Theaters at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. Stylizations and styles

The Russian theater in the nineteenth century was distinguished by a certain two-facedness - on the one hand, it continued to react just as sharply to various social and political changes in the state structure, and on the other, it improved under the influence of literary innovations.

The Birth of Great Masters

At the beginning of the 19th century in Russian performing arts Romanticism and classicism are replaced by realism, which brings a lot fresh ideas to the theatre. During this period, many changes occur, a new stage repertoire is formed, which is popular and in demand in modern drama. The nineteenth century becomes a good platform for the emergence and development of many talented playwrights, who with their creativity make a huge contribution to the development of theatrical art. The most prominent person in dramaturgy of the first half of the century is N.V. Gogol. In fact, he was not a playwright in the classical sense of the word, but, despite this, he managed to create masterpieces that instantly gained worldwide fame and popularity. Such works can be called “The Inspector General” and “Marriage”. These plays very clearly depict full picture social life in Russia. Moreover, Gogol did not glorify it, but, on the contrary, sharply criticized it.

"The Inspector" N.V. Gogol

At this stage of development and full formation, the Russian theater can no longer remain satisfied with the previous repertoire. Therefore, the old will soon be replaced by a new one. Its concept is to depict a modern person with a keen and clear sense of time. A.N. is considered to be the founder of modern Russian drama. Ostrovsky. In his creations he described very truthfully and realistically merchant environment and their morals. This awareness is due to a long period of living in such an environment. Ostrovsky, being a lawyer by training, served in court and saw everything from the inside. With his works, the talented playwright created a psychological theater that sought to look into and reveal as much as possible the inner state of a person.

"Thunderstorm" A.N. Ostrovsky

In addition to A.N Ostrovsky, performing arts XIX century Other outstanding masters of the pen and stage also made a great contribution, whose works and skills are the standard and indicator of the pinnacle of mastery. One of these individuals is M. Shchepkin. This talented artist He played a huge number of roles, mostly comedic ones. Shchepkin contributed to the emergence of acting beyond the boundaries of existing patterns at that time. Each of his characters had their own individual traits character and appearance. Each hero was a personality.

IN mid-18th century century, the first Russian theater was opened in Yaroslavl. Later, the theater, headed by Sumarokov (playwright), became imperial. Landowners created their own theaters of serf actors. Singer P.I. Kovaleva (Zhemchugova) became famous at the Count Sheremetyev Theater. In general, one of the features cultural process This period was the existence of the serf intelligentsia: artists, musicians, composers, actors, architects. Many of them were talented, gifted people, and their lives often ended tragically.

The painting was dominated by ceremonial portraits created by Rokotov (a freedman from the serfs of Prince Repnin), Borovikovsky, and Levitsky. The serf artists of Count Sheremetyev, the Argunovs, came forward. In the 18th century the sculpture “ Bronze Horseman"(author Falcone) commissioned by Catherine II.

IN architecture XVIII century, the predominant style was Baroque. In the second half of the 18th century, along with Baroque, the style of classicism appeared - strict, restrained, mathematically precise. There was a passion for ancient art.

The largest architect of the 18th century was F.B. Rostrelli. His famous creations: the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the palace in Tsarskoe Selo. Gilded carvings and stucco, bronze and picturesque lampshades complemented the splendor of the palace premises. Ukhtomsky D.I. worked in Moscow, and in the provinces his students were V. Bazhenov and M. Kazakov.

Under Catherine II, a decree was issued (1763), according to which all cities must be built according to a special plan. The state introduced “model” projects for mass construction, strictly divided according to class principle into houses for “mean”, “prosperous” and “eminent” citizens. Public buildings and large engineering structures were built under state orders.

In the second half of the 18th century, the gap between the cultural level of the “upper” - the educated nobility and the folk culture of the “lower” - the peasant masses, intensified, which leads to their qualitative separation and the formation of two types of cultures.

32. Culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. "Golden Age" of Russian culture.

IN first half of the 19th century Russia lagged behind advanced countries in socio-economic and political development, but in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but was also in many ways ahead of them. Russia has contributed wonderful works of literature, painting, and music to the world cultural fund. Russian scientists have made outstanding discoveries in science and technology. The rise of Russian culture was so great that it allows us to call this era "golden age" of Russian culture.

For the development of culture and social thought The 19th century had a huge impact:

· The Patriotic War of 1812, which caused a patriotic upsurge in the country and the growth national identity

· Decembrist revolt

· European bourgeois revolutions.

Enlightenment and education spreads . The following types of educational institutions were distinguished:

1. parochial schools for peasant children;

2. district schools for city residents;

3. provincial gymnasiums for noble children;

4. universities.

The Ministry of Public Education was created to organize and manage educational institutions. In addition to Moscow University, universities were opened in Kazan, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Vilno, and Dorpat. The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum appeared. Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century there were already 6 universities in Russia. However, only 4 thousand students studied there.

Russian universities began to announce their scientific research. In the 19th century, Russia gave the world a galaxy of great scientists. List of only greatest discoveries looks quite impressive. In the field of mathematics: N.I.Lobachevsky created the theory of non-Euclidean geometry. The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena of nature. A huge contribution to the study of electricity was made by: V.V. Petrov, E.H. Lenz, B.S. Jacobi. Petrov created a number of physical devices and discovered the electric arc. B.S. Jacobi designed several electric motors, and also developed a telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications. Engineer P.D. Schilling predates the American inventor S. Morse created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoye Selo line. Mechanical engineers, serfs of the Demidov industrialists in the Urals, father and son Cherepanovs in 1833-1834 built the first steam-powered railway in Russia; metallurgical engineer P.P.Anosov At the Zlatoust plant, he was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal and, based on a long experiment, developed a method for producing damask steel.

In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. professor at Kazan University P.P.Zinin And K.K.Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories. In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline, which is used in the production of synthetic dyes and medicines. And in 1844, Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium. A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed at St. Petersburg University. He gave such famous chemists as professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.

The development of medicine has marked great achievements. The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The famous Russian surgeon was a professor at the academy N.I.Pirogov, founder of military field surgery. He was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions (1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. Surgeon N.F.Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

There have been great achievements in astronomy. The Pulkovo Observatory was built near St. Petersburg, which became one of the best in the world. In astronomy global recognition received works V.Ya.Struve. He established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space. Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, have achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances. The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was Littrov, who built a small observatory. His student is better known in astronomy I.M.Simonov, participant in the trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.

Geography developed. The inclusion of new territories into the Russian Empire contributed to interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. lay in the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. At the same time, the seas and inland water basins of the Russian Empire were studied and described. As a result, maps were drawn up, territories were described, and ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.

Was committed whole line round-the-world expeditions. The first Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky(1803-1806) passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied and photographed. F.F. Belingshausen and M.P. Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition (1819-1821), which discovered Antarctica (one-sixth of the world) and numerous islands. In 1845 The Russian Geographical Society was established (for the study of the territory and seas of Russia). After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made.

Developed successfully social Sciences, the leading of which was history. Particular attention was paid to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created the 12-volume “History of the Russian State”; S.M. Soloviev wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes. V.O.Klyuchevsky wrote "A Course in Russian History".

In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But science developed to a large extent in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them.

There is an unexpected rise and flourishing of artistic culture, which has become classical. The main directions of Russian art were: sentimentalism, romanticism, realism. The main role belonged to literature.

The flourishing of Russian sentimentalism is associated with creativity N.M. Karamzina. The hero of works of art is a simple man. The emergence of romanticism in Russian literature is associated with the name V.A. Zhukovsky. Russian realists lived and worked at this time. I.A.Krylov And A.S. Griboyedov. In the development of Russian literature, a special place belongs to the great Russian poet and writer A.S. Pushkin. "Eugene Onegin" (1833) appeared first realistic novel in Russian literature. Pushkin's creativity belongs not only 19th century, and not only Russia. In the twentieth century, he came to people of different countries as a contemporary and educator of noble feelings. Pushkin's traditions continued M.Yu.Lermontov. The novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1841) was in many ways in tune with Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”, since it posed the burning questions of our time. N.A. Nekrasov and I.S. Turgenev paid close attention to the life of the people. In their works they reflected the life of the fortress village, its way of life and customs. For example, the cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev. During these years he worked and N.V.Gogol.

The serf theater is being replaced by state and private theaters. Centers theatrical life were the Maly Theater and the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg.

Russian music is experiencing an amazing blossoming. Already in the first decades of the 19th century. A number of excellent composers appear: A.A. Alyabyev, A.E. Varlamov, A.N. Verstovsky, M.I. Glinka. Glinka created a number of outstanding vocal works, including romances based on Pushkin’s poems, for example, “I Remember a Wonderful Moment...”, operas “A Life for the Tsar”, “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, symphonic poem"Kamarinskaya" and others.

Glinka is considered the founder of Russian classical music and Russian symphony. According to the significance of the contribution to development musical culture Glinka occupies a place equal to Pushkin in literature.

A flourishing was also observed in painting. Famous portrait painters O.A. Kiprensky, V.A. Tropinin. An outstanding Russian artist lived during these years K.P. Bryullov("The last day of Pompeii"). A.G. Venetsianov created his own school of Russian painting and contributed to the development of the everyday genre. His works: “On the arable land. Spring", "At the harvest. Summer", "Gumno" etc.

In the development of architecture there was a style of classicism, and after the Patriotic War of 1812 - the Empire style. The main feature of the Empire style is the combination of massive simple geometric shapes with objects of military emblems - swords, wreaths, shields, spears. Art was supposed to glorify the military successes and virtues of the ruler. There was a passion for the construction of various kinds of triumphal arches, memorial columns, and obelisks. The Empire style was used to express the idea of ​​independence, greatness Russian state. Among the Russian architects, the most outstanding were: A.N.Voronikhin, A.D.Zakharov, K.I.Rossi. Large construction continued in St. Petersburg. Moscow was also intensively rebuilt after the fire of 1812. According to the architect’s design K.A.Tona The Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built.

First half of the 19th century marked by the flowering of Russian sculpture. It was during this period that monuments to outstanding Russian people, tombstones, etc. were created.

The largest sculptor in Russia of the late XYIII - first half of the XIX centuries. and a prominent representative of classicism in sculpture is I.P.Martos. Martos's outstanding work is the monument to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square in Moscow. The erection of the monument opposite the Kremlin was symbolic evidence of patriotic upsurge.

On the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg you can see a portrait image of Peter I, and allegorical images like Neptune, Minerva, and images of Russian workers pulling nets and ships on ropes. This is the work of a sculptor I.I. Terebeneva. The sculptor prepared the statues and sculptural groups for the Admiralty F.F. Shchedrin. The allegories created by the master glorify the greatness of Russia as a maritime power and convey the triumph of man over the forces of nature. An outstanding role in sculpture belongs to P.K. Klodt. One of the earliest major works, which brought him universal recognition were the equestrian groups for the Anichkov Bridge in St. Petersburg. These copies express the idea of ​​man's conquest of nature. P.K. Klodt is the creator of the monument to I.A. Krylov. The sculptor was considered a virtuoso casting master. P.K. Klodt cast all his works himself and for a long time, being a professor at the Academy of Arts, he directed its foundry. The achievements of the first half of the 19th century entered the treasury of world culture.

In general, the achievements of the first half of the 19th century entered the treasury of world culture.

Scientists:

N.I. Lobachevsky - mathematician

V.V. Petrov, E.H. Lenz, B.S. Jacobi, P.D. Schilling– physicists

V.Ya.Struve, Litrov, I.M.Simonov - astronomers

P.P.Zinin And K.K.Klaus, N.N.Beketov– chemists

N.I. Pirogov, N.F. Sklifosovsky– doctors

I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.F.Lisyansky, F.F.Belinshausen and M.P.Lazarev– geographers and travelers

N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky - historians

Composers and musicians:

A.A. Alyabyev"Nightingale"

A.E. Varlamov“Red Sundress”, “A blizzard is sweeping along the street...”

A.N.Verstovsky"Askold's grave"

M.I.Glinka“I remember a wonderful moment...”, operas “A Life for the Tsar”, “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, symphonic poem “Kamarinskaya”

A.S.Dargomyzhsky opera "Esmeralda", opera "Rusalka", opera "The Stone Guest"

Painters:

O.A. Kiprensky – portrait painter“Self-portrait with brushes behind the ear”, “A.S. Pushkin”

V.A.Tropinin"The Lacemaker"

K.P. Bryullov"The Last Day of Pompeii", "The Horsewoman"

A.G. Venetsianov“On the arable land. Spring", "At the harvest. Summer", "Barnyard"

A.A.Ivanov"The Appearance of Christ to the People"

P.A.Fedotov“Fresh gentleman”, “Major’s matchmaking”, “Anchor, more Anchor!”

Writers:

N.M. Karamzmn"Poor Lisa"

V.A.Zhukovsky ballads “Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”

Tatiana Ponka

Literature. The main direction in Russian artistic culture in the first decades of the 19th century. becomes romanticism . It originated in Western Europe at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Romanticism is, first of all, a special worldview based on the conviction of the superiority of “spirit” over “matter.” According to the romantics, everything spiritual is truly human; on the contrary, everything material, coming to the fore, disfigures the true nature of man, it divides people, becomes a source of enmity between them, and leads to tragic situations.
The founder of Russian romanticism is rightfully considered V.A. Zhukovsky(1783–1852) - poet, prose writer, translator, author of the hymn “God Save the Tsar!”, educator of the heir to the Russian throne, Grand Duke Alexander Nikolaevich (Alexander II). In his literary work V.A. Zhukovsky chose the world as the main subject of his poetry human soul. In romanticism, Zhukovsky was attracted to folk history and legends folk life, echoed in fairy tales and songs. In 1810–1820 there comes a flourishing in the work of V.A. Zhukovsky. He writes his best “Russian” romantic ballads: “Lyudmila” (1808), “Svetlana” (1808-1812). "Lyudmila" is a free translation. Taking the plot of the ballad as a basis German poet Burger "Lenora", V.A. Zhukovsky creates his original work. Its fantastic plot was based on medieval religious ideas, belief in miraculous salvation or destruction of the soul. The elements of folk life and folklore become for V.A. Zhukovsky was a source of high poetry when writing one of his best ballads, “Svetlana” (1814). The plot of the ballad is interpreted within the framework of the everyday scene of girls telling fortunes “on Epiphany evening,” which made it possible for the poet to reproduce the features of Russian national life, folk customs, rituals and so on. Zhukovsky subtly and correctly conveyed the state of mind of a girl gripped by a romantic fear of possible night miracles and fear for the life of her beloved. His pen includes not only original “Russian” ballads, but also talented translations from foreign classics, for example, "Forest King". This is a translation of Goethe's ballad "Erlkonig", the plot of which the German poet-philosopher borrowed from the Danish folk epic. Addressing the rich imagery of the mysterious, other world poetry of European romantics, Zhukovsky always remained a Christian poet. Idealization of evil, admiration for sin, atheistic motives - all this was alien to Zhukovsky. In his original and translated lyrics we see a desire to open to man the path of purity, the path of spiritual ascent.
In his work, he also turned to national-patriotic themes. One of his first patriotic works was the ode “The Bard’s Song over the Tomb of the Victorious Slavs” (1805), written after the Battle of Austerlitz. Before the Patriotic War V.A. Zhukovsky is working on a translation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, developing a plan for a historical poem about the times of Prince. Vladimir. After the Battle of Borodino V.A. Zhukovsky, at that time an officer in the Moscow militia, wrote the poem “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” (1812), which brought him all-Russian fame. In ringing, solemn verses, praise sounded to the glorious ancestors, the leaders of the Russian army sang:
This cup belongs to the Fatherland, friends!
The country where we are for the first time
Tasted the sweetness of life,
Fields, native hills,
Sweet light of the native sky,
Familiar streams
Golden games of the first years
And the first years of lessons,
What will replace your beauty?
Oh, holy homeland,
What heart does not tremble,
Blessing you?

There have never been such poems in Russia. In the same 1812, D. Bortnyansky created a patriotic song for the choir based on “The Singer...”, it was performed in the form of a drinking song with a choral chorus. V.A. Zhukovsky did a lot of literary translations of F. Schiller, J. Byron, and translated Homer's Odyssey. His participation in the fate of A.S. is well known. Pushkin. In the arms of V.A. Zhukovsky died A.S. Pushkin, V.A. Zhukovsky became the guardian of his children.
Creativity V.A. Zhukovsky had a huge influence on the formation of A.S. Pushkin. M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol and other writers.
Under the influence of the creativity of V.A. Zhukovsky and other romantic poets in Russian literature form an understanding of the national identity and nationality of literature. In the 20s the concept of “nationality” was identified with national identity, i.e. with the peculiarities of the way of life of the people, everyday life, costume, etc.
In the 30-40s. ideological quests lead to a deeper concept of nationality. Developing and deepening the concept of the nationality of literature, the classics of Russian criticism considered as a necessary condition the correspondence of what the writer depicts in his works with the truth of life. According to V. G. Belinsky, it is true folk piece one that meets the objective interests of the people. Reflecting the real hard life ordinary people, a work of art should call for a struggle to change it. This thesis became one of the main tenets of revolutionary democratic aesthetics.
In the 1840s. the development of artistic culture was characterized by a movement from romanticism to realism . In literature, this movement is associated with the names of A.S. Pushkina, M.Yu. Lermontova, N.V. Gogol.
A huge role in the development of Russian national literature and culture played A.S. Pushkin(1799-1837) - great Russian writer, founder of new Russian literature, creator of the modern Russian literary language.
Already in the first youthful poems written during his studies at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1813 to 1817), the sincerity, frankness, straightforwardness, spontaneity, honesty and courage of A.S.’s nature were manifested. Pushkin. In 1815, at the lyceum act, Pushkin read his poem “Memories in Tsarskoe Selo” - in the presence of G.R. himself. Derzhavina. From this wonderful day we can consider that young Pushkin caught up with the greatest poet of the 18th century. ― G.R. Derzhavina. These poems by Pushkin are not only equal to Derzhavin’s, but in some places they are more perfect. The famous lines where Derzhavin was mentioned were as follows:

Derzhavin and Petrov rattled a song for the heroes
Strings of loud-sounding lyres.

16-year-old Pushkin described in three words the entire essence of G.R.’s poetry. Derzhavin - one of the most important poets of the 18th century.
The first large-scale work by A.S. Pushkin's poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1820). On the day of the end of the poem by V.A. Zhukovsky gave Pushkin his portrait with a sincere inscription - “To the winner - a student from a defeated teacher.” It was true: in 1820 A.S. Pushkin has already surpassed his teacher - V.A. Zhukovsky (he surpassed his first teacher, Derzhavin, at the Lyceum). At the same time, K.N. Batyushkov (Pushkin’s third teacher) recognized the poet’s superiority and exclaimed: “A villain, how he began to write.”
A.S. Pushkin wanted to create a work of Shakespearean scale. N.M. Karamzin suggested the plot to him from Russian history. In 1825 A.S. Pushkin completed the tragedy "Boris Godunov". By this time, the poet had reached full creative maturity and his desired goal. In the poem by A.S. Pushkin touched upon not only the main problems of Russian literature of the 19th century century, but throughout Russian history: the people and power, the role of the individual and the people in history. The characters of the main persons of this tragedy: Boris Godunov, the Pretender, Marina, Shuisky, etc., are given fully, completely, in the dialectical dynamics of both their personal experiences and their relationships with each other. The famous monologue of Boris Godunov is, perhaps, the pinnacle of A.S.’s work. Pushkin:

I have reached the highest power;
I have been reigning peacefully for six years now.
But there is no happiness for my soul. -
………………………………………
Oh! I feel: nothing can do us
In the midst of worldly sorrows, to calm;
Nothing, nothing... the only thing is conscience.
………………………………………
Yes, pitiful is the one whose conscience is unclean.

A huge, decisive role in this tragedy is played by the invisible protagonist - the people. The last phrase of the tragedy is brilliant: “The people are silent.”
In 1828 A.S. Pushkin writes the poem "Poltava". It has two main characters: Peter the Great and Mazepa. The main idea of ​​the poem is the contrast between these personalities. Mazepa is the bearer of a personal egoistic principle, and Peter is the bearer of the state idea, the idea of ​​the common people's good. The verse in "Poltava", for all its simplicity, amazes with its exceptional strength and artistic perfection. The description of the Ukrainian night, the appearance of Peter the Great before the troops, the Battle of Poltava itself, the description of the execution, the characterization of Mazepa - everything is expressed in unforgettable verses, extremely concise, rich in deep psychological content, with Shakespearean depth and clarity.
In the fall of 1830, the poet was forced to spend time on the Boldino estate, part of which was allocated to him by his father due to his marriage to Natalya Goncharova. This “Boldino autumn”, spent in complete solitude, turned out to be very fruitful for creativity. He had never had such a surge of inspiration and efficiency. This autumn A.S. Pushkin wrote: the last two chapters of "Eugene Onegin", "The House in Kolomna", four "small tragedies" ("The Miserly Knight", "Mozart and Salieri", "A Feast during the Plague" and "Don Juan", later called "The Stone guest"), five "Belkin's Stories" in prose and about 30 beautiful poems, among which were such masterpieces as "Demons", "Autumn", "Faded Fun of Crazy Years", "At the beginning of my life I remember school", "For shores of the distant homeland."
The main creation of the "Boldino autumn" is the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", on which the poet worked for seven years (1823-31). In the novel by A.S. Pushkin set himself the goal of displaying the phenomenon of a typically Russian Byronist against the background big picture Russian life of that time, i.e. the 20s. XIX century The main character of the novel, of course, is Tatyana. This is the ideal image of a Russian woman, the ideal female image in all world literature.
Upon returning from Boldin to Moscow, A.S. Pushkin February 18 1931 Married N.N. Goncharova. At the same time, A.S. Pushkin begins to write his incomparable folk tales: “About Tsar Saltan” (1831), “About the Fisherman and the Fish” (1833), “About the Dead Princess” (1833), “About the Golden Cockerel” (1834) and “Songs of the Western Slavs” (1833). In 1833, Pushkin travels to the Orenburg province to collect materials for the “History of the Pugachev Rebellion.” Based on the collected documentary scientific historical material about the time of Pugachev A.S. Pushkin writes his wonderful historical and at the same time psychological story - "The Captain's Daughter" (1833-1836). In 1833 A.S. Pushkin wrote the poem "The Bronze Horseman", again returning to the theme of Peter the Great. The main idea of ​​this poem is the opposition of personal interests to national interests. The great deeds of Peter, in particular the founding of St. Petersburg, are contrasted with the young man’s personal dreams of family happiness with your girlfriend; However, a natural disaster (a terrible flood in St. Petersburg) mercilessly destroys all his dreams: the bride dies from the flood, and he himself goes crazy. Thus, unfortunate Eugene is one of the victims of Peter’s cause - the founding of a new capital, and Peter the Great is the indirect culprit of his death. Pushkin describes Eugene’s misfortunes with great and sincere sympathy, but completely takes Peter’s side, understanding the enormous significance of Peter’s transformations for Russia.
Artistically, this is Pushkin’s best poem. The most characteristic features of Pushkin’s creativity: conciseness, lapidaryness, “condensation of thought in words,” sculptural images, ideological richness, depth and clarity of creative thought, harmony of parts and holistic simplicity of the unity of composition - everything is present in this poem. Other works by A.S. have the same properties. Pushkin of the last period of his life: “The Queen of Spades” (1833), “Egyptian Nights” (1835), etc.
Gifted with genius abilities, A.S. Pushkin was placed in extremely unfavorable conditions throughout his short life, but the strength and brilliance of his exceptional talent overcame all obstacles and made him a Russian genius. The variety of developed genres and styles (poems, poems, ballads, prose), lightness, grace and accuracy of verse, relief and strength of characters, “enlightened humanism”, the universality of poetic thinking and the personality of A.S. Pushkin predetermined his paramount importance in Russian literature. Russian literature A.S. Pushkin raised it to the world level. Famous literary critic mid-19th V. Apollo Grigoriev very succinctly expressed the meaning of A.S. in an aphorism. Pushkin for Russian civilization: “Pushkin is our everything.” A.S. Pushkin completely merged and then no longer separated himself from the Russia in which he was born, grew up, matured and lived. He accepted his Motherland as a whole, entirely, with its difficult history, with its vast expanses, bad roads, unbridled folk prowess and melancholy poured into Russian life. He bowed to the Russian past, was proud of it, saw in it enormous spiritual riches, deep moral principles. He believed in the great future of Russia.
All educated Russia knew, appreciated and selflessly loved its national genius poet. In assessing this love, the poet F.I. Tyutchev was right: “Russia’s heart will not forget you, like its first love.”
In the development of realism in literature, an important role belongs to the Russian poet M. Yu. Lermontov(1814–1841). Difficult family circumstances(the death of his mother in 1817, his father’s quarrel with the grandmother who raised Lermontov) left an imprint on the attitude and work of the future poet. Already in his early romantic poems (1828–34), which went beyond the scope of his apprenticeship, M. Yu. Lermontov tried to comprehend his inner self, personal relationships with the outside world and the universe. They reflected the tragedy of a lonely personality, rebellion, skepticism, problems of “life of purpose” (Poet, 1828; “Russian Melody”; 1829; “No, I’m not Byron...”, 1832). But M.Yu. Lermontov is aware of his high purpose.
In 1835–39 M.Yu. Lermontov reaches creative maturity. During this period, he worked hard, creating vivid examples in almost all genres: the drama “Masquerade” (1835), the poem “Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young guardsman and the daring merchant Kalashnikov” (1837), “Mtsyri” (finished in 1839) , most of the novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1840) and a number of outstanding lyrical masterpieces that brought the poet universal fame ("Death of a Poet", 1837; "Duma", "Poet", 1838; "Three Palms", "Prayer", 1839 and etc.). During these years, M. Yu. Lermontov is close to completing his final grandiose work - philosophical poem"The Demon", which will be completed in 1839.
In these works M.Yu. Lermontov focused on analyzing the relationship between light and darkness, noble strength and weakness, ideally high and base and vulgar in a person. These signs of the poet’s poetic thinking were most clearly manifested in the drama “Masquerade” (1835). Everything in secular circles is a “masquerade”, sometimes even human honor itself. The main question of the drama is how to live? In conscience, justifying one’s birth through good deeds and work, or - through sophistication, “overtaking” others, believing that human life- a “game”, a ring where only the “strong” and the “cunning” win, disregarding the laws of honor?
M.Yu. Lermontov raised one of the most pressing social and philosophical topics in human life. The twists and turns of the play convince the reader that life is not a game. When a person in his life diverges from the laws of the Universe, his life turns into a tragedy. This is the deep essence of “Masquerade” and the main reason for Arbenin’s collapse in life. He had a way out of the crisis situation (to trust his wife), but he rejected it, because he believed that everything in life is a “game.” There is no trust in the game, there is no place for “feelings”. In the foreground in the game ("card" and in reality) is the dictate of "intelligence", "experience", "strength". And in order to “win here, you have to give up everything: family, friends, honor.” This is the philosophy of the devil's tempters who reject God's justice. Having trusted such a philosophy, Arbenin dies.
To the death of A.S. Pushkina M.Yu. Lermontov responds with his poem “The Death of a Poet” (1837), explosive in tone and force, and deeply patriotic. The poet stigmatizes those who come to Russia “to catch happiness and ranks”, who despise “the foreign language and customs of the land”, who hate the honor of Russia and who “in a greedy crowd” crowd around the throne, so that at any cost, incl. slander and betrayal, to gain earthly well-being. M.Yu. Lermontov did not appeal to “revolution,” but to “God’s judgment” in order to defeat the “confidants of depravity.”
The pinnacle of literary realism M.Yu. Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1840). Pechorin is “persecuted” by his society and despises it, finding soullessness and vulgarity in it. A student of abstract philosophy on the Western model, Pechorin is deprived of a sense of homeland, a sense of Russia. Breaking away from domestic traditions, the hero does not know what to do with himself. Real life, which he understood in something deeper than the people around him, the moral values ​​of the Russian people - all this did not affect the hero, did not become part of the flesh and blood of his actions and feelings. Upon returning from Persia - a significant detail: a sign of a foreign land! - Pechorin is dying.
In the works of the last period of life and work of M.Yu. Lermontov ("Prophet", 1839; "Cossack Lullaby", 1840; "Demon", 1840; Motherland", 1841 "I go out alone on the road", 1841;) M.Yu. Lermontov comes to the conclusion about fundamentality in everyone's life a person of such concepts as: God, Fatherland, home.
Huge role N.V.Gogol(1809–1852) in Russian literature. " Dead Souls"(Volume 1 was published in 1842) - one of the brightest realistic images of Russian life of that time.
In the first half of the 19th century. Russian literature is increasingly acquiring the character of teaching and compassion. The sociality of Russian literature, its involvement in public life is a generally recognized feature and characteristic. One of the discoveries of the writers of the “natural school” was “ small man"with his difficult everyday fate.
New world Russian merchants were discovered for the Russian reader by A.N. Ostrovsky. The hero of literary works is the serf peasant (stories by D.V. Grigorovich, essays from peasant life by V.I. Dahl, the cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev).
Fiction in the spiritual life of society acquires a predominant influence.
Theater. An increasingly prominent role in public cultural life society in the first half of the 19th century. theater played.
At the beginning of the 19th century. A network of Russian Imperial theaters developed, which were managed by the “Ministry of the Court of His Imperial Majesty.” In Russia, until 1882, the so-called state theatrical monopoly operated, since theater was considered an ideological art that required close supervision. Subordinate to the court there were two theaters in St. Petersburg - Alexandrinsky Mikhailovsky - and two in Moscow - Bolshoi and Maly. The repertoire of these theaters almost coincided, which is explained by the not very rich selection of plays and a single management.
In the cultural life of St. Petersburg in the first half of the 19th century. the palm goes to the Alexandrinsky Theater (now the Russian State Academic Drama Theater named after A.S. Pushkin). By this time main theater St. Petersburg - Big Stone (1783) is gradually falling into disrepair due to poor acoustics. From 1828 to 1832, the architect K. Russia built the building of a new theater, which initially received the name "Maly". The grand opening of the theater took place in 1831 with the patriotic tragedy of M.V. Kryukovsky "Prince Pozharsky". In honor of the wife of Emperor Nicholas I, Alexandra Feodorovna, the theater was named "Alexandrinsky".
In Moscow, in October 1824, the Imperial Theater opened on Petrovskaya (now Teatralnaya) Square. In January 1825, on the same square, after the fire of 1812, another theater was reconstructed, which, due to its size, began to be called the Bolshoi (before that it was called Petrovsky), and the first theater began to be called the Maly. At first, the theaters had a common troupe and presented opera, ballet and dramatic performances. But gradually the Maly began to specialize in dramatic productions, and the Bolshoi - in opera and ballet.
For a long time, the canons of classicism with its external imposingness, pomp and rhetoric, and the predominance of ancient mythological subjects in the repertoire dominated the stage. But already in the 20–30s. XIX century classicism was pushed aside by the romantic school, which was characterized by heroic and tragic themes, and in the performing manner of the actors, much attention was paid to the inner experiences of the characters.
One of the representatives of romanticism on the Russian stage was a wonderful Russian actor P.S.Mochalov(1800–1848). Since 1824, his acting career was connected with the Maly Theater. In his acting, he sought first of all to reveal the hero’s conflict with reality. He was endowed with a “fiery” temperament, his playing was distinguished by violent emotionality, a richness of shades, and rapid transitions from calm to excitement. He became famous for his roles as Hamlet ("Hamlet" by W. Shakespeare), Karl Moor, Ferdinand ("The Robbers", "Cunning and Love" by F. Schiller), Chatsky ("Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov).
Dramaturgy A.S. Griboyedova, N.V. Gogol, especially A.N. Ostrovsky contributed to the establishment of realistic drama in the theater repertoire.
Reformer acting art, the founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor M.S. Shchepkin (1788–1863). Until 1822, he was a serf and played in the serf theater. Since 1824 - actor of the Maly Theater. On stage he asserted the educational significance of theater and developed the principles of the art of transformation. In many ways he determined the ideological and artistic positions of the Maly Theater. His best roles are in satirical works: Famusov ("Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboedov), Gorodnichy ("The Inspector General" by N.V. Gogol), as well as the "humiliated and insulted" - Muromsky ("Krechinsky's Wedding" by A. S. Sukhovo-Kobylina), Kuzovkin ("The Freeloader" by A.S. Turgenev).
A whole galaxy of wonderful Russian actors appears on the stage of the Russian theater - E.S. Semenova, V.A. Karatygin, P.S. Mochalov, M.S. Shchepkin, A.E. Martynov. During this period, the formation of directing and the art of performance design begins.
Music. The Patriotic War of 1812 had a huge impact on the development of Russian music. Composers began to turn more often to heroic-patriotic, national subjects (K. A. Kavos’s opera “Ivan Susanin”, 1815).
A prominent representative of romanticism in Russian music was A.N. Verstovsky(1799–1862), Russian composer and theatrical figure― author of operas, romances, ballads. A.N. Verstovsky was one of the founders of Russian opera-vaudeville. His opera-vaudeville "Grandma's Parrots" (translation from French by P.I. Khmelnitsky) was staged in 1819 in St. Petersburg; it was followed by vaudeville operas: “Quarantine” (1820), “A New Prank, or Theatrical Battle” (1882, in collaboration with Maurer and Alyabyev); "Madhouse, or Strange Wedding" (1822). Verstovsky was given real fame by the opera Askold's Grave (libretto by Zagoskin), staged in Moscow in 1835 with the famous Petrov in the role of the Unknown. Until the end of the 1860s, it was given in the imperial theaters - about 200 times in St. Petersburg, and more than 400 times in Moscow. A.N. Verstovsky is the author of several dozen romances, including “The Black Shawl” (lyrics by A.S. Pushkin), and the gypsy romance “Old Husband, Terrible Husband” (lyrics by A.S. Pushkin) was performed more than once by Polina Viardot.
Interest in chamber and public concerts has increased in society. The attention of many composers, writers, and artists was attracted musical evenings at A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky. The literary and musical salon of Princess Zinaida Volkonskaya on Tverskaya (Gorky St., 14), which was, according to Vyazemsky, “an elegant gathering place for all the wonderful and selected personalities of modern society,” gained great popularity in Moscow. The summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, where the “Small Court” of the heir to the throne Pavel Petrovich was located, were a huge success. Being in a strained relationship with his mother and not forgiving her for the death of his father, Pavel Petrovich lived in a residence remote from St. Petersburg - Pavlovsk. This residence was presented to Pavel Petrovich in honor of the birth of his heir Alexander ( future emperor Alexander I). Pavel Petrovich and his wife Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna were deprived of the right to raise their own children; Catherine II herself was involved in their upbringing. Therefore, Maria Fedorovna found relaxation in art. After railway from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo in 1837, regular concerts were organized in Pavlovsk. The Austrian composer and conductor, the famous “waltz king” J. Strauss, performed at these concerts many times.
The founder of the Russian national classical school of composition was M. I. Glinka(1804–1857). His music brought the Russian school to the world level in terms of artistic excellence and professional skill. He solved the problem in a new way national in music. He felt the national Russian character very well and expressed the Russian heroic spirit in music, and also created examples of Russian national lyrics. In 1836, his heroic-patriotic historical opera “Ivan Susanin” was staged on the stage of the St. Petersburg Bolshoi Theater. M.I. Glinka emphasized folk origin opera, glorified the patriotic peasant, the greatness of character, courage and unbending fortitude of the Russian people. The opera was greeted rather dryly by the high society public; the “coachman’s music” did not arouse their sympathy. But many advanced people Russia enthusiastically greeted the performance. Fans of the opera included A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky, A.S. Khomyakov. In 1842, the premiere of the opera “Ruslan and Lyudmila” took place in the same theater. In this work, colorful pictures of Slavic life are intertwined with fairy-tale fantasy, distinctly Russian national traits with oriental motifs. Rethinking the content of the humorous, ironic youth poem by A.S. Pushkin, taken as the basis for the libretto, Glinka highlighted the majestic images Ancient Rus', heroic spirit and multifaceted, emotionally rich lyrics. For the creativity of M.I. Glinka was characterized by integrity, a clear view of the world, harmony, balance of forms, a bright perception of the world, a harmonious balance between good and evil. M.I. Glinka deeply penetrated into the essence of Russian folk song, studied a lot, but quoted little. The language of Russian folk song became his own. In 1848 he created his most significant symphonic work - “Kamarinskaya”, in which, according to P.I. Tchaikovsky, “like an oak in an acorn” - the entire Russian symphonic school. M.I. Glinka is considered the founder of Russian classical music, the founder of two new directions of Russian opera (folk musical drama and fairy tale opera), he laid the foundations of Russian symphonism, his romances are classic examples of this genre.
Along with M.I. Glinka, the founder of Russian classical music was A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869). His main work - the opera "Rusalka" (1855, based on the dramatic poem by A.S. Pushkin) marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk everyday psychological drama. A.S. Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music, introducing into it new techniques and means of musical expression (melodic recitative in the opera “The Stone Guest”). A.S. Dargomyzhsky had a significant influence on the composers of the “Mighty Handful” (M.A. Balakirev, P.I. Tchaikovsky, etc.).

Ballet. At the beginning of the 19th century. Russian ballet art has reached creative maturity. Russian ballet, having adopted the achievements of Western European ballet, constantly developing the traditions of Russian folk choreography, was increasingly established as a phenomenon of national culture. Domestic composers appeared - A. N. Titov, S. I. Davydov and Russified foreign composers - K. A. Kavos, F. E. Scholz. The first Russian choreographer I. I. Valberkh (1766–1819) appeared. He combined the traditions of Russian folk dance with dramatic pantomime and virtuoso technique in the ballet. ballet dance. In 1799 he staged the first ballet national theme― melodrama “New Werther” by composer A. N. Titov.

During the Patriotic War of 1812, patriotic divertissements with music by S. I. Davydov and K. A. Kavos were especially widespread: in St. Petersburg they were staged by I. I. Valberkh, in Moscow by I. M. Ablets, I. K. Lobanov, A. P. Glushkovsky. Particularly popular during the Patriotic War was Walberch’s ballet “Love for the Fatherland” to the music of K. A. Kavos, which was based on Russian folk dance.

Of particular importance for the development of Russian ballet was his arrival in Russia and work as a director (1800-1809, 1816-1829) largest representative French choreographic art of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries Sh. L. Didlo(1767-1837). His activities in Russia contributed to the establishment of Russian ballet as a phenomenon of national culture, as well as the promotion of the Russian ballet theater to one of the first places in Europe. In collaboration with A.K. Cavos, he put forward the principle of programming, based on the unity of the musical and choreographic dramaturgy of a ballet performance. Didelot staged ballets on mythological stories(“Zephyr and Flora”, 1808; “Cupid and Psyche”, 1809; “Acis and Galatea”, 1816), as well as on historical, comedic, everyday themes: “The Young Thrushwoman” (1817), “The Hungarian Hut, or Famous exiles" by F. Venua (1817), "Raoul de Créquy, or Return from crusades"Kavos and T.V. Zhuchkovsky (1819). Didelot became the founder of the genre of Anacreontic ballet, named after the ancient poet Anacreon, creator of the genre of love lyrics. He staged more than 40 ballets on the Russian stage, and under his leadership the Russian ballet school began to form. He made the transition from mythological themes to modern ones.In 1823, Didelot staged a ballet based on the poem by A. S. Pushkin “The Prisoner of the Caucasus, or the Shadow of the Bride.”

After the expulsion of the French from Moscow, the ballet school and troupe were headed by a follower of C. Didelot and I. I. Walberch, choreographer A. P. Glushkovsky(1793–1870). His activities constituted an entire era in the history of Russian ballet. In 1812 alone, he staged 18 ballets and divertissements (melodramas, anacreontic ballets), including “Ruslan and Lyudmila, or the Overthrow of Chernomor, the Evil Wizard” by Scholz based on the poem by A.S. Pushkin. He became the first theorist and historian of Russian ballet. He trained a whole galaxy of masters, including the brilliant D.S. Lopukhina, I.K. Lobanova and others. The arrival of a French ballerina in Moscow as a choreographer and teacher was of great importance for the development of Russian ballet. F. Güllen-Sor. She staged a number of ballets and contributed to the formation of the personalities of outstanding ballerinas E.A. Sankovskaya and T.S. Karpakova.

By the mid-1830s. in Russia, as in others European countries, the repertoire has been established romantic ballet Main expressive means V ballet performance became an effective dance and dance pantomime . The tours of famous ballerinas to Russia: the Italian M. Taglioni (1834-1842) and the Austrian F. Elsler (1848-1851) were of great importance for getting acquainted with the achievements of Western ballet. E. I. Kolosova, M. I. Danilova, A. I. Istomina, E. A. Teleshova, A. S. Novitskaya, Auguste (A. Poirot), N. O. Golts, E. A. shone on the ballet stage Sankovskaya, E. I. Andreyanova, I. N. Nikitin. Russian dancers brought expressiveness and spirituality to the dance. Feeling this very accurately, A.S. Pushkin called the dance of his contemporary Avdotya Istomina “soul-filled flight.”

In the middle of the 19th century. began to establish itself in Russian literature and art realism. Romanticism continued to dominate in ballet, since ballet enjoyed the patronage of the authorities and remained a court art. The romantic direction in the ballet was preserved, at the same time choreographers tried to create realistic performances. The performances were not successful because the choreographers did not take into account that ballet is a conventional art that does not fit well with realism. The content of the performances became primitive, the plots simple. For the dancers, the main thing was the refinement of dance form and technique, in which they often achieved virtuosity.

In the 60-70s. XIX century A crisis began in the art of ballet. At the same time, the means of dance expression were intensively accumulated, especially in classical dance.
Architecture. The dominant artistic style of the beginning of the century in architecture is mature, or high, classicism, in scientific literature, especially the beginning of the 20th century, often referred to as Russian Empire style . Russian architecture of this period solves large urban planning problems: in St. Petersburg and Moscow the city center was architecturally designed; Moscow, after the fire of 1812, when 70% of the buildings burned out, was essentially rebuilt. Antiquity in its Greek version becomes the ideal. The Doric (more strict) order is widely used, sculpture plays a large role in the appearance of the building, great importance has the color of the buildings (usually columns and statues are white, the background is yellow or gray). A lot of public buildings are being built: educational institutions, theaters, departments, etc.
One of the architects who worked in the Empire style was A. D. Zakharov(1761–1811). In the middle of the 18th century. Petersburg was a city of singles architectural ensembles, was surrounded by green estates and was in many ways similar to Moscow. Work to streamline the city's architecture began with the architectural design of the center of St. Petersburg - the construction of the Admiralty building designed by architect A.D. Zakharova.
HELL. Zakharov graduated from the Academy of Arts with a gold medal, and in 1782 he went on a retirement trip to France. In 1805, he was appointed chief architect of the Admiralty, and the following year he began rebuilding the Korobovsky (1727-1738) Admiralty building (1806-1823). Having rebuilt the old building, he turned it into the main ensemble of St. Petersburg. Essentially A.D. Zakharov built a new building, consisting of two U-shaped buildings, and one building seemed to be nested inside the other. The internal volume consists of ship and drawing workshops, warehouses; external - departments, administrative institutions, museum, library, etc. The main facade of the Admiralty is one of the longest buildings in world architecture - 406 m, in the center of which there is a triumphal passage arch with a spire. HELL. Zakharov preserved Korobov’s brilliant design for the spire, showing tact and respect for tradition and managing to transform it into a new classicist image of the building as a whole. The decorative plastic of the building is in unity with the architecture: the Admiralty is the naval department of Russia, a powerful maritime power. The entire system of sculptural decoration was developed by Zakharov himself and brilliantly implemented by the best sculptors of the beginning of the century. The monumental volume of the Admiralty, together with the famous spire, has become one of the main urban planning accents of the center of St. Petersburg, which visually closes three radial avenues - Voznesensky, Nevsky and Gorokhovaya Street. Admiralty A.D. Zakharova is perhaps the only monument of Russian architecture included in all anthologies of Western European art of the early 19th century.
The construction at the beginning of the 19th century was of fundamental importance. the Exchange building on the Spit of Vasilievsky Island, which was brilliantly implemented by a Swiss by birth Thomas de Thomon(ca. 1760–1813). He came to Russia at the end of the 18th century, having already worked in Italy and Austria. At this time, the government decided to architecturally design the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island. Petersburg at that time was the largest port, shopping center, and there were no decent buildings for carrying out trade transactions or warehouses for goods. Vasilyevsky Island has long been a kind of trading center. A competition was announced to design the Strelka, and Thomas de Thomon won it. The exchange (1805-1810) looks like a Greek temple - peripetra, i.e., a building surrounded on all sides by columns, on a high base. There is almost no decor. The simplicity and clarity of forms and proportions give the building a majestic, monumental character and allow it to withstand the vast expanse of water. The bank of the Strelka was extended 100 meters into the Neva, lined with granite slabs, and convenient descents to the water were arranged. Thus, a square appeared in front of the Exchange building. The theme of dominance over water was developed in monumental sculpture. Rostral columns were installed on both sides of Exchange Square. The columns are decorated with rostras - the bows of ships, according to the ancient Roman tradition, and sculptural allegories of the great Russian rivers Volga, Neva, Dnieper at the foot, created by S.S. Pimenov. I.I. Terebnev and V.I. Demut-Malinovsky.
The third great architect who worked in the Empire style was A.N. Voronikhin(1759–1814). He was born in the Urals in the family of the serf Count A.S. Stroganov - President of the Academy of Arts, one of richest people of its time. The boy's abilities were noticed early, and in 1777 the count sent him to Moscow. He studies with Kazakov and Bazhenov, and makes a retirement trip to Rome and Paris. His main creation is the Kazan Cathedral (1801-1811). The design was based on St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome with Michelangelo's dome and Bernini's colonnade (1617). But Voronikhin creatively developed Roman Renaissance-Baroque ideas, creating a monumental ensemble with a semicircular colonnade topped with a dome, open to the avenue. The classicist rigor of the overall design is combined with the triumphal splendor of the decorative decoration. Innovative is the solution of the dome with an outer shell, for the first time on such a scale, made on a purely metal base. In 1813, M.I. was buried in the cathedral. Kutuzov, and the building became a kind of monument to the victories of Russian weapons. Banners and other relics captured from Napoleonic troops were kept here. Later, monuments to M.I. were erected in front of the cathedral. Kutuzov and M.B. Barclay de Tolly, executed by the sculptor B.I. Orlovsky. The square in front of the Kazan Cathedral, surrounded by a colonnade on both sides, became one of the centers of public life in the city. In the second half of the 20th century. rallies and demonstrations were held here.
The leading St. Petersburg architect of the "Russian Empire" was K. I. Rossi(1777–1849). Rossi received his initial architectural education in Brenna's studio, then traveled to Italy, where he studied ancient monuments. K.I. Rossi is the author of plans for the reconstruction of 13 squares in the center of St. Petersburg and 12 streets.
In 1819-1825 under his leadership, the Mikhailovsky Palace was being built. The palace was named after its owner - the fourth son of Paul I - Mikhail Pavlovich. During his lifetime, Paul I began to annually set aside a certain amount from his personal funds for the construction of a palace for his last son, Michael. After the death of Paul I, Emperor Alexander I decided to build a palace for the wedding day of his brother Mikhail Pavlovich and Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna. The emperor entrusted the construction of the palace to K.I. Russia. Rossi built the main building of the palace, named Mikhailovsky after its owner, in the depths of a spacious courtyard. The famous architect personally supervised the work of the specialists who were entrusted with the external and internal decoration of the building. Under his leadership, the best sculptors of that time - S.S. Pimenov and V.I. Demut-Malinovsky - decorated the main facade of the palace with a portico with eight Corinthian columns, raised above the ground to the height of the second floor, made figured bas-reliefs on the outer walls and installed two stone lions at the central entrance, as if guarding the building. Bas-reliefs and picturesque panels created by the artists A. Viga, D. Scotti and B. Medici also decorated the interior of the palace, among which the White Column Hall was especially luxuriously and originally decorated. It was divided into three parts by rows of Corinthian columns, and its walls were decorated with bas-reliefs and picturesque panels on which A. Vigi depicted scenes from the ancient poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. Rossi also did not forget about the furnishings of the future building - the furniture and crystal chandeliers of the Mikhailovsky Palace were made according to his sketches.
At the same time (1819–1829), Rossi was engaged in the design of Palace Square. On the square designed by K.I. Rossi erected the General Staff building in the classicist style. The architect was faced with the most difficult task - to combine the Baroque palace of V.V. Rastrelli and the monotonous classicist facade of the General Staff building into a single whole. The architect broke the dullness of the latter with the Arc de Triomphe, and gave the correct shape to the square - one of the largest among the squares of European capitals. The triumphal arch, crowned by the chariot of Glory, gives the entire ensemble a highly solemn character. On the square, according to the design of O. Montferrand, a 47-meter column of granite monolith was erected - a monument to Alexander I and at the same time - a monument in honor of the victories of Russian weapons in the Patriotic War of 1812. The figure of an angel holding a cross, as a sign of sadness for the untimely death of Emperor Alexander, was performed by B.I. Orlovsky.
One of the wonderful ensembles of K.I. Rossi had the Alexandrinsky Theater, built with the latest technology of the time, and the adjacent Alexandrinsky Square. The theater was named in honor of the wife of Emperor Nicholas I, Alexandra Feodorovna.
The latest creation by K.I. Rossi in St. Petersburg - the building of the Senate and Synod (1829-1834) on the famous Senate Square. Already in this creation of the great architect, new features are visible that are characteristic of the late work of the architect and the last Empire period in general: some fragmentation of architectural forms, overload with sculptural elements, rigidity, coldness and pomp.
The "most strict" of all the architects of late classicism was V.P. Stasov(1769―1848). Coming from a poor noble family, he studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. Participated in the decoration of holidays during the coronation of Emperor Alexander I.. V.P. Stasov was noticed by the emperor and sent on a retirement trip to France, Italy, and England. One of the main works of V.P. Stasova - Pavlovsk barracks on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg (1817―1821). The Pavlovsk regiment was created by decree of Paul I in 1796, received Active participation in the Patriotic War of 1812, in 1813 he was awarded the name “Pavlovsky Life Guards”. The construction of barracks for the Pavlovsk regiment created a gigantic city square, which served for military reviews, parades, and exercises. The facade is huge in area - 144 m - decorated with three porticoes made of Doric smooth columns, placed on a high ground floor. The middle portico is topped with a stepped attic, richly decorated with sculpture. A sculptural panel of military attributes emphasizes the purpose of the building. The military-style interiors of the Pavlovsk barracks are devoid of artistic decoration.
No less remarkable architects worked in Moscow at that time. During the War of 1812, more than 70% of the city's housing stock was destroyed - thousands of houses and more than a hundred churches. Immediately after the expulsion of the French, intensive restoration and construction of new buildings began.
A big role in the restoration of Moscow after the fire of 1812 belongs to O.I. Beauvais(1784-1834). The son of a native of Italy, Bove studied at an architectural school in Moscow. Worked as an assistant to M.F. Kazakova and K.I. Russia. Since 1814, he headed the commission for buildings in Moscow “for the facade part.” O.I. Bove created numerous standard designs for residential buildings, on the basis of which the appearance of a regular residential building was formed and the type of Moscow mansion of the first third of the 19th century emerged. with its inherent simplicity, a combination of pomp and intimacy, comfort. These included the mansion of S. Gagarin on Novinsky Boulevard (lost in 1941). Bove also designed a number of architectural ensembles that transformed the urban center of Moscow into an integral architectural and spatial zone. He rebuilt the Trading Rows on Red Square. O.I. Beauvais creates the Theater Square ensemble (1816-1825), building the Bolshoi and Maly theaters. Teatralnaya Square became the first regular square in Moscow. In 1828-1833 on the basis of the Golitsyn hospital M.F. Kazakova O.I. Bove creates the building of the First City Hospital, which became the first public hospital in Moscow, created with funds from the city assembly “for the use of people of all conditions.” In an atmosphere of great patriotic enthusiasm O.I. Beauvais creates the Triumphal Gate at the entrance to Moscow from St. Petersburg (1827-1834, now on Kutuzov Avenue).
At this time they also worked in Moscow DI. Gilardi(1788–1845) and A.G. Grigoriev(1782-1868). Gilardi rebuilt the Cossack Moscow University (1817–1819), which burned down during the war. As a result of the reconstruction, the dome and portico became more monumental, turning from Ionic to Doric. A lot of Gilardi and Grigoriev worked in estate architecture (the Usachev estate on the Yauza, 1829-1831, the Golitsyn estate "Kuzminki", 20s; the Lunin house at the Nikitsky Gate, built by D. Gilardi, 1818-1823; the Khrushchev house, 1815-1817 , now the A. S. Pushkin Museum, built by A. Grigoriev).
By the 40s of the XIX century. classicism has lost its harmony, become heavier, more complicated, we see this in the example St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg, under construction O. Montferrand forty years (1818-1858). St. Isaac's Cathedral is the largest building of late Russian classicism, the cathedral church of the Orthodox Church. Its dimensions are enormous, its height is 101.5 m, second only to St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and equal in size to St. Paul's Cathedral in London. It can accommodate 13 thousand people at the same time. The cathedral was supposed to personify the power and inviolability of the autocracy, its close union with the Orthodox Church. The huge dome of the cathedral was assembled from metal structures, and the outside was covered with gilded copper sheets.
To the great architects of the mid-19th century. belongs K. A. Ton(1794 ―1881). In his work he tried to revive traditions ancient Russian architecture. He built five-domed churches with narrow arched (rounded) windows, and used decor of Russian and Byzantine origin. All this was subject to the strict proportions and symmetry of classicism.
Works by K.A. Emperor Nicholas I liked the tones. The architect received large orders for Moscow. In 1839 - 1849 under his leadership and with the participation of architects F. F. Richter, N. I. Chichagov, P. A. Gerasimov, V. A. Bakarev and others, the Grand Kremlin Palace was built on the high Borovitsky Hill. Its facade faces the Moscow River and stretches from west to east for 125 meters. The palace was the temporary residence of the imperial family during its stay in Moscow. A palace of the 18th century, built by the architect V. Rastrelli, previously stood on this site.
From the outside façade, the palace looks three-story, but actually consists of two floors. The ground floor projects forward and forms an open terrace above. The two-tier facade of the second floor is divided by pilasters and completely decorated with carved white stone window frames in the style of Russian architecture of the 17th century. The palace had the personal chambers of the emperor and his family of seven rooms, each of which - the Dining Room, the Living Room, the Empress's Study, the Boudoir, the Bedroom, the Emperor's Study, the Reception Room - was designed in its own style and represented an artistic whole. Space on Own half It is divided by pillars into two parts: into a kind of corridor, creating an enfilade, and into the main part of the rooms with furniture and other elements of decoration. The arrangement of the rooms in an enfilade creates a change of impressions and highlights the originality of each room. The palace is known for its state halls, named after the Russian pre-revolutionary orders (Andreevsky, Alexander, Georgievsky, Vladimir, Catherine). Of these, the most solemn - St. George's Hall - is decorated with statues (works by I. P. Vitali), personifying the regions that became part of Russia, bas-reliefs depicting St. George the Victorious slaying the dragon (sculptor P. K. Klodt), marble plaques with the names of St. George's Knights and the names of military units that distinguished themselves in battles. Until 1917, the Grand Kremlin Palace was the Moscow residence of Russian emperors and served for ceremonial receptions. After October revolution and the transfer of the capital of the Soviet state to Moscow (March 1918), meetings of the highest Soviet and party bodies and congresses of the Comintern were held in the former St. Andrew's Hall of the Grand Kremlin Palace. V. I. Lenin, outstanding figures of the Communist Party and the Soviet state, the international communist and labor movement spoke here many times. In 1933-34 From the Andreevsky and neighboring Alexander Halls, according to the design of the architect I. A. Ivanov-Shits, the largest meeting hall in the palace was created, designed for 2,500 seats. Center architectural composition the hall was a monumental statue of V.I. Lenin (sculptor S.D. Merkurov). On December 5, 1936, at the Extraordinary 8th Congress of Soviets of the USSR, the Constitution of the USSR was adopted here. Sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, all-Union meetings of industrial and agricultural workers, congresses of creative unions took place in the Conference Hall; diplomatic and government receptions. In 1993–1995 The Grand Kremlin Palace underwent a major overhaul and the St. Andrew's and Alexander Halls were restored. Currently, the Grand Kremlin Palace is the ceremonial residence of the President of Russia.
In 1839 K.A. Thon began construction on the banks of the Moscow River of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. It was decided to build the temple on the site of the former Alekseevsky convent. In this regard, for a long time there was a legend according to which one of the nuns, outraged by the transfer of the monastery, angrily cursed the site of the temple and predicted that not a single building would stand on this site for more than 50 years. Be that as it may, the construction site could not have been chosen more successfully: the temple was visible from anywhere in Moscow, and the proximity to the Kremlin emphasized the deep connection of the new Cathedral of Christ the Savior with Russian history and culture. The construction and interior decoration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior took almost 40 years: it was erected from 1839 to 1883. On May 26, 1883, the temple was solemnly consecrated in the presence of Alexander III and the imperial family. In plan, the cathedral was an equal-ended cross. The outer part was decorated with a double row of marble high reliefs by sculptors P. K. Klodt, L. V. Loganovsky and N. A. Ramazanov. All entrance doors- twelve in total - were made of bronze, and the images of saints decorating them were cast according to sketches famous sculptor Count F. P. Tolstoy. Contemporaries were amazed by the size of the temple: it could accommodate up to 10,000 people. The rich interior decoration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior consisted of paintings and decorations made of stones - labradorite, Shoshkin porphyry and Italian marble. Famous Russian painters - V.V. Vereshchagin, V.I. Surikov, I.N. Kramskoy - worked on the decoration of the temple. A gallery surrounded the perimeter of the building, which became the first museum of the War of 1812. Marble boards were mounted on the walls of the gallery, on which chronological order all the battles of the Russian army were listed, the names of military leaders, distinguished officers and soldiers were named. In 1849–1851 under the leadership of K.A. Ton, a new building of the Armory Chamber was built on the territory of the Kremlin.
The patronage of Nicholas I played fatal role for K.A. Tone and his legacy. His creations began to be seen as a symbol of Nicholas's time. This is precisely what explains the sharp attacks of A.I. Herzen. After the revolution of 1917, many of K.A.’s creations. The tones were destroyed. In 1931, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was destroyed. Only two main stations in the country were not blown up - Leningradsky in Moscow and Moskovsky in St. Petersburg - also the creations of K.A. Tones due to their enormous practical significance.
Sculpture. In line with classicism in the first half of the 19th century. Sculpture also developed. I. P. Martos(1752–1835) in 1804–1818. working on a monument to Minin and Pozharsky, funds for which were collected through public subscription. Ideas of the highest civic duty and feat in the name of the Motherland I.P. Martos embodied in simple and clear images, in a laconic artistic form. Minin’s hand is stretched out to the Kremlin, the greatest national shrine. Following the traditions of classicism, the sculptor dressed his heroes in antique clothes.
Significant sculptural works During this period, statues of Barclay de Tolly and Kutuzov (1829–1836, erected in 1837) at the Kazan Cathedral by B.I. Orlovsky (1793–1837). Although both statues were executed two decades after the construction of the cathedral, they brilliantly fit into the passages of the colonnade, which gave them a beautiful architectural frame.
During this period the sculptor works fruitfully I.P. Vitali(1794―1855). His most famous works are the sculpture for the Triumphal Gate in memory of the Patriotic War of 1812 at the Tverskaya Zastava in Moscow (architect O.I. Bove, now on Kutuzov Avenue); bust of Pushkin, made shortly after the death of the poet (marble, 1837); colossal figures of angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral, a fountain on Teatralnaya Square in Moscow 91835), a wonderful monument to Paul I in Gatchina (1851) and Pavlovsk (1872).
Achieved great success in monumental sculpture PC. Klodt(1805–1867). He was born into the family of a military general and spent a lot of time in military garrisons. Since childhood, he discovered a passion for modeling and horses. After graduating from the Artillery School in St. Petersburg, P.K. Klodt served as an officer. After retiring, he devoted himself entirely to art. He became the author of the horses for the Narva Triumphal Gate in St. Petersburg (architect V. Stasov). In 1833-1850 “Horse Tamers” were installed on the abutments of the Anichkov Bridge. The sculpture reveals in allegorical form the theme of man’s struggle with the elemental forces of nature and victory over them. Another one famous work PC. Klodt - monument to Nicholas I on Isaac's Square(1850-1859 in St. Petersburg. The sculptor faced a difficult task; in any case, his rival was “The Bronze Horseman” by E.M. Falcone. But P.K. Klodt brilliantly solved this problem. The Emperor is depicted riding a horse, the horse is dancing, and the emperor is motionless - a clear contrast with Falconet's monument to Peter I. The peculiarity of this sculpture is that it has only two points of support. P. K. Klodt also erected a monument to I. A. Krylov in Summer Garden(1848-1855) in St. Petersburg.

Konstantin Stanislavsky said that theater begins with a hanger. But if the building was designed and built famous architect, a special atmosphere appears for the audience at the very entrance. We remember seven Russian theaters that have become architectural monuments.

Bolshoi Theater in Moscow

When rebuilding Moscow after the fire of 1812, architects tried to use surviving fragments of previous buildings. The only wall of the Petrovsky Theater was to become part of the new temple of Melpomene. It was built in the second half of the 18th century by engineer Michael Maddox and architect Christian Rosberg.

Experienced architects Domenico Gilardi, Pietro Gonzago, Alexey Bakarev participated in the first stage of the competition, but none of the projects was approved. Andrey Mikhailov won the repeat competition. The project of an expensive monumental building was finalized by Osip Bove. He preserved Mikhailov's plan, but changed the proportions of the theater and laid out a square in front of it. At first it was called Petrovskaya, and then it was renamed Teatralnaya.

In 1853, the building was badly damaged by fire: only the outer walls and the portico colonnade survived. The modern Bolshoi Theater was built in the 1850s by Albert Kavos. During the restoration, the architect retained the general layout and volume of the building, but returned to Mikhailov’s original proportions and decorated the theater in an eclectic style. Changed and sculptural decoration building. The alabaster chariot of Apollo on the pediment was replaced by a copper quadriga of horses designed by Pyotr Klodt. It was placed above the portico.

“I tried to decorate the auditorium as luxuriously and at the same time as lightly as possible, in the taste of the Renaissance mixed with Byzantine style. White color", strewn with gold, the bright crimson draperies of the interior boxes, the different plaster arabesques on each floor and the main effect of the auditorium - a large chandelier of three rows of lamps and candelabra decorated with crystal - all this earned general approval."

Albert Kavos

Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg

The Alexandrinsky Theater was built by Carl Rossi on modern Ostrovsky Square in 1832 on the site of the wooden Maly Theater. The architect developed a design for the development of both the square in front of the building and the street behind it.

An innovative roof design for the early 19th century was invented by Carl Rossi in collaboration with engineer Matvey Clark. Officials were afraid to approve the ceiling on iron arched trusses: no one had ever used this before. Then Carl Rossi promised to hang himself on one of the rafters of the theater if something happened to the roof.

The Empire style building is decorated with works by Stepan Pimenov and Vasily Demut-Malinovsky: a frieze with theatrical masks, a sculptural quadriga of Apollo, statues of muses. The Imperial Theater received its name in honor of the wife of Nicholas I, Alexandra Feodorovna.

In addition to the solemn exterior, the theater also had an impressive interior design. The multi-tiered system of boxes with an amphitheater and stalls was at that time the leading word in theatrical architecture. From the luxurious interior of those years, only the central and two side boxes near the stage have survived. The picturesque ceiling of the hall, created by the artist Anton Vigi, has also been lost.

Mariinsky Theater in St. Petersburg

Albert Kavos became the author of the main stage of St. Petersburg. The Mariinsky Theater received its name in honor of the wife of Emperor Alexander II, Maria Alexandrovna. The building, which Kavos built in 1848, could serve as a venue for both theatrical and circus performances. After the fire in 1859, the Mariinsky Theater was reconstructed. Since then, only theatrical performances began to take place there.

Later, the building was rebuilt by the chief architect of the Imperial Theaters, Viktor Schroeter, with Nikolai Benois helping him in this. The theater has a new building for rehearsal rooms, office space and workshops. Schröter also slightly changed the appearance of the building: with the help of the famous turret on the dome, the architect disguised the ventilation pipe. The interiors have also been updated. The lush curtain, made according to the sketches of Alexander Golovin, remains one of the symbols of the Mariinsky Theater today.

Nizhny Novgorod Drama Theater

The Nizhny Novgorod theater is one of the oldest in Russia, it has existed since the end of the 18th century. However, its own stone building was built for it only at the end of the 19th century. Its project was developed by theater architecture specialist Victor Schröter. But in fact, the construction according to Schröter’s design was led by architects Pavel Malinovsky and Nikolai Frelikh.

The new theater was opened in 1896, on the day of the coronation of Nicholas II, with the opera A Life for the Tsar by Mikhail Glinka. Spectators quickly nicknamed it the “blue theater” - this was the color of the curtains on the boxes and doors, the plush upholstery of the seats and barriers. Actor and director Nikolai Sobolshchikov-Samarin later recalled: “I was the first artist to join theatrical stage new Nizhny Novgorod theater in 1896. It seemed to me that in this beautiful building, flooded with electric light, all my bright dreams about a real art theater would come true. Every time I entered the theater, I was overcome with a kind of awe, and I found myself walking along its corridors on tiptoe, in awe.”.

Irkutsk Drama Theater

According to the designs of Victor Schröter, by the end of the 19th century, about ten theater buildings were built in the Russian Empire - the Georgian Opera and Ballet Theater in Tbilisi, the Opera House in Kiev, the theater in Rybinsk that has not survived to this day, and others. He also became the author of the drama theater in Irkutsk. As a competition project, Schröter proposed the scheme of a tiered theater with stalls, boxes and a deep stage, which he had worked out to perfection.

The Irkutsk authorities allocated a modest budget for construction. Schröter had to build a small building for 800 people, but at the same time aesthetically pleasing and functional. There were other restrictions: for example, the architect was tasked with constructing a building of brick and limestone without plaster or stucco. Construction began in 1893 and lasted only three years. Although not all of Victor Schröter’s ideas were realized, Irkutsk Theatre of Drama amazed contemporaries with its exquisite appearance, elegant decoration, technical equipment and impeccable acoustics.

One of the main monuments of the Stalinist Empire style - the Soviet Army Theater - became the first Moscow theater building erected after the revolution. Construction according to the project of Karo Alabyan, Vasily Simbirtsev and Boris Barkhin lasted from 1934 to 1940, and was personally supervised by Marshal Kliment Voroshilov. According to legend, it was he who came up with the idea to erect a building in the shape of a five-pointed star.

The height of the Soviet Army Theater is ten ground floors and the same number underground. Halls Big and Small stage in total they can accommodate almost 2000 people. The main stage was designed for performances involving more than a thousand people. The authors of the project assumed that an infantry battalion, tanks and cavalry would be able to participate in the performances. They even created a special entrance for military equipment. True, tanks have not yet been used in any production: the stage cannot support their weight.

The interior of the theater was decorated by famous muralists of the 1930s. Lev Bruni created frescoes of the acoustic ceiling, Vladimir Favorsky created a sketch of a reinforced concrete curtain-portal, Ilya Feinberg and Alexander Deineka decorated the ceiling lamps with paintings. Picturesque panels by Pavel Sokolov-Skal and Alexander Gerasimov were placed on the main staircases. Furniture, chandeliers and many interior details were created according to special orders.

Novosibirsk Opera and Ballet Theater

The Novosibirsk Opera and Ballet Theater is called the “Siberian Coliseum”. The largest theater building built in Russia in 1931–1941. However, it could look different. Initially, the architect Alexander Grinberg conceived it as a House of Science and Culture consisting of six buildings with huge theater, concert and exhibition halls, a library, a museum and a research institute.

The theater itself was also supposed to become innovative - “a theater of technology and real environment.” It was planned that large troupes would play here, cars and tractors would appear on stage, and special mechanisms would ensure a quick change of scenery. It was planned that the theater would be transformed into a swimming pool for water performances, a circus or a planetarium.

During construction, the authors of the project abandoned these grandiose ideas. With the participation of architects Alexander Kurovsky, Victor Birkenberg and Grigory Dankman, a traditional opera house was built instead of the House of Science and Culture. The grand opening took place a few days after the Victory - May 12, 1945.