History of watches. History of the invention of watches

Guryev M.

1. Hours today

Mechanical watches were originally created as a device for measuring time. The first of them, tower clocks, and then their smaller version - interior clocks, were open structures. Since miniature mechanisms were more sensitive to dust, they began to be covered with a case, and the case (case) was decorated. In this form they have survived to this day. Today, mechanical watches are gradually disappearing from life, being replaced by quartz watches, which are more accurate, cheaper and more convenient. Moreover, watches are becoming less and less common as an independent object, moving onto the screens of mobile phones, computers and televisions. The attitude towards them changes accordingly. If in the 17th century a watch was a royal curiosity, in the 18th century it was a luxury item, in the 19th century it was a functional interior decoration, but today it is a banal, multifaceted, purely utilitarian and fairly cheap part. Everyday life. This perception is projected, in general, onto antique watches, so the same accuracy, reliability, and unpretentiousness are expected from them. Which, of course, is not true. Mechanical watches, and antique ones in particular, require attention and respect, as well as specific knowledge and skills in handling them. If this is not the case, the clock will stop for a long time.

Many young people today simply do not hear the clock ticking and striking. Therefore, the issues of their proper storage, restoration and display become even more relevant.

2. Clock as a museum object

The task of an art museum, in our understanding, is to educate people on best examples human culture. For future generations the museum preserves and studies its exhibits, for contemporaries it shows and comments on them. The first group of issues is dealt with mainly by guardians. For them, one of the main tasks is to preserve the object, and first of all, from the visitor, who, at times, treats the exhibits in a barbaric manner. In this sense, the most appropriate thing would be to simply close the museum. An almost diametrical position is occupied by employees associated with receiving visitors. For them, the attractiveness of museum exhibitions to the public is paramount, in particular, to show as many objects as possible, including mechanical watch. In this confrontation

There is a significant constructive point: the need to constantly comprehend and justify the decisions made.

In museums, watches are treated differently, since they are a borderline object, simultaneously a monument to both artistic and technical culture. Participated in the manufacture of watch cases best artists and sculptors of their time, the latest achievements of science and technology were used in the designs of mechanisms. Accordingly, in art museums the focus is on the external design of the watch; V technical museums the emphasis is on the features of the mechanisms; In historical museums, clocks are seen as witnesses to certain eras or specific events.

The peculiarity of the watch is that it is practically the only type museum exhibit, which has a complex and highly organized internal structure, moves and sounds independently. And it is common for a living creature, including humans, to notice movement out of the corner of the eye and turn towards the sound. This is how the first impulse of movement towards the object is formed, especially strong in the case of musical and animated clocks (when the Peacock clock is wound, the audience instantly gathers around the cage with the clock). That is, a working, ticking, ringing clock increases the attractiveness of the museum. Especially for children. And children are our future. If a child is not interested in a museum today, he will not bring his children here tomorrow - that’s all! The chain will be broken, why and for whom should all this be stored and studied?

Working clocks bring life into museum interiors, give them a new dimension, a sound accent, and are in constant, sometimes unconscious, dialogue with people. They are a bridge connecting us with the past owners of this house: we hear the same sounds. If the clock is stopped, it is a sign of trouble: someone in the house has died. In addition, a stopped clock, with lost decorative elements, foreign hands, broken dials gives rise to a feeling of sham, an underlying falsehood of what is happening: there should not be broken clocks in the royal collection!

3. Restoration

There is an opinion that watches will be preserved better if they are not wound. Yes, using your watch causes wear and tear. The rubbing pairs wear out (axle pins and support holes in the boards, escapement pallets, combat pins), the main springs and pendulum hangers break. But restorers have long learned to eliminate these breakdowns without any damage to the watch. At the same time, a high-quality mechanism with proper maintenance can operate for decades without major repairs. And much more harm than continuous operation is caused by careless attitude towards them, illiterate maintenance, and unprofessional restoration.

The peculiarities of our history are reflected in the condition of clocks in museums. There are incorrect assembly of cases, loss or replacement of entire mechanisms, broken enamel dials, missing decorative elements cases, pendulums, bells, hands, glass and caps, winding keys. That is, the field of activity of a restorer is almost limitless. But professional restoration is expensive and difficult to obtain. Therefore, they often invite some amateur who, for a nominal fee, or even simply “out of love for art,” actually mutilates the thing. After all, even if he is a watchmaker, this is not enough: a watchmaker-repairer restores only the function. Shape and originality of details, artistic image hours are secondary for him. With such repairs, information is missed (for example, inscriptions on springs and circuit boards), and original parts are lost. The watchmaker is not to blame, he was taught that way. And the keeper is not to blame, because... cannot fully assess the quality of work. And the result is disastrous.

That is, the fears of the curators are justified - as with any type of museum exhibit, unprofessional restoration spoils the thing.

Features of the restoration of watches in a museum are determined, on the one hand, by the specifics of the watch as a museum exhibit, on the other hand - general ideas about the goals and objectives of the museum, and the resulting goals and objectives of restoration. What is the purpose of restoring such an object as a mechanical watch, what are the criteria for assessing the results of the restorer’s work? Let's look at the definitions.

Restoration (from Late Latin restauratio - restoration), restoration, renewal of something in its original (or close to its original) form ( architectural monuments, works of art, sound recordings, film and photo documents, manuscripts, etc.).

2001 “Great Russian Encyclopedia”

Restoration is an activity undertaken to make a collapsed or damaged object understandable while minimally sacrificing its aesthetic and historical integrity.

Code of Ethics of the ICOM Conservation Committee

Taking into account the above, as the goal of watch restoration, and the main criterion for assessing its results, it is proposed increasing the level of safety and artistic value exhibit. To achieve this, the restoration process must include:

1. comprehensive historical and technical study of the exhibit,

2. mandatory saving original parts and details,

3. conservation work, that is, carrying out a set of measures aimed at stopping the destruction of the exhibit,

4. possible more complete, scientifically based compensation of losses,

5. clear marking of newly manufactured parts,

6. recording changes in state in the relevant documents,

7. drafting detailed description exhibit and work done,

8. issuing recommendations on maintenance and exhibition. Separately - about the buildings. Watch cases are, as a rule, prefabricated, multi-element structures. Some details are lost over time. And if we work in an art museum and want to convey to the viewer an artistic image of an object, and not sad evidence of a careless attitude towards it, it makes sense to try to make a complete reconstruction of the losses. The simplest tasks are also possible here, for example, making a missing leg by copying a surviving one; more complex ones are possible when we're talking about about recreating lost elements using stylistic analogues. The latter option is more labor-intensive, complex and vulnerable to criticism, but still, a museum should not be a cemetery! And an object with losses (we do not list lost legs, overlays, tops, etc. on the label) deceives the viewer more than one that has been restored and equipped with an appropriate label. That is, restoration increases the level of authenticity and artistic value of the exhibit, increases its attractiveness as an object of permanent and temporary exhibitions, and its commercial value. The exhibit is given more attention, respect and care, so it is better preserved.

It should be remembered that any touching of an object is already an intervention. That is, the requirements for compliance with the principles of restoration (reversibility of restoration intervention, validity of replenishment of losses, complete documentation of changes made) must be meaningful and not drive the restorer into a corner.

Professional restoration implies a differentiated approach to each object. The measure of intervention is determined individually, after a comprehensive study of the exhibit, and is agreed upon with the curator and the restoration commission. The range can be wide - from purely conservation measures aimed at fixing the current state of the object and preventing its further destruction, to the reconstruction of a large volume of losses and, in special cases, the making of complete copies. The issue of setting the watch to move is decided individually: in general, this does not make sense for wrist and pocket watches.

Watches have always been a high-tech product, the production of which could involve dozens of different specialists: artists, engineers, technologists, craftsmen. The same specialists are needed for restoration. In order for the appearance of newly manufactured parts to match the original ones, the restorer must work using technologies that correspond to the original ones. He must combine the knowledge of an art historian and the qualifications of a watchmaker, understand the design features of mechanisms and the design of watch cases different countries and eras. Obviously, such a set of requirements is excessive for one person (in practice, this means that the one who takes on this work alone will either complete the part in which he is competent, or will cheat). A practical solution is to work in a friendly team, whose collective knowledge covers all issues, using cooperation.

Cooperation and supply are separate problems. Due to the reduction in the production of mechanical watches, the range is being reduced and the quality of spare parts and materials is falling. It is difficult to obtain non-standard clock springs, bells, and glasses for dials. Serious companies with a good production base and experienced staff are not interested in small museum orders. Small firms cannot always provide decent quality and are reluctant to enter into contracts for one-time orders. Almost the only way out is personal contacts, enthusiasts, and cash payments to the direct contractor.

An independent issue is personnel training. Previously, for example, in England in the eighteenth century, a watchmaker's training took 7 years, and then he spent another two years as an apprentice. This once again speaks of the large amount of knowledge and practical experience required to master the profession. Modern foreign watchmaking schools (there are none in Russia) provide good professional training, but for a restorer this can only serve as a technical base. And further training, apparently, can take the form of an internship in a serious restoration workshop. At the same time, the trainee must receive appropriate historical and artistic knowledge and technological skills, but most importantly, he must develop a respectful attitude towards the object and the ability to work with documents (“get used to” the watch). The only institution that trains watch restorers is West Dean College in England (which also recommends, upon completion, an internship in a restoration workshop).

There are few Russian watches in museums; the works of watchmakers in France, England, and Germany are mainly represented. All the more important are contacts with foreign colleagues - they know their watches better. Modern means communications (such as e-mail) that allow the transmission of text, images, and sound can facilitate effective interaction (for this, as well as for reading specialized literature and journals, and publishing your articles, you need to know foreign languages). The emergence of a single international organization capable of organizing such cooperation, creating a unified and accessible watch database, would make it possible to raise watch restoration to a qualitatively new level - international center watch restoration. The task of such a center is to create an opportunity to become familiar with analogues of restored watches where they are stored, as well as to improve restoration techniques by establishing contacts between watch schools, restoration workshops, and combining the knowledge and experience of specialists from different countries.

4. Exposure

The specificity of watches also manifests itself in issues related to their exposure. Experience in the museum allowed us to formulate a number of requirements and wishes that should be taken into account when installing the exhibition:

The clock must be installed (suspended) on a stable, reliable base. For floor or console clocks, a safety mount to the wall should be provided.

It is advisable to restore the cases that protected the watches from dust and outside interference. Glass covers are usually used: solid for small watches, composite with a bronze frame and a front door with a lock for large ones. Under the hood there should be a wooden stand with a groove or step to orient the glass. To glass cover does not scratch the stand, protective paper is glued to the bottom edge.

If the watch has a chime or music, it is necessary to provide appropriate holes in the stand for the passage of sound. If necessary, sound amplification is possible.

It is advisable to have general lighting plus front lighting for the dial and visible moving parts (pendulums, second hands, animation).

If the watch has an interesting back (for example, engraved plates), it is advisable to organize an all-round view, or place it in front of a mirror (but not close to it), and organize the lighting accordingly.

A pocket watch is a difficult object to exhibit. By design, they must be viewed from different angles. I would like to show the dial, the back cover, and the mechanism. To do this, the watch can be hung open on a rotating stand, or placed above a mirror (with a gap of 3-4 cm), or in front of a mirror corner (to see from both sides), and shown as close as possible (at eye level).

For watches with music or animation, you must use a video recording of their operation. It can be accompanied by historical and artistic comments, showing interesting details of the watch, features of the work that the visitor would not otherwise see.

5. Service

A working watch, like any working mechanism, needs maintenance. This concept includes:

Walk-through (usually weekly) and winding of the clock. In this case, as a rule, a visual control of the condition is carried out, the progress and calendar are corrected, and a changeover to summer (winter) time is carried out;

Preventative repair of the mechanism - once every 3-5 years, depending on the condition (or in case of an emergency, for example, if a spring breaks). The work includes disassembling the mechanism, identifying defects and losses, correcting them, cleaning, assembling, lubricating and putting them into operation.

For watches with music devices a separate stage is tuning (intonation). The frequency depends on the characteristics of the specific device. For example, for mechanical organs this can be done twice a year.

6. Storage

If a watch is sent into storage after restoration, the mechanism must be preserved. This means:

All springs should be fully released;

The pendulum must be fixed. If your watch has a locking device, use it. If the pendulum is removable, remove it and, after wrapping it, store it along with the winding keys and case keys, if any.

It is advisable to completely cover the watch from dust. This especially applies to individual mechanisms, skeletal watches, and watches with missing glass covers.

It should be noted that today the issue of storing watch mechanisms (located in a case or stored separately) has not been fully resolved: the custodians of various DPI objects (bronze, porcelain, furniture, etc.) are not specialists in watch mechanics. Considering the size and quality of the Hermitage watch collection, one comes to the conclusion that it would be advisable to separate the watch mechanisms for independent storage. This does not imply their territorial movement, but allows for better solutions to issues of storage, restoration and operation. And also begin to create a unified catalog - a database on watch movements. As it develops, it can be supplemented with information about cases, dials and watchmakers.

This will help reveal the potential of the watch collection in the field of the history of technology (using the example of watch mechanisms - the prototype of all subsequent mechanisms, up to computers), as part of a universal human culture, developing together with the artistic one, and supporting it. Today, the knowledge about mechanisms gained during watch restoration remains with the restorer. But in many watches the mechanisms are no less interesting than the cases. Hence the idea of ​​an independent watch exhibition, showing the development and diversity of styles, designs and technologies, the role and place of watches in the history of mankind. In this case, there is no need to take hours from the exposure. But an exhibition should be organized, taking into account the specifics of the subject, using video recordings, multimedia, and computer animation. With a popular, but technically competent level of presentation of information, it would attract a new layer of visitors interested in technology - and this most of men.

7. Conclusion

1. The specificity of a watch, as a monument of both artistic and technical culture, having a complex multi-component structure, moving and sounding, determines the features of the approach to restoration, display and storage.

2. The variety of types of mechanisms, technologies used, and design options for cases makes it necessary to actively collect information on these issues and establish contacts with curators of other museums, antique dealers, watchmakers, and restorers of various specialties.

3. A working clock requires constant attention and regular competent maintenance, but significantly increases the attractiveness of the museum.

The first watches appeared in Russia in the 16th century. Mass production of products began in early XIX century in Switzerland and France. Antique clock these countries were the first to appear on the Russian market.

Vintage wall clock

There are many antique mechanisms on the market today. There are collectors who collect rare specimens, behind which there is a rich story. Some see it as a way to invest money. They are also purchased for interior decoration. Many of them are considered works of art. Collectible items can be divided into several groups:

1. Wrist.
2. Pocket.
3. Wall-mounted.
4. Floor-standing.
5. Console.
6. Carriage.
7. Fireplace.

1) The first mention of wristwatches dates back to 1809. The Parisian jeweler fulfilled a special order from Josephine, Napoleon's wife. He created two bracelets with precious stones and pearls. A clock was attached to one, and a calendar to the other.

Mechanisms with bracelets have become widespread in France since 1850. Diamond-set wrist accessories have been manufactured by Cartier since 1888. The products were attached to a gold bracelet.

2) In the 18th century, pocket items became popular. The first copy was created by Christiaan Huygens. It was based on a spindle mechanism. Master Clement replaced this system with a hook system, and later with an anchor system. Pocket items made in the shape of an egg were created in Russia by Kulibin.

The accessory has gained popularity among men. Pockets were cut out especially for watches. Instances appeared on the Breguet chain, which began to be called by the name of the manufacturer. Antique striking clocks were distinguished by their accuracy. They were attached with a chain to a button, and the other end was attached to the watch.

If you look at pictures of products of that time, the body is made of the following materials:

• silver;
• enamels;
• gold.

3) Vintage items never go out of style. They look good in living rooms and libraries. Wall Clock with a strike they can be pendulum or balancing. Pendulum products are installed motionless, since the operating mechanism is based on vibrations.

The first wall examples appeared at the end of the 16th century. It has been observed that the accuracy of the mechanisms depends on the length and weight of the pendulum. German-made products were distinguished by their accuracy. Frederich Maute Schwenningen - big company for the production of wall mechanisms. It was founded in 1876. Well-known German companies that produced wall products in late XIX and the beginning of the 20th century:

1. Gustav Becker.
2. Zentra.
3. Ridgeway.
4. Hermle.

4) Floor-standing specimens of the 17th century were made of mahogany and ivory. Later they began to use walnut and oak. The design of the product consisted of a pedestal, a cabinet where the weights and pendulum are located, and an upper compartment. The 18th century saw the heyday of English flooring.

Antique grandfather clock

19th century clocks with painted dials are sought after by collectors. Such copies were not produced for long. It was believed that the quality of the painted ones was inferior to the brass ones. The manufacturing time of floor products is determined by the features of the dial.

5) Console clocks appeared in the 17th century. They were wooden, cast, porcelain, with precious stones.

6) Carriage clocks were intended for travel, so they had carrying handles and a case. The height of such products was no more than 30 cm.

7) The mantel clock was a decoration of the living room. They confirmed the status of the owner of the home. They first appeared in the mid-18th century in France, and then in England. Such specimens are considered tabletop items. They were performed in the Rococo and Baroque styles on the themes:

• biblical stories;
• ancient mythology.

The rarest antique watches are examples from the 15th-17th centuries.

English fireplace items of the 19th century were made of mahogany and oak. They decorated offices and libraries. In the middle of the 19th century, sets came into fashion: objects with paired ornaments were placed next to the fireplace mechanisms.

People have been collecting since portable mechanisms appeared. When choosing antique products, we are guided by the following parameters:

• complexity of the mechanism;
• master's name.

An antique clock in the house is an indicator of wealth, and purchasing one is a profitable investment. Museum workers pay attention to the artistic level and value of objects.

Over time, the mechanisms of the products became more complex. There were examples with a chronograph, lunar calendar, an indicator of the days of the week.

Manufacturers

Collectors admire the products:

1. Pavel Bure.
2. Chuguev brothers.
3. Norton.
4. Breguet.
5. Blancpain.
6. Rolex.
7. Patek Philippe.
8. Omega.
9. Langin.
10. Oulisse Nardin.
11. Moser.
12. Winter.

Watch "Pavel Bure"

The Pavel Bure company focused not only on high status, but also on broad sections of the population. They sold a wide variety of watches:

• chronographs;
• road workers;
• Wall Clock;
• gold repeaters and so on.

Products have become no longer a luxury, but a necessary item. Bure's company was able to focus on buyers. For wealthy clients, movements were produced in gold and silver cases. Complex ones - ordered in Switzerland.

Swiss copies

The country had no natural resources, so the inhabitants created watches. In the Alpine country one of keywords– order. This was embodied in the mechanism.

The Swiss brand Blancpain was founded in 1735. The first wristwatches appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. Harwood had a self-winding mechanism.

A rare self-winding Rolls was released a little later. They were wound up by the mechanism itself, which moved freely inside the case. These antique watch are considered very rare.

Auctions

Products from the 19th and 20th centuries are sold at auctions. Their price is 5-10 thousand dollars. Floor and wall items cost more than 200 thousand. Ancient specimens are rarely sold and are expensive. What affects the cost? Appraisers talk about the following factors:

• complexity;
• uniqueness;
• serviceability of the mechanism;
• manufacturer's name.

In 2016, at an auction in Switzerland, which took place on November 12–13, antique wrist watch for 11 million CHF - Patek Philippe ref. 1518. They are made of steel. Built-in chronograph with moon phases and perpetual calendar.

The estimated value of the antiques was exceeded 3 times. These are the most expensive wristwatches ever sold at auction. Year of manufacture: 1941. A total of 281 such samples were produced, but only 4 were made in steel. The rose gold watch (from this version) was sold at auction for CHF 1,474,000.

A Rolex Daytona Paul Newman, released in 1968, was sold for CHF 874 thousand.

Antique care

Ancient objects that have lived in the house for many years require care. Old watches are not so easy to revive. Repairing the mechanism is only a tenth of the work. It is much more difficult to return an item to its original appearance. Time and years destroy filigree patterns and curls.

The optimal temperature for antique items is 22–25 degrees. The humidity in the room should be 40–60%. The watch should not be stored near a heat source. Collectors know that dirt is the enemy of antiques. Objects are also protected from water. Only a master can eliminate the consequences.

The coming of the New Year is associated with the chiming of the chimes. If the house has an old collection, at 12 o'clock each mechanism will notify each one in its own way. Antique clock in the house - symbols family traditions. Items from past eras add respectability and individuality to the interior. You should only buy such things at auctions. If you buy a watch secondhand, be sure to have the product checked by a specialist.

Storage mode is a set of conditions necessary to ensure the safety of the museum collection. Includes temperature and humidity conditions, light conditions, measures to protect against air pollutants, biological conditions, measures to protect against mechanical damage; protection of funds in extreme situations.

Temperature and humidity conditions . Temperature and humidity are factors that can significantly affect the acceleration of aging of objects. The strength of this effect depends on the material from which the object is made; the safety of the item at the time of inclusion in the collection; characteristics of the environment from which the item was removed during the acquisition process.

Organic materials (wood, fabric, leather, paper) are hygroscopic and deteriorate at both high and low humidity: they become deformed, change chemically, etc. High humidity is dangerous for metals and glass. Temperature is also an important factor in the preservation of objects: tin att° below + 13° C gets sick with the “tin plague”, i.e. irreversible chemical changes occur in it. Wax productst° above + 25° C are irreversibly deformed.

Temperature and humidity are considered together, since they are actually interrelated (remember the pressure formula from a school physics course). To resolve the question of what is appropriate this subject temperature and humidity conditions, it is necessary to take into account not only the material from which objects are made, but also their structure, combination of materials, structure and safety. For example, storing paintings stretched on a stretcher without crosses and bevels in conditions of high humidity is more dangerous than paintings whose stretchers have crosses and bevels, because the latter are less susceptible to deformation. The presence of cracks and chips increases the negative effects of temperature and humidity. It is also important to take into account the environment from which the item was extracted (this applies to archaeological collections). A sharp change in the environment in which metals, wood, glass, and colored stones exist can lead to rapid aging and destruction of objects. Glass and metal recovered during archaeological work should be stored at low humidity; tree - with increased In domestic museology, criteria for optimal temperature and humidity for different groups materials (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1

Criteria for optimal temperature and humidity for different groups of materials

End of table. 3.1

Compliance with these conditions is only possible with separate storage of items made from different groups of materials. For general storage, a complex regime is used. Complex mode indicators: temperature + 18° WITH (± 1 ° C), humidity – 55% (± 5%) .

In foreign museology, slightly different standards have been adopted. In the work of B. and G.D. Lords Museum Management recommends a relative humidity of 50% for temperate climates (± 3%), with an acceptable temperature change throughout the year (gradual, no more than 0.5° C per month) in winter – 20–21° C, summer – 21–24° C. It is recognized that maintaining such a regime is most easily achievable in a temperate maritime climate in specially constructed new buildings with a modern air conditioning system. In continental climates and in older buildings used as museums, compliance with this standard is considered difficult. In this case, the recommended humidity parameters: from 55% in summer to 40% in winter (it is recommended to reduce humidity by 5% every spring and autumn). Separate groups include metal and paper (“unstitched paper sheets”), which should be stored at a humidity level of less than 40%; and objects that came from the tropics and are highly hygroscopic, for which humidity parameters can reach 65%. It is noted that according to British standards for storing unstitched paper, the recommended temperature ranges from 13–18° C at humidity 55–65%. The authors point out that in Lately requirements in UK museums are becoming less stringent. This is due to the policy of saving energy resources .

The museum must have instruments that record temperature and humidity conditions. Their indicators should, in the practice of domestic museology, be taken twice a day and recorded in a special journal.

The most reliable way to ensure temperature and humidity conditions is air conditioning and insulating premises from the effects of the external environment (air and waterproofing), because In almost any type of climate, seasonal changes in temperature and humidity are observed. It is especially important to install air conditioners in exhibition halls, because in these cases there are no air conditioners Ensuring compliance with temperature and humidity conditions when storing museum objects (in open access) is very difficult: the flow of visitors leads to an increase in humidity and temperature. In the absence of air conditioners, other means are used: ventilation, humidifiers (vessels with an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate) in case of low humidity, adsorbents (silica gel, woolen fabric) in case of high humidity.

Protection against air pollution. Dust, gases, soot, soot and other air pollutants are important factors environment, affecting the safety of museum objects. This is especially true for areas with high traffic density, the presence of industrial facilities, etc.

Sulfur dioxide, soot, and soot are formed during the combustion process. Sulfur dioxide, dissolving in water contained in the air, forms sulfurous acid, and it is converted as a result of subsequent chemical reactions into sulfuric acid. The impact of sulfuric acid is one of the most aggressive. A particular danger from this factor is observed in rooms with high humidity.

Soot, soot, and dust work as natural adsorbents (attract moisture) and trap harmful gases that penetrate the pores and natural damage to wood, fabrics, paper, and paint layers, which activates chemical reactions. Dust is also an excellent breeding ground for biological pests.

To protect items from air pollutants, it is also necessary to install air conditioners and filters, carry out mechanical removal of dust and dirt, and keep items in individual packaging (covers, folders, cases, etc.). When installing air conditioners and filters, it is best to use multi-stage air purification systems. It is better to install filters from activated charcoal. The use of electrical filters for museums is not recommended, because they ozone the air, and ozone is harmful to museum collections. The preliminary filter should ensure air purification by 25–30%, the intermediate filter by 40–85%, and the final filter by 90–95%. This set of filters is placed so that both external and recirculated (internal) air flows pass through it . Individual packaging of items also helps protect against dust: covers, cases, folders.

Light mode . Its main goal is to regulate the access of light and ultraviolet rays to museum objects. Light can cause physical and photochemical changes. The degree of exposure to light on an object depends on the material from which the object is made, whether the object is artificially painted or has a natural color, the light and color fastness of the paints used for coloring, the duration and intensity of exposure to light radiation (Fig. 64).

By lightfastness materials are divided into 3 groups:

1) with high light resistance (low photosensitivity): metals, non-colored stone, gypsum, unglazed ceramics, colorless glass, undyed synthetic fabric (or colored with some synthetic dyes), etc.;

2) with average light resistance (average photosensitivity): bone, leather, fur, undyed and unbleached natural fabrics, dyed synthetic fabric, wood, glazed ceramics, enamel, oil and tempera painting, etc.;

3) with low light fastness (high photosensitivity): photography is mainly color, and among color ones, especially those made using photographic equipment “Polaroid", watercolor, pastel, paper, bleached and dyed natural fabric (especially if the dye is natural).

Rice. 64. Pile carpet “Zoology”. Author L. Kerimov. Located in State
museum of Azerbaijani carpet and folk applied arts(Baku, Azerbaijan)

The darker the object, the higher its ability to absorb light rays, and therefore be exposed to light. As for dyes, light fastness standards depend not only on the color, but also on the type of paint: oil, watercolor, gouache, tempera, etc., as well as on impurities (for each manufacturer, as well as for artists who make their own paints, these impurities are their own). A modern manufacturer, as a rule, indicates these indicators with a * (* – low, ** – medium, *** – high light fastness). For dyes whose manufacturer is unknown or whose light fastness data is not known, you can decide this question with the help of expertise.

Items with high light resistance only require protection from direct sunlight. The illumination level for them should not exceed 150 lux. This is due to the danger of increased exposure not only to light, but also ultraviolet radiation . Medium lightfast materials require special regime: Reduced light or completely darkened. Thus, wood generally requires darkening, which is why it is recommended to cover it. Oil and tempera painting cannot work without light, so they are not covered (with a prolonged lack of light, oil and tempera darken). White fur and bone also require lighting, since they turn yellow in the dark. The illumination level for them should not exceed 75 lux. Highly photosensitive (low light fastness) items are recommended to be stored in a shaded area, protected from light. The standard of illumination in domestic museum studies for highly photosensitive materials is from 50 lux to 75 lux. Situations are possible when highly photosensitive objects must be stored in complete isolation from light (in these cases, only closed, stock storage is recommended for the object, and it is better to place a copy during an exhibition, especially a long one) (Fig. 65).

Rice. 65. Museumd’ Orsay(Paris, France). Exhibition hall,
author of the project G. Aulenti

In foreign museology, standards are usually developed by museums themselves. For photosensitive objects, low illumination is recommended: 50 lux; for medium light-resistant – 150–200 lux; and for highly light-resistant objects it is said that they will withstand illumination up to 300 lux inclusive. In this case, they are installed contrast ratio standards , which are intended to indicate the difference between the brightest and most dimly lit surfaces of an object. The contrast ratio is assumed to be 6:1. Ultraviolet Radiation Standards vary up to 75 microwatts per lumen (in foreign museum studies there is a process of reducing the permissible level of ultraviolet radiation to 10 microwatts per lumen, which is associated with the introduction of new ultraviolet filters built into fluorescent lamps, as well as new types of film and laminate for window glass and exhibition equipment). When storing on display, it is important not only to determine the parameters of light, ultraviolet radiation, contrast ratio standards, but also the duration of exposure. It is recommended that light-sensitive objects be removed from exposure from time to time to reduce the total number of hours they are exposed to these factors. For photosensitive exhibits, illumination parameters are determined at 60,000–120,000 lux-hours per year .

Biological mode provides protection against biological pests: mold, fungi, insects, rodents. Fungus, mold, and insect larvae multiply intensively when the temperature and humidity conditions are disturbed and objects become dusty. The danger also comes from new arrivals, because... they may turn out to be contaminated, and, therefore, before placing in the funds, the item must not only be properly decorated, but also checked for its safety for other items.

For example, mold reproduces at a humidity of 70–75% or more and a temperature of +20–+25° C. It attacks inorganic materials such as ceramics. To prevent mold, it is necessary to maintain temperature and humidity conditions and treat equipment with a 2% alcohol solution of formaldehyde.

Insects such as grinders, woodworms, leather beetles, moths, pretenders, sugar silverfish, house flies and their larvae primarily damage organic materials (paper, wood, watercolors (good watercolors use natural honey), leather, parchment, etc. .d.). To prevent the appearance of these pests, it is also important to maintain temperature, humidity and air conditions. Previously, to combat these pests, they mainly used gas treatment, insecticides, and fumigation of new arrivals. This requires the presence of disinsection chambers and special isolation rooms and still involves risks for personnel and possible exposure of the exhibits themselves to poisons. Therefore, in many museums, in accordance with the new technical capabilities either oxygen-free chambers are built (where treatment with nitrogen oxide is carried out), or old disinfestation chambers are converted into such chambers. Another non-toxic method has also been invented: in a special chamber, objects are heated at 52° C and constant relative humidity of the processed object and the environment .

Protection against mechanical damage – involves special handling of museum objects, which prevents their damage or loss. This is especially important when researchers work directly with objects. In this case, they are required to wash and dry their hands in order to eliminate contact with the object of fat and moisture; Use unbleached cotton gloves when working with all items, except for those storage units in which fibers may get stuck (they can subsequently serve as moisture adsorbents, which is also dangerous). Such items include lacquer carvings, wooden carvings, etc. Fingerprints on metals and paper are removed only if the texture of the item is damaged. The object must be grasped by its strong parts: individual sheets of paper diagonally - by the corners, vessels - by the necks (in the narrowest place), but in no case by the handles, spouts, etc. (Fig. 66)

Rice. 66. Items from Zagorsky’s collection of modern porcelain
historical and artistic reserve (Sergiev Posad, Russian Federation)

Numismatic materials, products from precious stones and metals are not handled with hands, but only with special tweezers, because otherwise the item may be damaged. Paintings are taken only by the stretcher.

In our opinion, museums should strive to limit “communication” (especially hand touching)coriginal even for researchers: recommend use electronic catalogs, scanned copies (a phenomenon common in foreign museum practice, but difficult to take root in domestic practice).

Special requirements apply to museum vehicles used for both internal and external movement of objects. Fasteners, shock absorption softeners, anti-shock and other coatings and mechanisms should be provided here. When transporting, it is necessary to choose the right packaging, containers for transportation, and follow the rules for packaging items (see: Storage system). The decision on the possibility of transportation in domestic practice is made by the museum’s restoration council.

Protection in emergency (extreme) situations involves the development of fire safety measures, monitoring water supply and heating systems, maintaining good condition museum building, as well as the development of action plans in emergency situations, equipping museum premises with fire-fighting equipment, automatic fire extinguishing systems, fire and security alarms; regime of protection against theft and other attacks on museum property.

Metal horizontal blinds should be installed on the windows of the basement and on the windows of the 1st floor (sometimes the last floor, if there is access to the museum building from the roofs of neighboring houses). The installation of gratings does not comply with modern fire safety standards, because interferes with the normal work of firefighters in the event of a fire. Grates that cannot be opened or can only be opened from the inside will not allow entry into the building through the windows of the first floor, which is especially dangerous for people and objects inside if collapsed beams, etc. block access through the doors.

It is mandatory to place the building under 24-hour security (police, private, civilian or combined). Regulatory documents (in domestic practice - “Instructions for the accounting and storage of museum valuables”) determine the procedure for the delivery and acceptance of premises by museum security and financially responsible custodians, the rules for storing keys, seals, seals, etc.

Fire supervision, electrical, water supply and heating networks are also monitored around the clock.

If the museum stores collections or individual objects made of precious stones and metals, weapons, then special rooms are equipped for their storage. In exceptional cases, it is allowed to place such items in storage facilities, but certainly in fireproof cabinets and safes (Fig. 67).

Rice. 67. BraceletsX– XIcenturies Gold. State Museum
history of Armenia

The Hermitage and Rodina magazine continue a joint project, within the framework of which we introduce readers to little-known rarities from the storerooms of the main Russian museum.

Clock with a figure of a rhinoceros. On a gilded rocaille pedestal there is a patinated figure of a rhinoceros carrying a clock drum on its back, entwined with a garland and crowned with a figure of a Chinese man with an umbrella in his hand. Signature on the dial: Thiout L aine a" Paris. Above the number XII: R. A. Bronze; casting, embossing; patina, gilding. France. Paris. Third quarter of the 19th century. 68 x 43 x 18. Inv. N Epr-4804 Received: in 1925 from the Museum of the Revolution; until 1920 they were in the Winter Palace. Photo: Nikolay Naumenkov/TASS

Thanks to the efforts of restorers, all the watches on display in the Hermitage are in good working order. They are regularly wound up and the arrows point real time. The watch with the figure of a rhinoceros is an exception, and although its mechanism is in working order, the time on the dial remains unchanged - two hours ten minutes after midnight.

Next to the clock there is a memorial marble plaque with the inscription:

“In this room, on the night of October 25-26 (November 7-8), 1917, the Red Guards, soldiers and sailors who stormed the Winter Palace arrested the counter-revolutionary bourgeois Provisional Government.” This historical moment is immortalized by the hands of the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros: on the night of October 25-26, after a long wandering through the Winter Palace plunged into complete darkness, a dozen armed revolutionaries led by Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko, guided by the sounds of speech, reached the Small Dining Room, where Thirteen members of the Provisional Government gathered. Antonov declared the Provisional Government overthrown; its members were arrested and transported to the Peter and Paul Fortress.

A new time has begun. But the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros was no longer able to count it...

Antoine Thieu the Elder or...

This watch is a very characteristic example of the Rococo style with its craving for the exotic, manifested in the choice of an outlandish animal for central figure, and turning to Chinese motifs - the art of chinoiserie. The name is on the dial famous master Antoine Thiout the Elder (Thiout Laine, 1692-1767) - the author of perhaps the first fundamental work on the theory and practice of watchmaking: this treatise was published in Paris under the patronage of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1741.

In the catalog of the exhibition "Western European watches of the 16th-19th centuries from the Hermitage collection", held in 1971, the watch with the figure of a rhinoceros is dated mid-18th century centuries. Note that until this time, the woodcut “Rhinoceros”, executed by Albrecht Dürer in 1515, was considered the most reliable depiction of a rhinoceros; the degree of its reliability can be judged by the fact that on his panel the great engraver provided the rhinoceros with an additional horn on the nape. The rhinoceros that adorns the watch with music box, executed by the Parisian master Jacques Gerome Gudin around 1745.

The Hermitage rhinoceros does not have a curious horn on the back of its neck. This circumstance seems to give some starting point For dating: Europeans' first encounter with a living rhinoceros was in 1749, when it was presented to the Parisian public and the royal court at Versailles.

This allows us to assume that the Hermitage clock was made no earlier than 1749 and no later than 1767, when A. Tiu the Elder died...

However, such a conclusion would be hasty.

How the rhinoceros became younger

A clock with a figure of a rhinoceros stands on the fireplace in the Small (White) dining room Winter Palace, adjacent to the Malachite Hall. They were installed in this place during the reconstruction undertaken in 1894, when the interior of the Small Dining Room, designed by A.P. Bryullov in the “Pompeian” vein, was destroyed, and the hall received a new design in the spirit of Rococo, designed by the architect A.F. Krasovsky.

The most experienced restorer Valentin Molotkov, senior researcher at the Hermitage Laboratory for the Scientific Restoration of Clocks and Musical Mechanisms, is convinced that the watch with the figure of a rhinoceros is not much older interior which they decorate with themselves.

“A detailed study of the case and mechanism of this watch allows us to assert,” states Valentin Alekseevich, “that they were made in the third quarter XIX century. Thus, the dial bearing the name of A. Tiu the Elder is covered with industrial enamel, which appeared only in the 19th century, and the numbers on it are marked with black paint, whereas in the 18th century black enamel, which had a high relief, was used for this. Note that the letters “R” and “A” (abbreviated back and forth) appeared on dials no earlier mid-19th century. The mechanism was also manufactured not earlier than this time; it is enclosed in a body assembled from gilded parts cast according to different models, and the metal of these parts has a dense mass, characteristic of high-temperature industrial casting. As for the figure of the rhinoceros, traces of adjustment to the gilded parts articulated with it are clearly visible... For the sake of fairness, I note, adds V.A. Molotkov - what names famous masters were presented as their imitators all the time..."

Anna Geiko, curator of the artistic bronze collection of the Department of Western European Applied Art, agreed with the restorer’s arguments. “The watch with the figure of a rhinoceros is made in the style of historicism, the leading retrospective trend in decorative and applied art of the second half of the 19th century. Artistic elements, used in the composition of the watch, are clearly associated with the art of Rococo, with the 18th century, but are made at a different technical level. Modern technological research makes it possible to radically change the attribution of an object or clarify inventory data, as happened in the case of the mantel clock from the White Dining Room,” noted Anna Gennadievna.

Thus, the watch with the figure of a rhinoceros became more than a century younger.

"The clock is now ours!"

When the arrest of members of the Provisional Government was realized by the Bolsheviks as historical milestone the collapse of the “old” and the beginning of the construction of “our new” world, the need for monuments and epic arose.

In 1927, Vladimir Mayakovsky created the famous poem “Good!”, dedicated to the tenth anniversary of the October Revolution. Special symbolic meaning The poem carries the motive of revolutionaries gaining power over time:

Some embarrassed son of a bitch
And above him is a Putilovite - more tender than a father:
"You, boy, lay out the stolen watch -
The clock is now ours!
................................
And into this silence rolled out to his heart's content
Bass, strengthened above the yardarms:
"Which ones are temporary here? Get off!
Your time is up."

But the idea of ​​a clock as a symbol of the time conquered by the revolution has apparently become commonplace long before Mayakovsky. Back in 1920, the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros from the Small (White) Dining Room of the Winter Palace was turned into the most important monument October events: they were transferred to the Museum of the Revolution, and the arrows were stopped at the conditional moment of the overthrow of the Provisional Government.

In 1925, an Excursion Bureau was created in the Hermitage: the Hermitage was to become a stronghold of Marxist-Leninist ideology in the field of culture and art. In the same year, the clock from the Small Dining Room returned to its place. Later, the above-mentioned marble memorial plaque appeared on the mantelpiece next to them, and is still there today, although the pathos of the text inscribed on it today evokes a slight smile.

P.S.“The revolution, like Saturn, devours its children. Be careful, the gods are thirsty,” exclaimed one of the Girondist leaders, Pierre Vergniaud, as he ascended the scaffold. In 1930, the author of the poem "Good!" committed suicide. Twenty years after the arrest of the Provisional Government, on October 12, 1937, Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko was arrested and executed on February 10, 1938.

IN ancient mythology Saturn served as the embodiment of Time. In the Small Dining Room of the Winter Palace, the embodiment of Time is the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros, stopped in a arrogant attempt to separate the past from the future.