remains of a Neanderthal child who lived 30 thousand years ago), he obtained the same data as S. Paabo, fully confirming his findings. In this regard, in an interview, S. Paabo noted: “We adhered to strict criteria of forensic medicine, as if we were preparing to present physical evidence to the court.”
A few years later, a group of German scientists also conducted an independent study of Neanderthal mtDNA, which showed: “The hypothesis that Neanderthals represent a dead-end evolutionary branch and are not the ancestors of modern humans is confirmed.”
Paleontologist Christopher Stringer This is how he sees the future: “Perhaps we are on the verge of creating a unified theory that will unite paleoanthropological, archaeological, genetic and linguistic evidence in favor of the African monogenetic model.”
Indeed, the synthesis of these sciences is likely to bring us closer to understanding the mystery of our origin.
Human mtDNA haplogroup tree
| Mitochondrial Eve | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| pre-JT | N1a | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Human Y-DNA haplogroup tree(Y-DNA haplogroups by people)
| A1b | A1a-T | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A1a | A2-T | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| A2 | A3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| IJK | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| K | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| K(xLT) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Let's consider K— Y-chromosomal haplogroup with subsequent subclades (L, T, M, NO, P and S). The K - Y chromosome haplogroup appeared 40-50 thousand years ago. presumably in Western Asia.
According to the latest data, descendants:
- L haplogroup(time of appearance 25-30 thousand years in Hindustan, the predominant modern carriers are the inhabitants of India and Pakistan, the Dravidians; subclade - L1, L2 and L3).
Distribution of haplogroup L.
Average Hindu
. For haplogroup L, there is a high frequency and diversity of subclasses in southwest Pakistan in Balochistan along the coast (28%). The national variety arose 24-30 thousand years ago.
- Mhaplogroup(the time of appearance is 32-47 thousand years ago, presumably Oceania or Southeast Asia, the predominant modern carriers are the inhabitants of Oceania, the subclade is the Papuans).
Papuan. The national variety arose 32-47 thousand years ago.
- Shaplogroup(the time of appearance is 28-41 thousand years ago, presumably Oceania or Southeast Asia, the predominant modern carriers are the inhabitants of Oceania, the Papuans Ekari 74%).
Papuans Ekari. The national variety arose 28-41 thousand years ago.
- Thaplogroup(time of appearance 19-34 thousand years ago, possibly Western Asia, the predominant modern speakers are Kurru Andhra Pradesh (56%), Bauris West Bengal (53), Fulani of West Africa (18%), Somalis (10.4%), Omanis (8.3%), Egyptians (8.2%), Iraqis (7.2%). Represented in Europe, highest of all Serbs (7%). In Russians from the south-west of Russia it was found in 1.7% people, but the haplogroup was not found in anyone from the northern European part of Russia.
Distribution of haplogroup T.
The Fulbe are a people living over a vast area in West Africa: from Mauritania, Gambia, Senegal and Guinea in the west to Cameroon and even Sudan in the east. For haplogroup T, there is a high frequency and diversity of subclasses (18%). The national variety arose 19-34 thousand years ago.
- NO (and its descendants N and O), occurred in the gametes of a person who belonged to haplogroup K (XLT) and who probably lived somewhere in Asia east of the Aral Sea 34 ± 5 thousand years ago. This individual became the direct male ancestor of a very large percentage of modern humans, as he is the progenitor of haplogroups N and O, which together are overwhelmingly dominant in most populations of northern and eastern Eurasia. NO itself is rare. The largest percentage - about 6% (or 2 out of 35 people) was found among the Buitians (China). Then there are Japanese Yamatos 3% (6 out of 210), among which the largest distribution is found in Tokushima Prefecture (4 out of 70). In addition, the NO haplogroup has been found in some Han Chinese, Malays, Mongols, as well as Daurs, Manchu Evenks, Nanais, Huizu, Yao and Koreans.
- N haplogroup. This haplogroup is found in Central, Northern Europe and throughout the European and Asian parts of Russia. The most genetically “pure” representatives are the Yakuts (74%), Nenets (74%), Udmurts (68%), Finns (61%), peoples of the Uralic languages, and Eskimos. The vast majority of modern representatives of this group belong to the N1 branch, the most likely place of occurrence of which is the region of Altai, the Baikal region, southern Siberia, Mongolia or northern China, and the time is between 20,000 and 15,000 years ago. It is believed that it was brought through Eurasia by a large migration of forest Siberian peoples to the west, the last phase of which - settlement in the Urals and then from there to the Volga region and north-eastern Europe (Russian North, Finland, Baltic states) - is associated with the spread of the Ural peoples in this region languages.
The Nenets are a Samoyed people inhabiting the Eurasian coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kola Peninsula to Taimyr. Haplogroup T has the highest rate (74%) . Nationality arose 15-20 thousand years ago.
- Haplogroup O— The Y-chromosomal human haplogroup, is a descendant of the haplogroup Haplogroup NO, first appeared, according to various theories, either in Southeast Asia or East Asia 28-41 thousand years ago; characteristic of representatives Mongoloid race. Related to the "Finno-Ugric" haplogroup N. This haplogroup appears in 80-90% of the majority of the population in the region of East and Southeast Asia among the Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Malays, Austronesians, as well as adjacent peoples influenced by them as substrate. This haplogroup is completely absent in Europe, Western Siberia, the Middle East, Africa and America. Represents about 21% of the entire global human population.
Distribution of haplogroup O.
Average Chinese - includes all 56 groups living in China and officially recognized by the government, such as the Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans, and other established ethnic groups living in China since at least the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). For haplogroup T it is observed high frequency and variety of subclasses, the highest rate (60-80%). Nationality arose 28-41 thousand years ago.
- P(and its descendants Q and R). The haplogroup appeared approximately 32 thousand years ago and was present in many of the paternal ancestors of most Europeans, among Siberian and Far Eastern peoples, almost all Indians of North and South America, about a third among various peoples of Central and South Asia, and the indigenous peoples of Oceania.
Reconstruction of the physical appearance of Neoanthropic Caucasians of the Russian Plain of the Upper Paleolithic era:
on the left is a Sungirian (settlement of Sungir, Vladimir, about 30 thousand years ago), on the right is a Kostenkovian (the settlement of Kostenki, Voronezh region, about 45 thousand years ago). Reconstructions by M.M. Gerasimova.
This haplogroup is divided into subclades Q and R:
- Q haplogroup, time of appearance 15-20 thousand years BC. e., common among some Siberian peoples, as well as among indigenous American peoples, and, to some extent, throughout Asia. It is assumed that the carriers of this haplogroup were the Huns of Siberian origin. In Eurasia it is found within a triangle with vertices in Norway, Iran and Mongolia. But basically among all these peoples it is rare. In Europe, this haplogroup is common among Hungarians (2%) and Slovaks (5%). However, it is significant among the small Siberian peoples of the Kum (95%) and Selkups (70%). Typical of Native Americans as well.
Family of Kets or Yeniseis.
Anthropology is similar for indigenous Indians and peoples of Oceania, for example, Polynesians (New Zealand). This is a possible image of a person of this haplogroup for 15-20 thousand years.
- R haplogroup, haplogroup R originated between 30,000 and 35,000 years ago. Unlike Q, it undergoes changes and has subclades, which indicates its antiquity. It is likely that it was to the group IJ belonged to the Cro-Magnons (or most of them), the first representatives
Distribution of haplogroup R across subclades R1a (lilac) and R1b (red).
- Haplogroup R2- found extremely rarely, mainly in Iran, India, Pakistan, and the North Caucasus.
- Haplogroup R1- the most common subgroup of Haplogroup R. Its two main subclades R1a and R1b (other variants are extremely rare) are the most common throughout Europe and western Eurasia. This is due to migrations after the Last Glacial Maximum. It is assumed that haplogroup R1 could have originated 25,000-30,000 years ago.
- Haplogroup R1a, presumably originated in the south of the Russian Plain about 10-15 thousand years ago. It is believed that on their basis, in particular, the Slavic ethnic group was formed. The distribution area is from Iceland to India, the modern center of the haplogroup is located in Poland. This haplogroup became a marker of the spread of the Kurgan culture, which, in turn, is considered by most authoritative researchers to be the core of the Proto-Indo-European culture (Kurgan hypothesis). Genetics have shown that burial mounds Scythian skeletons contain haplogroup R1a. The expansion contributed to the migration of haplogroup R1a to Iran and India, where about 30% of men in the upper castes are its carriers. It is most widespread in Eastern Europe: among Lusatians (63%), Poles (approx. 56%), Russians (53%), Belarusians (49%), Ukrainians (approx. 52%), Tatars (34%), Bashkirs ( 26%) (among the Bashkirs of the Saratov and Samara regions up to 48%); and in Central Asia: among Khujand Tajiks (64%), Kyrgyz (63%), Ishkashim (68%). Moderate distribution in Scandinavian countries (23% in Iceland, 18-22% in Sweden and Norway), in Iran (25%?). Among the Brahmins of the Indian states of West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, this haplogroup occurs with a frequency of 72% and 67%, respectively.
The average Pole. For haplogroup R1a the highest rate is observed (56%).
- Haplogroup R1b, different authors attribute the appearance of this haplogroup to 16 - 5 thousand years BC. e.; It is most widespread in the west of the European continent; the percentage of its speakers is especially high among the peoples of western England, the Basques, Bashkirs in the Southern Urals and the Spaniards. In Eastern Europe and the east, Haplogroup R1b is found among Armenians, in Dagestan. The bearer was also Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The current concentration of R1b is maximum in areas in southern England - about 70%, in northern and western England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more, in Spain - 70%, in France - 60%, Basques - 88.1% and Spaniards - 70%. Italians - 40%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9%
The average Englishman. For haplogroup R1b the highest rate is observed (about 70%).Nationality arose 10-15 thousand years ago.
For a complete picture of the birth of branches of modern nationalities to that described above haplogroup K We should also highlight others that define or strengthen nationality.
Along with the Kna haplogroup, several thousand years later the haplogroupIJ (and her descendants I And J ) . The time of its appearance is 38.5 (30.5-46.2) thousand years ago. It is likely that it was the combination of the group IJ and P (with the descendants of R) that belonged to the Cro-Magnons (or most of them), the first representatives people of the modern European type, who came to Europe about 40 thousand years ago, met Neanderthals there and coexisted with them for 15 thousand years until their disappearance during the last ice age. The descendants of these Cro-Magnons (haplogroup I+R) constitute the majority of the population of Europe today.
- Haplogroup I, which arose 20-25 thousand years ago, separated from the local European haplogroup IJ, thus being the only "large" haplogroup to arise in Europe, with the exception of the southern part of the European Mediterranean, namely the southern regions of Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece and Antalya. The predominant speakers are descendants of the Germans, Slavs (especially southern ones), Scandinavians, Sardinians, Basques, Albanians, Romanians.
Distribution of haplogroup I.
- haplogroup J- one of the human Y-DNA haplogroups, ancestor haplogroup IJ distributed mainly in the northern part of the African Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, Antalya, as well as the southern regions of Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Mesopotamia and Central Asia. The predominant speakers are Arabs, residents of the Middle East, Mediterranean, and Northeast Caucasus.
Distribution of haplogroup J.
The average Arab of Media, Saudi Arabia. Haplogroup J has the highest rate (about 50%). Nationality arose 20-25 thousand years ago.
Haplogroup G WHO Haplogroup
(in human population genetics, the science that studies the genetic history of mankind) - a large group of similar haplotypes, which are a series of alleles on non-recombining sections of the Y chromosome. Halpogroups are divided into Y-chromosomal (Y-DNA) and mitochondrial (mt-DNA). Y-DNA is the direct paternal line, i.e. son, father, grandfather, etc., and mt-DNA is the direct maternal line, i.e. daughter, mother, grandmother, great-grandmother, and so on. The term "haplogroup" is widely used in genetic DNA genealogy.
Haplogroup R1a1 consists of about 300 million men. The first common ancestor of modern R1a1 carriers lived about 300 generations ago.
Distribution of haplogroup R1a:
The percentage shows the share of R1a from the total number of the ethnic group
- Russians 48%
- Poles 56%
- Ukrainians 54%
- Belarusians 51%
- Czechs 34%
- Kyrgyz 63%
- Shors 56%
- Altaians 54%
- Chuvash 31.5%
- Tajiks 53%
- Punjabis 54% (Pakistan-India)
- India as a whole 30%, upper castes 43%
It arose about 15,000 years ago in Asia and subsequently split into several subclades, or, as they are also called, daughter haplogroups. We will look at the main ones - Z283 and Z93. R1a1-Z93 is an Asian marker, characteristic of Turks, Jews, and Indians. With the participation of haplogroup R1a1-Z93, the wheel was invented in the steppe, the first carts were constructed and the horse was domesticated. These were the cultures of the Andronovo circle. The haplogroup quickly mastered the entire strip of Eurasian steppes from the Caspian Sea to Transbaikalia, breaking up into many different tribes with different ethnocultural characteristics.
R1a1-Z283 is a European marker and is characteristic for the most part of the Slavs, but not only, the Scandinavians and the British also have their own separate subclades. In general, today the ancient haplogroup R1a1 is most characteristic of Slavic, Turkic and Indian ethnic groups.
Excavations of the “Country of Cities” in the Southern Urals confirmed that already about 4000 years ago in the fortified settlement of Arkaim there were premises for personal and public use, residential and workshops. In some rooms, not only pottery workshops were discovered, but also metallurgical production.
During the excavations, about 8,000 square meters were uncovered. m of the settlement area (about half), the second part was studied using archaeomagnetic methods. Thus, the layout of the monument was completely established. Here the reconstruction method was used for the first time in the Trans-Urals, and L.L. Gurevich made drawings of a possible type of settlement. R1a1-Z93 was probably one of the main haplogroups in Arkaim and Sintasht.
Currently, most of Europe speaks Indo-European languages, while the haplogroup R1b more specific to Western Europe, and R1a- Eastern Europe. In countries closer to central Europe there are both of these haplogroups. So haplogroup R1a occupies about 30% of the population of Norway, and about 15% in East Germany - apparently the remnants of direct Y-lines of the Polabian Slavs once assimilated by the Germans.
In the second millennium BC, presumably due to climate change or as a result of military strife, part of R1a1 (subclade Z93 and other haplogroups of Central Asia) began to migrate to the south and east beyond the steppe, part (subclade L657) went towards India and, joining to local tribes, took part in the creation of a caste society. Those distant events are described in the oldest literary source of humanity - the Rigveda.
The other part began to move towards the Middle East. On the territory of modern Turkey, they allegedly founded the Hittite state, which successfully competed with ancient Egypt. The Hittites built cities, but could not become famous for the construction of huge pyramids, since, unlike Egypt, the Hittite society was a society free people, and the idea of using forced labor was alien to them. Hittite state disappeared suddenly, swept away by a powerful wave of barbarian tribes known as the "peoples of the sea." In the middle of the last century, archaeologists found a rich library of clay tablets with Hittite texts; the language turned out to belong to the Indo-European group of languages. This is how we gained detailed knowledge about the first state, part of whose male lines supposedly consisted of haplogroup R1a1-Z93.
Slavic subclades of the haplogroup R1a1-Z283 form their own cluster of haplotypes, which are completely unrelated to any Western European subclades haplogroup R1a, nor Indo-Iranian and the separation of European speakers of R1a1-Z283 with Asian R1a1-Z93 occurred approximately 6,000 years ago.
In October 539 (BC), the Iranian Persian tribe captured Babylon, the Persian leader Cyrus decided not to leave, but to seriously settle in the captured city. Subsequently, Cyrus managed to significantly expand his possessions, and thus the great Persian Empire arose, which lasted longer than all the empires in the world - 1190 years! In 651 AD, Persia, weakened by civil strife, fell under the onslaught of the Arabs, and this may have led to a change in the haplogroup composition of the population. Now in modern Iran haplogroup R1a makes up approximately 10% of the population.
Three world religions are associated with the Indo-Aryans - Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster was a Persian and possibly a carrier of R1a1, and Buddha came from the Shakya tribe of Hindus, among whose modern representatives haplogroups O3 and J2 were found.
Most peoples consist of many haplogroups, and there is no genus that dominates the rest. There is also no connection between the haplogroup and a person’s appearance and, as can be seen, many representatives of the haplogroup R1a1 They even belong to different races. To many R1a1-Z93 are characterized by Mongoloid features (Kyrgyz, Altaians, Khotons, etc.), while carriers of R1a1-Z283 have a mostly European appearance (Poles, Russians, Belarusians, etc.). A large number of Finnish tribes have high percentages haplogroup R1a1, some of which were assimilated with the arrival of Slavic colonists in the 9th century.
Achievements that R1a1 may be related to:
The wheel, carts, horse taming, metallurgy, trousers, boots, dresses, the world's first paved "autobahn" with a length of more than 1000 km with "refueling" stations - replacing horses, and much more.
It is difficult to tell the entire history of the first Indo-Europeans in a short article; only a few historical fragments can awaken interest in the history of the ancient ancestors of the Slavs. Type the words in the search engine Indo-Aryans, Turks, Slavs, Scythians, Sarmatians, Persia, and you will plunge into a fascinating journey through the glorious history of the Indo-European and Slavic peoples.
Haplogroup tree.
Until 2007, no one had carried out detailed reconstructions of childbirth, no one had come up with this idea, and it was not possible to solve such a grandiose task. Many population geneticists have worked with small samples of short 6-marker haplotypes, which allow them to obtain general genographic ideas about the distribution of haplogroups.
In 2009, a professional population geneticist set out to build a detailed family tree of this haplogroup. Faced with a number of problems, for example, calculating large samples of extremely long haplotypes using conventional methods was impossible due to the astronomical number of operations, not a single computer was able to sort through the required number of combinations, but thanks to resourcefulness and the desire to build a tree of one’s haplogroup, these problems were overcome.
After R1a1 many haplogroups began to create their trees.
The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.
Haplogroup R1b
Haplogroup R1b is a parallel subclade to haplogroup R1a. The founder of haplogroup R1b was born about 16,000 years ago in central Asia from the parent genus R1. About 10,000 years ago, haplogroup R1b split into several subclades, which began to diverge in different directions. Some scientists associate the eastern branch - subclade R1b-M73 with the ancient Tocharians, who took part in the ethnogenesis of such a people as the modern Uyghurs.
Promotion haplogroup R1b westward into Europe probably occurred in several stages. Some may be associated with Neolithic migrations from Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, and some with post-Neolithic migrations and the spread of the archaeological culture of the Bell-shaped Beakers.
There is also a version about migration along the North African coast to the Strait of Gibraltar, with further transportation to the Pyrenees in the form of the archaeological culture of the Bell Beakers - but this hypothesis is too much of a stretch. In any case, most European representatives of haplogroup R1b have the P312 snip, which definitely originated in Europe.
After Egyptian scientists analyzed the mummy Tutankhamun, it was found that Pharaoh turned out to be a representative of the haplogroup R1b.
Now the majority of representatives haplogroup R1b1a2 lives in Western Europe, where haplogroup R1b1a2 is the main haplogroup. In Russia, only the Bashkir people have a large percentage of this haplogroup. In the Russian people, haplogroup R1b makes up no more than 5%. In the Peter and Catherine eras, a state policy was pursued to massively attract foreign specialists from Germany and the rest of Europe, many Russian R1b are their descendants. Also, some part could have entered the Russian ethnic group from the East - this is primarily the R1b-M73 subclade. Some R1b-L23 may be migrants from the Caucasus, where they came from Transcaucasia and Western Asia.
Europe
Modern concentration haplogroup R1b maximum in the territories of the migration routes of the Celts and Germans: in southern England about 70%, in northern and western England, Spain, France, Wales, Scotland, Ireland - up to 90% or more. And also, for example, among the Basques - 88.1%, Spaniards - 70%, Italians - 40%, Belgians - 63%, Germans - 39%, Norwegians - 25.9% and others.
In Eastern Europe haplogroup R1b much less common. Czechs and Slovaks - 35.6%, Latvians - 10%, Hungarians - 12.1%, Estonians - 6%, Poles - 10.2%-16.4%, Lithuanians - 5%, Belarusians - 4.2% , Russians - from 1.3% to 14.1%, Ukrainians - from 2% to 11.1%.
In the Balkans - Greeks - from 13.5% to 22.8%, Slovenes - 21%, Albanians - 17.6%, Bulgarians - 17%, Croats - 15.7%, Romanians - 13%, Serbs - 10, 6%, Herzegovinians - 3.6%, Bosnians - 1.4%.
Asia
In the Southern Urals it is significantly widespread among the Bashkirs - about 43%.
In the Caucasus, Digora was found among Ossetians - 23% and Armenians - 28.4%.
In Turkey it reaches 16.3%, Iraq - 11.3% and in other countries of Western Asia.
In Central Asia, it was found, in particular, in Turkmens - 36.7%, Uzbeks - 9.8%, Tatars - 8.7%, Kazakhs - 5.6%, Uyghurs - from 8.2% to 19.4%
In Pakistan - 6.8%, in India it is insignificant - 0.55%.
Africa
Among Algerian Arabs from Oran - 10.8%, Tunisian Arabs - 7%, Algerian Berbers - 5.8%, in Morocco - about 2.5%, in sub-Saharan Africa widespread in Cameroon - about 95% (subclade R1b-V88) .
