Culture of Rus' at the end of the 13th - 17th centuries. Russian culture XIII-XVII centuries
German diplomacy skillfully used the chance that it was given by the general irritation of European states and the United States against French actions in the Rhineland. Now Berlin sought to present itself as a victim of French expansion, meeting the understanding of international political opinion. German representatives began to talk about the need to acquire international guarantees against violations of the Franco-German and German-Belgian borders.
On September 29, 1924, Germany made a statement of its intention to join the League of Nations and expressed a desire to be given a seat as a permanent member of the League Council, and on December 12 it declared a demand to eliminate the “inequality” in armaments that stemmed from the Treaty of Versailles. The actions of the German side were taken with the favorable attention of Great Britain, which considered French ambitions to be the source of instability in Europe.
Berlin was looking for ways to loosen the bonds of Versailles and achieve a more favorable settlement with its former enemies. The first big wedge that was driven into the Versailles order was the agreement with Soviet Russia at Rapallo. A new opportunity for initiative was given by the French draft treaty between the powers “with interests on the Rhine” - the Franco-Belgian-British alliance. Germany tried to prevent the formation of such a tripartite bloc, in which it found influential allies in London. On January 25, 1925, the German government officially introduced own project Rhine Guarantee Pact.
The ensuing diplomatic correspondence and subsequent negotiations were conducted between Great Britain, Germany and France. Italy, for which, according to Mussolini, the Rhine border was of no interest, did not participate in them. But in Paris they well understood the logic of the British position and saw elements of the actual blocking of Britain and Germany against France. Therefore, it was beneficial for the French side to involve Italy in the negotiations, counting on its potential disagreements with Germany on the issue of Austro-Italian territorial disputes in the Alps.
French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand tried to involve Rome in negotiations on European borders. He proposed concluding a guarantee pact for the eastern and southern borders of Germany with its neighbors with the participation of France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Austria and Germany itself, with France taking on the role of guarantor of such a treaty. Mussolini rejected this proposal, saying that it was not in his interests to guarantee the borders of Poland and Czechoslovakia.
The differences between the supposed participants in the future pact were significant. The French government wanted that, simultaneously with the pact, arbitration treaties of Germany be signed with France's eastern allies - Poland and Czechoslovakia - and that these treaties form a single complex with the Rhine Guarantee Pact. Britain opposed this, recognizing in the French plan the idea of "encircling Germany." Feeling British support, Germany rejected the legal establishment of the inviolability of its borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia. Berlin did not hide the fact that it did not consider the borders in eastern Europe to be final. Obviously, they were not considered as such in London either. First of all, we could talk about the German border with Poland.
As a result of long and complex diplomatic maneuvers, treaties and agreements were finally signed in Locarno (Switzerland) in October 1925, and on December 1 in London the treaties and agreements received common name Locarno. The main one was the Rhine Guarantee Pact between Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy. Under this pact, Germany, France and Belgium recognized the inviolability of Germany's borders with Belgium and France as established by the Treaty of Versailles, and also pledged to comply with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles on the demilitarization of the Rhineland. Germany, France and Belgium also pledged to resolve all issues in dispute between them through arbitration or judicial decision. Great Britain and Italy assumed the responsibilities of guarantors of compliance with the pact.
The obligations accepted by Germany to recognize the inviolability of borders did not exclude, as Stresemann, who became German Foreign Minister at the end of 1923, stated, the possibility of revising them through negotiations. Indeed, as soon as the Locarno Accords were signed, Germany began secret negotiations with the Belgian government to transfer to it the cantons of Eupen and Malmedy.
Simultaneously with the Rhine Pact, bilateral agreements between Germany and France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia on arbitration in the event of border disputes, as well as bilateral Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak guarantee agreements, were signed at Locarno. However, not linked into a single complex with the Rhine Pact, they were not supported by sufficiently reliable multilateral international guarantees. Eastern European countries in the event of a conflict with Germany could only count on the support of France. Neither Britain nor Italy in this case would have official grounds to influence Berlin. The Locarno Accords came into force with Germany's admission to the League of Nations on September 8, 1926, where it received a seat as a permanent member of the League Council. The former Allied military control of Germany was replaced by military control by the League of Nations. Franco-Belgian troops began to leave the Rhineland piecemeal back in 1925.
The Locarno Agreements were a reasonable way to solve the German problem. The method chosen for this, Franco-German reconciliation, was the goal of the policy of the French Foreign Minister Briand, who considered such reconciliation to be the key to European stability. At the first stage of negotiations, according to archival materials from the French Foreign Ministry, Briand sought border guarantees for Germany’s eastern neighbors. He decided on the Locarno option only after his idea of guaranteeing borders in eastern Europe met stubborn resistance from Germany, which found support from Great Britain. Briand's diplomacy in the post-Locarno period suggests that he relied little on goodwill Germany and therefore looked for ways to strengthen the military-political alliances of small countries, and later began to think about ways to reach an agreement with the USSR.
The Locarno Accords eased tensions in Europe, having a calming effect on European sentiment. Contemporaries assessed the agreements as " highest point in the rebirth of Europe" and as "the watershed between war and peace." The "Creators of Locarno" - French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand, British Foreign Secretary Austen Chamberlain and German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann - were awarded Nobel Prize peace 1925
The weakness of the "Locarno system" was its limitations. It was actually focused only on Franco-German reconciliation and could not serve as the basis for a pan-European security mechanism. It became increasingly clear that after Locarno the main impulses of instability were to be expected from the east of Europe. The Treaty of Locarno was not accompanied by the signing of one or more military conventions, and therefore no specific mechanism was provided for the inclusion of guarantees against a possible violation of the agreed terms. In the event of a conflict, the guarantor powers had only to enter into negotiations to consider the possibility of taking action against the violators. The reliability of such guarantees was low. However, the signing of the agreements created international relations the phenomenon of the “spirit of Locarno” as an expression of the general mood European countries for reconciliation and cooperation. This mood determined the weakening of international tension in the second half of the 20s.
1925 Locarno Guarantee Treaties western borders Germany and arbitration - initialed on October 16 in Locarno (Switzerland), signed on December 1 in London.
The immediate reason for opening negotiations on the Locarno Treaties was the proposal for a Western European Pact made to England by the German Foreign Minister Stresemann on January 20, 1925. On January 9, 1925, Stresemann handed over to the French government an official draft guarantee pact. Germany committed to maintaining the status quo on its western borders, but at the same time emphasized its reluctance to make any commitments regarding its eastern borders. This was fully consistent with the political guidelines of the British imperialists, who also refused to guarantee the eastern borders of Germany, clearly indicating to the reviving German imperialism the direction of future German aggression desired by England.
France, supporting the anti-Soviet plans associated with the guarantee pact, limited itself to the demand that the treaties in the West and the East form a single whole and that France retain freedom of action in relation to Germany if it has to provide assistance to Poland and Czechoslovakia (note dated 4.VI 1925). England accepted this proposal, and on June 16, a response to the German project agreed upon by both powers was sent.
At the end of September, Germany agreed to accept the Anglo-French proposals as a basis for negotiations.
5-16. X 1925 a conference took place in Locarno to discuss the terms of the guarantee pact. 16. X The Locarno Treaties were concluded, consisting of the following documents: the general treaty of guarantee between Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy (Rhine Guarantee Pact), the Franco-German, German-Belgian, German-Polish and German-Czechoslovak arbitration treaties . In addition, Franco-Polish and Franco-Czechoslovak guarantee agreements were concluded in Locarno.
Under the Rhine Guarantee Pact, Germany, France and Belgium pledged to maintain the territorial status quo, i.e. the inviolability of the borders between Germany and Belgium and between Germany and France, as they were established by the Treaty of Versailles, and also to comply with the provisions of Articles 42 and 43 of the Treaty of Versailles regarding demilitarized Rhine zone. Germany, France and Belgium pledged not to resort to attacks on each other and to resolve all controversial issues through the usual diplomatic channels or through arbitration. England and Italy acted as guarantors.
In the event of a violation of the status quo, the guarantors, i.e. England and Italy, were to immediately provide support to the side against which this violation would be directed. Violation of the provisions of the demilitarized Rhineland was considered an act of aggression. At the same time, the pact stated that after the Council of the League of Nations makes its decision on the issue of the conflict that has arisen, the contracting parties undertake to act in accordance with the proposal of the Council of the League of Nations, adopted unanimously, not counting the votes of representatives of the parties to the conflict. The Rhine Pact provided for the continuation of all obligations under the Treaty of Versailles, as well as additional agreements, including agreements on the implementation of the Dawes Plan. A special clause of the pact stated that it did not impose any obligations on the British dominions and India. The pact was to be formally signed in London and would come into force once Germany was admitted to the League of Nations.
The Locarno Treaties were finally signed in London on December 1, 1925. A year later, Germany joined the League of Nations and received a permanent seat on the Council. Following Germany's entry into the League of Nations, the evacuation of Allied troops from the Rhineland began. The conclusion of the Locarno Treaties was accompanied by great pacifist hype. Locarno was declared the beginning new era in Europe and around the world. The "Spirit of Locarno" became a symbol of bourgeois peacemaking. International social democracy became the main troubadour of Locarno.
In reality, the Locarno Treaties did not mean the “triumph of peace”, but a regrouping of forces for new war. They testified to the weakening of France and the collapse of the broad expansionist plans of French imperialism on the European continent. The Locarno Treaties embodied France's fear of rising German imperialism and its growing dependence on England.
England now became the arbiter in European affairs. Since British guarantees were also limited, the “pacification” of Western Europe gave England a free hand for an active world policy and, first of all, for a policy aimed at isolating and hostilely encircling the Soviet Union.
The United States did not take part in the Locarno Treaties, but actually supported them. The “pacification” of Western Europe created a favorable environment for American economic expansion. The Locarno treaties not only confirmed the Dawes plan, but to a certain extent served as a political superstructure over this plan. At the same time, the American imperialist bourgeoisie fully sympathized with the Locarno Treaties as an instrument of anti-Soviet policy.
The main goal of the Locarno policy was to involve Germany in the anti-Soviet front. The “Concert of European Powers” that Germany joined was synonymous with the anti-Soviet bloc. The general line of Locarno policy was to isolate the Soviet Union and prepare the preconditions for a new anti-Soviet intervention.
The leaders of this policy rejoiced over the Locarno Treaties, but the real winner in Locarno was German imperialism, which shook the entire system of the post-war world regime and cleared the way for new aggression. Stresemann wrote to the Crown Prince that “the renunciation of a military conflict with France over Alsace-Lorraine is theoretical, since it is still not possible to wage war with France” (in other words, when Germany becomes stronger militarily, the question of these guarantees will also be placed differently). Germany took advantage of the contradictions between the victorious powers: with the support of England, it got rid of French hegemony in Europe. She also used the bogeyman of the “communist threat” to seek more and more concessions from the victorious powers in order to undermine the Versailles system. Germany's entry into the League of Nations and its receipt of permanent place in the League Council legitimized its position as a great power. Finally, the fact that Germany did not give any obligations regarding the eastern borders opened up a legal path for her to change the borders in the east, the path of aggression.
J.V. Stalin, speaking about the Locarno policy in a report at the XIV Congress of the CPSU(b), indicated: “...Locarno is fraught with a new war in Europe.
British conservatives are thinking of maintaining the “status quo” against Germany and using Germany against the Soviet Union. Didn’t they want too much?” J.V. Stalin further emphasized that “Locarno is a continuation of Versailles”, that L.D. represent “a plan for the alignment of forces for a new war, and not for peace.”
The Locarno Treaties lasted 10 years. 7. III 1936, Nazi Germany, by a unilateral act, terminated the Locarno Treaties and sent its troops into the demilitarized Rhine Zone.
Despite Germany's obvious violation of the Locarno Treaties, England resolutely refused to accept any sanctions, including economic ones, against Germany. The extraordinary session of the League of Nations, which met in London in mid-May 1936, was limited to the adoption of empty declarations. Soviet proposals regarding effective measures against aggression were ignored by the Western powers. The entire balance of power established by the Locarno Treaties was by this time radically violated. Italy was already moving closer to Germany and soon concluded an agreement with it on the creation of the Rome-Berlin axis. Belgium abandoned the policy of military alliances and soon returned to the policy of “neutrality,” which was extremely beneficial at that time for Hitler’s imperialism. England, like France and the United States, pursued a policy of non-intervention and appeasement of aggressors, which accelerated the outbreak of the Second World War.
Diplomatic Dictionary. Ch. ed. A. Ya. Vyshinsky and S. A. Lozovsky. M., 1948.
The main document prepared in Locarno was Rhine Pact- a guarantee agreement between the German Empire and its guarantors: France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy. According to the guarantee pact, the German Empire recognized its western borders established by the Treaty of Versailles. In case of violation of the terms of the treaty, the guarantor powers received the right to decisive retaliatory actions. The arbitration agreement concluded between the German Empire, France and Belgium provided that disputes arising between countries should be resolved peacefully - through the League of Nations or international courts.
In addition, the German Empire entered into arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, in which it abandoned the military solution of territorial disputes. In these treaties, France declared support for these countries in case of attack. The rejection of a military solution to territorial disputes in the east in no way meant a complete rejection of the revision of Germany's eastern borders. Expansion to the east became a consistent direction in foreign policy Germany at least since the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles. Through agreements with these countries, France provided them with support in the event of an attack.
Purposes of the agreements
The European victorious countries in the First World War tried to normalize their relations with defeated Germany through treaties. The unilateral most favored nation trade regime that Germany provided to the victorious powers under the Treaty of Versailles expired on January 10, 1925. From this moment on, Germany received the right to an independent trade policy, and export-oriented French and British enterprises insisted on easing general tensions, including political ones. The mistrust of the Western powers in connection with the conclusion by Germany of the Treaty of Rapallo with the RSFSR in 1922 also played a role. The Locarno negotiations were initiated as a result of correspondence between Great Britain, France and Germany in the summer of 1925, after German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann put forward a proposal on 9 February for mutual guarantees regarding his country's borders. The peaceful development of Europe was an important prerequisite for the provision of loans from the United States.
The treaty was important for Germany primarily in order to break through international isolation, continue its revisionist policy and liberate the Rhineland. For this, Stresemann was ready to officially renounce claims to Alsace and Lorraine, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy, agree to maintain the Rhine demilitarized zone and submit to decisions of the League of Nations on territorial disputes. An important role was played by the military alliance that France and Poland concluded in 1921, which lost force with the conclusion of the Locarno Agreements. For Stresemann, in the event of a conflict between Germany and Poland, which he in no way ruled out, it was important to avoid a war on two fronts. Since violation of the German-French border automatically led to the intervention of the guarantor countries, France could no longer provide military support to Poland without entering into conflict with Great Britain and Italy. Although French Foreign Minister Briand confirmed the allied relationship with Poland in an official guarantee treaty, also concluded on October 19, 1925, it was obvious to everyone that Poland's security was significantly compromised by the international guarantees issued regarding Germany's western borders. All attempts by Poland to close this gap in its security system with similar international guarantees regarding the eastern borders of Germany were resolutely rebuffed by the German Empire.
The right-wing forces in Germany were opposed to the conclusion of the Locarno Treaties because of Germany's concessions, primarily on the issue of western borders. The German National People's Party left the government in protest. On November 27, the Locarno Accords were ratified by the Reichstag. The government received support from the German Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party of Germany and announced its resignation after the signing of the treaties, fulfilling its promise on December 5. The extreme left, fearing the unification of Germany and the capitalist countries of Western Europe against the USSR, also opposed the Locarno Accords.
Meaning
Despite the growing tension in the political situation in Eastern Europe, The Locarno Accords laid the foundation for an improved diplomatic climate in Western Europe in -30 years. The international community saw the "Spirit of Locarno" manifested in Germany's acquisition of permanent member status in the League of Nations in 1926 and the demilitarization of the Rhineland in June 1930.
For their contribution to peace, Gustav Stresemann and his French colleague Aristide Briand were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926.
Literature
- Locarno-Konferenz 1925. Eine Dokumentensammlung. Hrsg. vom Ministerium für Auswärtige Angegelegenheiten der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Rütten & Lönning Verlag, Berlin (Ost) 1962
- Paul Schmidt: Statist auf diplomatischer Bühne 1923-45: Erlebnisse des Chefdolmetschers im Auswärtigen Amt mit den Staatsmännern Europas. Haufige Drucke, z. B. 14. Aufl., 162.-164. Tsd., Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1986, u. a. Verlage, zuletzt EVA, München 2005, ISBN 3-434-50591-1.
- Georges-Henri Soutou: L'Alliance franco-polonaise (1925-1933) ou comment s'en débarrasser? In: Revue d'Histoire diplomatique, 95 (1981).
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The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the pace and progress of the development of the ancient Russian people. Many thousands of people died in the fire of the invasion. The surviving artisans were taken into slavery. There was a decline in the craft: the skills of making slate whorls, carnelian beads, glass bracelets, amphorae-korchags, and polychrome (multi-color) ceramics disappeared. Stone construction ceased for half a century. The invaders destroyed many architectural structures, and above all, city cathedrals, which were, as a rule, the last fortifications, where the defenders of Russian cities repelled the onslaught of enemy troops. Many burned literary monuments. Chronicle writing became laconic and was interrupted in almost all Russian lands (except Novgorod).
The high level of Russian culture gave it the opportunity to survive during the most difficult period of its history. Despite the horrors Mongol conquest, Russian culture has preserved traditional character. Territories that were not subjected to military defeat, although subordinate to the Horde (Pskov, Novgorod), played a major role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience.
The Mongol invasion disrupted ties between in separate parts countries. The single Old Russian nationality became the basis on which the Great Russian (Russian), Belarusian and Ukrainian nationalities and their cultures were formed.
Russian culture XIII-XV centuries.
In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. Two stages are clearly visible. The internal boundary in the development of culture of the XIII-XV centuries. The Battle of Kulikovo appeared (1380). If the first stage was characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise began, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into an all-Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.
Folklore. During the period of struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, turning to epics and legends of the Kiev cycle, in which battles with the enemies of Ancient Rus' were described in bright colors and the military feat of the people was glorified, gave the Russian people new strength. The ancient epics acquired a deep meaning and took on a second life. New legends (such as, for example, “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a city that sank to the bottom of the lake along with its brave defenders, who did not surrender to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated Golden Horde yoke . A genre of poetic historical songs is emerging. These include “The Song of Shchelkan Dudentievich,” which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327.
Chronicle. In conditions when the economy was being restored and its recovery was outlined, business records became increasingly necessary. Since the 14th century the use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growing need for records and the advent of paper led to the acceleration of writing. The “charter”, when square letters were written with geometric precision and solemnity, is being replaced by semi-charter - a more free and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. cursive writing appears, close to modern writing. Along with paper, parchment continued to be used in especially important cases; various types of rough and everyday notes were made, as before, on birch bark.
As already noted, chronicle writing in Novgorod was not interrupted even during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. new centers of chronicle writing emerged. Since 1325, chronicle records began to be kept in Moscow. During the folding period single state With the center in Moscow, the role of chronicle writing increased. When Ivan III went on a campaign against Novgorod, it was no coincidence that he took clerk Stepan the Bearded with him: he could well “speak Novgorod’s guilt from the chroniclers,” that is, prove on the basis of the chronicle the need for Novgorod to join Moscow.
In 1408, an all-Russian chronicle was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which was destroyed in the Moscow fire of 1812, and the creation of the Moscow chronicle dates back to 1479. They are based on the idea of all-Russian unity, the historical role of Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands, and the continuity of the traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir.
Interest in world history and the desire to determine one’s place among the peoples of the world gave rise to the appearance of chronographs - works on world history. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.
Historical stories. Common literary genre There were historical stories of that time. They told about the activities of real historical figures, specific historical facts and events. The story was often part of the chronicle text. Before the Kulikovo victory, the story “About the Battle of Kalka”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” (it told about the feat of the Ryazan hero Evpatiy Kolovrat), the story about Alexander Nevsky and others became widely known.
A series of historical stories is dedicated to the brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 (for example, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev”). Sophony Ryazanets created the famous pathetic poem “Zadonshchina”, modeled after “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. But if “The Lay” described the defeat of the Russians, then “Zadonshchina” described their victory.
During the period of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pachomius Logofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church figures of Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh - the founder of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, who supported the great Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde, with whose name the formation of the Russian national identity.
“Walking across Three Seas” (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. Afanasy Nikitin made his journey 30 years before the discovery of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.
Architecture. Stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov earlier than in other lands. Using previous traditions, Novgorod and Pskov residents built dozens of small-sized temples. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of that time as the churches of Fyodor Stratelates on Ruche (1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) in Novgorod, and the Church of Vasily on Gorka (1410) in Pskov. Abundance decorative ornaments on the walls, general elegance and festivity are characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Experts explain this stability of architectural and artistic tastes by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who sought to maintain independence from Moscow. Hence the focus mainly on local traditions.
The first stone buildings in the Moscow Principality date back to the XIV-XV centuries. The temples that have reached us: the Assumption Cathedral (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery (1405) in Zvenigorod, the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) - continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow - to create a mighty Moscow Kremlin, full of greatness, dignity and strength.
The first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy, in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters occupied then leading place in Europe, culminated in the creation at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day.
The Kremlin territory of 27.5 hectares was protected by a red brick wall, the length of which reached 2.25 km, the thickness of the walls was 3.5-6.5 m, and their height was 5-19 m. At the same time, in the 15th century. , 18 towers were erected out of the currently existing 20. The towers had hipped roofs. The Kremlin occupied a place on a cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (now enclosed in a collector) into the Moscow River. On the Red Square side, a moat was built to connect both rivers. Thus, the Kremlin found itself, as it were, on an island. It was one of the largest fortresses in the world, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science. Under the shelter of powerful walls, palaces of the Grand Duke and Metropolitan, buildings of government institutions, and monasteries were erected.
The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square, onto which the main cathedrals open; its central structure is the bell tower of Ivan the Great (finally completed under Boris Godunov, reaches a height of 81 m).
In 1475-1479. The main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Assumption Cathedral, was built. The Pskov masters began to build the temple (1471). A small “coward” (earthquake) in Moscow destroyed the walls of the building. The construction of the Assumption Cathedral was entrusted to the talented Italian Renaissance architect Aristotle Fioravanti. His model was the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. In the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Fiorovanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian (primarily Vladimir-Suzdal) architecture and advanced technical advances European architecture. The majestic five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here kings were crowned kings, Zemsky Councils met, and the most important state decisions were announced.
In 1481-1489. Pskov craftsmen erected the Annunciation Cathedral - the home church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it, also on Cathedral Square, under the leadership of the Italian Aleviz Novy, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes was built - the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509). If the plan of the building and its design are made in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, then the external decoration of the cathedral resembles the wall decorations of Venetian palaces. At the same time, the Chamber of Facets was built (1487-1491). It got its name from the edges that decorated the outer walls. The Faceted Chamber was part of royal palace, his throne room. The almost square hall, the walls of which rest on a massive tetrahedral pillar erected in the center, occupies an area of about 500 square meters. m and has a height of 9 m. Here foreign ambassadors were introduced to the Tsar, receptions were held, and important decisions were made.
Painting. The merger of local art schools into an all-Russian one was also observed in painting. This was a long process, its traces were noted in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the XIV century. worked in Novgorod and Moscow wonderful artist Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium. The fresco paintings of Theophan the Greek that have reached us in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street are distinguished by their extraordinary expressive power, expression, asceticism, and sublimity of the human spirit. Feofan the Greek was able to use strong, long strokes of his brush and sharp “gaps” to create emotional tension that reached tragedy. Russian people came specifically to observe the work of Theophanes the Greek. The audience was amazed that Great master wrote his works without using iconographic samples.
The highest rise of Russian icon painting is associated with the work of Theophanes the Greek's contemporary - the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information has been preserved about the life of the outstanding master.
Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by the remarkable victory on the Kulikovo Field, the economic rise of Muscovite Rus', and the growing self-awareness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity are reflected in the artist’s works. A harmonious, soft combination of delicate, pure colors creates the impression of integrity and completeness of his images. The famous "Trinity" (kept in Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodies the main features and principles of Andrei Rublev’s painting style. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of the unity of the world and humanity.
The brushes of Andrei Rublev also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir that have come down to us, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad.
The theme of the struggle for independence was central both in oral folk art, and in the monuments of written literature of that time. The largest patriotic works were “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, glorifying the victory of the united Russian troops in the Battle of Kulikovo. The most significant monument of historical thought was the chronicle vaults. Moscow became the center of all-Russian chronicle writing, where at the beginning of the 15th century the first all-Russian chronicle was compiled. The Trinity Chronicle, in which the idea of the succession of power of the Moscow sovereigns from the Kyiv and Vladimir princes was carried out.
IN historical literature turn of the XV-XVI centuries. rationalistic views on historical events. Authors historical works(for example, “Tales of the Princes of Vladimir,” late 15th century) sought to establish the idea of the exclusivity of the autocratic power of the Russian sovereigns as the successors of Kievan Rus and Byzantium. The same ideas were expressed in chronographs, summary reviews general history, in which Russia was considered as the last link in the chain of world-historical monarchies.
Not only the historical but also the geographical knowledge of people expanded. In connection with the complication of administrative management of the growing territory of the state, the first geographic Maps("blueprints"). This was also facilitated by the development of Russian trade and diplomatic ties.
Russian craftsmen learned to make quite complex mathematical calculations when constructing buildings and were familiar with the properties of basic building materials. Blocks and other mechanisms were used in the construction of buildings. To extract brine solutions, deep drilling and laying of pipes were used, through which the liquid was distilled using a piston pump. In military affairs, the casting of copper cannons was mastered, and battering and throwing weapons became widespread.
In the 14th century, stone cathedrals were restored in Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal and other cities. White stone walls and towers of the Kremlin were erected in Moscow, whole line cathedrals and monasteries. In the process of forming a state with a center in Moscow, a new all-Russian style of monumental architecture began to be created. This style was characterized by creative use architectural traditions old Russian cities and at the same time their enrichment with the achievements of European architecture of the Renaissance.
The formation of national architecture was accompanied by the rise of Russian fine art. This rise is associated with the name of the great Russian painter Andrei Rublev. In the first quarter of the 15th century, he, together with the icon painter Daniil Cherny, decorated a number of Moscow cathedrals with frescoes and icons. The pinnacle of A. Rublev’s creativity was the “Trinity” icon, painted in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery near Moscow. The work of Andrei Rublev had a great influence on the further development of Russian painting. According to its artistic value and high skill it stands at the level of the most outstanding achievements of contemporary Italian Renaissance painting.
Thus, the formation of the spirituality of the people of the XIV - early XVI centuries. was largely influenced by the ideas of creating a state and the growing awareness of the unity of its peoples.
In the 16th century Once powerful cultural centers and schools ceased to exist. This was the result of the completed process of the formation of a single state. The original features that distinguished one school from another were leveled, the original creative methods and techniques of masters of decorative and applied arts, architects, and icon painters disappeared. However, the ongoing processes did not indicate the decline of Russian culture, but, on the contrary, its ongoing progressive development.
This was due to the fact that Moscow, having become an all-Russian center of culture, gathered the best masters from all lands, whose creativity, in the conditions of an established national identity, gave a powerful impetus to the development of culture in all its spheres.
In the 16th century A national culture was being formed, which was formed on the basis of those traditions that developed and improved in traditional centers that preserved the originality characteristic of each locality. The process of the formation of a national culture was accompanied by its further development.
Literature and socio-political thought in the 16th century. undergoing significant changes, which was associated with increased activity in discussing pressing issues of that time. IN social thought The theory “Moscow is the third Rome” became widespread.
Typography has become important milestone in the development of Russian culture. In the middle of the 16th century. Ivan Fedorov organized a printing house in the Kremlin, which was then transferred to Nikolskaya Street. The first dated Russian book was “The Apostle,” published in 1564, which marked the beginning of Russian printing.
16th century architecture developed in several directions, receiving a powerful impetus as a result of work in Moscow at the end of the 15th century. Italian architects. In addition, by this time Moscow architects and builders had gained a lot of experience, which allowed them to build unique structures. An outstanding monument This time is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in 1532 by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in memory of the birth of his son Ivan.
Center for the development of icon painting in the 16th century. Moscow became, it was here that, on the orders of Ivan the Terrible, the best icon painters were gathered. Moscow icon painters then dispersed to cities and monasteries, spreading the same traditions throughout Russia. Differences between schools were smoothed out. On the basis of tradition and new trends, an all-Russian national icon painting school was formed. Fresco painting continued to develop.
The 17th century, being a period of rapid development of ancient Russian culture, was at the same time the century of its completion. While preserving the main features of the traditional way of life, Russian society begins to transform in a direction that will subsequently find its highest expression in the reforms of Peter the Great. Russia stood on the threshold of a new time. Two trends are clearly visible in culture: the penetration of Western European influences and the progressive process of secularization (secularization), that is, liberation from the domination of the church.
In literature XVII century- a time of dying out of many unshakable traditions. The most expressive innovation is the penetration into literature of deliberate fiction. This kind of literature was popular primarily in a democratic environment. In addition to being entertaining and moralizing, it had a strong satirical and accusatory component. It manifested itself most clearly in “The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court” and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich” - works that ridiculed judicial procedures and the corruption of judges.
In the development of architecture of the 17th century. Three stages can be distinguished. At the beginning of the century general character architecture was still little different from the architecture of the late 16th century. A characteristic feature of the second stage, covering the middle of the century, is the emphasized decorativeness, elegance and multi-colored architectural decoration. Patriarch Nikon forbade the construction of popular buildings in the 16th century. hipped temples as non-canonical, different from Greek models. By special orders, the architects were obliged to return to the traditional cross-dome design. However, architects easily circumvented the ban. A new opportunity was found to use a favorite architectural element - bell towers were crowned with tents. As a result, buildings of remarkable beauty with intricate, asymmetrical, “fairy-tale” architecture appeared. These are, for example, the Trinity Church in Nikitniki (1634) and the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki (1652). The third stage begins in the 90s. XVII century Significant changes are taking place in Russian architecture. A new style appears - “Naryshkin Baroque”, which received its name because the main customers of buildings made in this style were the relatives of the Tsar’s second wife, mother of Peter I, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina.
A significant phenomenon in the visual arts art XVII in., which marked the dawn of new times, there was the appearance of the portrait - parsuna. Parsuna is still very similar to an icon, the image is still largely conditional, but through the icon scheme they are already visible personality traits. Parsuns are known to depict Tsars Ivan the Terrible, Fyodor Ioannovich, and Prince Skopin-Shuisky.
