The culture of ancient Rus' during the Tatar Mongol conquest. The influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke on the history and culture of Russia

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands from the mid-13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', construction was temporarily stopped stone buildings. The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol times Tatar yoke Some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge towards the end of the 14th century. Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural values.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to form on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLES

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in Russian lands. Its main centers remained Galicia-Volyn Principality, Novgorod, Rostov Veliky, Ryazan, from about 1250 Vladimir. New centers are also appearing: Moscow, Tver. Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and manuscript books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition (the rights of princes) with its ideas of unifying lands around Moscow. In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, tales, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.

The first cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state

The second cycle of epics is Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies. The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the devastation of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, and also about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

In the tradition of lamentation, the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land” is written (only the first part has been preserved). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.” A number of hagiographies are dedicated to princes who died in the horde. This is the life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'.

The military story of Zadonshchina, believed to have been compiled by Saphonius of Ryazan, modeled after the story of Igor’s campaign. From here images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions were borrowed. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo. This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in victory and glorifies Moscow as state center Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature, Athanasius Nikitin's Voyage across Three Seas was written. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Rus'. It retells impressions from travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian nation. A language developed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant. With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased. In addition, it was necessary to strengthen the authority of the church and introduce uniformity in church books. And for this purpose, Metropolitan Macarius, with the support of Ivan IV, initiated book printing. In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. The first published book is the Apostle. In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Elected Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Rus' reflected several trends on issues of the relationship between power and individual segments of the population called upon to support it. Either the royal power had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state were the dominance of nobles, their unjust justice and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium actively flashes. Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were truly interested in military service closer to the tsar.

A different position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Elected Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people The Russians must help her. The period of persecution of the boyars coincided with the period of failures of Rus'. That is why Kurbsky left the country, since the boyars were treated incorrectly here. Ivan the Terrible loved and respected this man very much, so he suffered his departure painfully. They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since he himself experienced this as a child. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will. Ivan IV equated Kurbsky's departure to high treason (for the first time).

DOMOSTROY

Due to the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. The largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Cheti - Pshnya (readings for every day) - a 12-volume collection of books. It was intended for personal reading. It actually absorbed all the literature existing in Rus', including heretical literature, and subjected it to religious and edifying interpretation.

Domostroy is the norm of religious and ethical behavior in Everyday life. This included rules for raising children and advice on housekeeping. The compiler of Domostroy is priest Sylvester. Although Domostroy was a collection of advice on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th - 15th centuries. IN modern literature this period is estimated as Russian revival. At this time, a series of wonderful painters were working in Rus'.

At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, the painter Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420). His brush is the masterpiece of world painting - the Trinity icon.

At the end of the 15th century, the outstanding icon painter Dionysius made a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting. Together with his sons Feodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in Power.

At the same time, the Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed). Under Dmitry Donskoy, the white stone Kremlin was built for the first time. During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches are being restored. Thanks to additions and reconstructions, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

In 1479, the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin - was successfully completed. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'. Masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow.

Homework №6

Reforms of the Elected Rada

The turbulent events of 1547 necessitated deep state reforms. Soon a group of people close to him formed around the young Tsar (Ivan IV the Terrible), which one of its members, Prince A.M. Kurbsky, later called Elected Rada.

At the head of this circle of serving nobility and courtiers stood nobles from the wealthy but humble family of A.F. Adashev and archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin Sylvester. They were joined by the noble princes A. Kurbsky, N. Odoevsky, M. Vorotynsky and others. The Rada also included the first head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Duma clerk I.M. Viscous. Metropolitan Macarius actively supported the activities of this circle.

While not formally a state institution, the Elected Rada was, in fact, the government of Russia and for 13 years governed the state on behalf of the Tsar, consistently implementing a series of major reforms. In their content, these transformations coincided with the demands of the petitions addressed to the Tsar, which were written in 1549 by the talented publicist nobleman Ivan Peresvetov. He advocated a decisive strengthening of the foundations of the Russian state.

In line with centralization there was also new code of law, which was adopted in 1550. It was based on the Code of Law of 1497, but included more streamlined articles on the rules for the transfer of peasants, limited the rights of governors, toughened penalties for robbery, and introduced articles on punishment for bribery. Changes and additions were made to the Code of Laws related to the strengthening of central power: control over governors, levying a single state duty, the right to collect trade duties (tamgas) passed to the tsarist administration. The population had to bear the tax - a combination of natural and monetary duties.

In the middle of the 16th century, a uniform measure for collecting taxes was established for the entire state - “plow” (a land unit that depended on the position of the owner and the quality of the land, on average from 400 to 600 hectares).

In order to strengthen the armed forces, in 1550 the government of Ivan IV began to implement military reforms. Thus, localism (the procedure for filling positions in the army depending on nobility) was abolished for the duration of the campaigns.

In accordance with the decree of Ivan IV of October 1, 1550, the “elected thousand” were “placed” in the Moscow district.

Finally, a uniform order of passage was determined military service: “by homeland” (by origin) and “by device” (by set). Nobles and boyars' children (small feudal lords in the service of princes and boyars) served "in the homeland". The service was regulated by the “Code of Service” published in 1556; it was inherited and began at the age of 15. For every 150 acres of land, the boyars and nobles had to field one warrior “on horseback and in arms”; in case of failure, a fine was imposed.

In 1550, a rifle army was formed from among the service people “according to the instrument”, which had both firearms (squeaks) and bladed weapons (reeds and sabers). At first, 3 thousand people were recruited into the archers, who were consolidated into 6 “orders” (regiments). They formed the king's personal guard. By the end of the 16th century, the permanent Streltsy army numbered up to 25 thousand people, who were the most powerful fighting force of the Russian army. The “instrument people” also included Cossacks, gunners, collar workers, state blacksmiths and some others.

The government of the Elected Rada paid great attention to strengthening the tsarist state apparatus. In the 1550s The order system is being improved. The number of orders - central government institutions - is constantly growing due to the complication of management functions (by the end of the 16th century - 30 orders). Along with national institutions, orders also appear that “are in charge” of the affairs of individual ones. The bureaucracy is also growing. At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk, to whom clerks and other minor employees were subordinate.

In 1552, the Courtyard Notebook was created - a list of members of the Sovereign's court (about 4 thousand people), from among whom the highest officials of the state were appointed: military leaders, city governors, diplomats, etc.

Reforms of the mid-16th century significantly strengthened central power and public administration, which allowed Ivan IV to move on to solving problems foreign policy.

Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible

The term “oprichnina”, according to a long tradition, referred to the special inheritance of the widows of fallen noble soldiers, after most of land ownership passed back to the prince. Ivan the Terrible called oprichnina the inheritance he allocated for himself in the country, which had a special army and command apparatus.

The beginning of the oprichnina policy is associated with the events of 1565, when the tsar abdicated the throne due to the betrayals of the boyars. The political calculation of this step was that Ivan the Terrible’s agreement to return to the throne was subject to three conditions: the right to execute traitors at his own discretion; the introduction of oprichnina to ensure royal life and security; payment for the initial establishment of the rest of the country (zemshchina) 100 thousand rubles. – huge amount by the standards of that time.

The tsar took into his inheritance (oprichnina) many districts in the west, southwest and center of Russia, the rich northern regions, and part of the territory of Moscow. The oprichnina corps - a thousand specially selected nobles - received estates in oprichnina districts, while all zemstvo residents were evicted from them. The oprichnina had its own Duma, its own court, and internal orders. Ivan the Terrible concentrated control over diplomacy and the most important affairs in his hands, he removed himself from current management, and all the hardships of the Livonian War lay on the zemshchina. The oprichnina corps had only two responsibilities: protecting the king and exterminating traitors.

The fight against possible treason was carried out through mass repressions: executions, resettlement, confiscation of land and property. Soon terror took over the entire country; not only individual boyar or noble families, but even entire cities became its victims. Many executions took place in Novgorod (according to minimal estimates, there were about 3 thousand victims). The reason for this was Ivan the Terrible’s suspicions about the treasonous connections of the Novgorodians with the Polish king. Oprichnina terror took on a terrifying scale, the leaders of the oprichnina changed (when A. Basmanov was executed, Malyuta Skuratov took his place), but reprisals against the “traitors” did not stop.

The oprichnina lasted for 7 whole years - until 1572. The abolition of the oprichnina was associated with the complete economic decline of the country - the ruin of entire regions, with the defeat of the Russian army in the Livonian War, with the campaign of the Crimean Khan against Rus'.

The destruction of the landed aristocracy in Russia led to a further strengthening of state despotism. Oprichnina eliminated property owners independent from the authorities, who were capable of becoming the basis for the formation of civil society in Russia. The nationalization of society took place: everyone depended on the state and personally on the tsar.

1) Foreign policy and wars of Russia in the mid-16th century.

The main direction of foreign policy in the mid-16th century. - East. The government of Ivan IV understood the importance of annexing the rich Ural and Volga lands and control over the Volga route. But one of the most important tasks was to eliminate the threat from the Kazan Tatars.

IN 1552 A Russian army of 150 thousand people, led by the tsar, moved to Kazan. After prolonged shelling, digging, the use of engineering structures and a bloody assault, the capital of the Kazan kingdom fell.

IN 1556 The Astrakhan Khanate was conquered, which meant the inclusion of the entire multinational Middle Volga region into the Moscow state. Particularly important was the recognition of the dependence of the Nogai Horde on Moscow and, as a consequence, the annexation of Bashkiria.

These victories had a beneficial effect on the foreign policy situation, as they deprived the Crimean Khanate of allies and the opportunity for aggression. The Crimean Khan was actively supported by the then strong Ottoman Empire. The Volga trade route was transferred to Russia, and the opportunity arose to pursue its policy in the Caucasus.

After the capture of Kazan, Russia annexed the Astrakhan Khanate to its territory. Russian interests, when moving to the East, collided with the interests of the strong Siberian Khanate.

In the 70s of the 16th century. to the southern part Western Siberia Khan Kuchum invaded. Threatening Russian possessions in the Urals, he was able to conquer lands belonging to the Khanty and Mansi. In 1582, with the support of the government of Ivan IV, the Stroganov merchants organized a campaign against Khan Kuchum. It was headed by the Cossack ataman Ermak Timofeevich.

IN 1556 Ivan IV started the Livonian War, which lasted until 1583. Access to the Baltic Sea was extremely necessary for Russia to develop political and trade relations with Western Europe. This problem could be solved by annexing the Baltic states, which required overcoming the resistance of the union of Livonia, Sweden and Poland. The reason for the start of the war was the refusal of the Livonian Order to pay tribute to Russia and the conclusion of a military alliance with Lithuania in 1557.

The beginning of the war was successful for Russia. More than 20 Livonian cities were taken, Narva and Yuryev fell. In 1561, the Livonian Order collapsed.

IN 1569 G . a single Polish-Lithuanian state was formed, and Russia had to wage war with a coalition of strong European states. The situation worsened as a result of the betrayal of Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who had previously commanded the Russian troops. Contradictions within the state and constant raids of the Crimean Tatars interfered.

IN 1577 Ivan IV captured almost the entire territory of Livonia, but failed to achieve a final victory. In 1579, the Polish king Stefan Batory, going on the offensive, regained Polotsk. In 1581, he invaded the territory of Russia, took the strategically important fortress of Velikiye Luki and besieged Pskov. The Swedes captured Narva. Further advance of the Poles deeper into Russia was stopped by the heroic defense of Pskov (the city's residents exhausted the enemy, repelling 30 assaults and making 50 successful forays).

IN 1582 Russia signed the unfavorable Peace of Yam-Zapolsky, losing Livonia and Polotsk. IN 1583 The Truce of Plyus was concluded with Sweden, and the cities of Narva, Yam, Koporye, Ivan-Gorod, and the coast of the Gulf of Finland were torn away from Russia.

The Livonian War, which lasted 25 years, ended in the defeat of Russia. The reason for this defeat was the economic backwardness of the state.

Board of Boris Godunov

Godunov Boris Fedorovich (1552-1605)

Thanks to his marriage to the daughter of G.L. Skuratov-Belsky, Maria (1570), he began to quickly move up the career ladder. Gradually he became an active figure in the oprichnina. Since 1578 - kravchiy. His sister Irina became the wife of Tsarevich Fyodor, the future tsar, which further elevated Godunov at court. In the same year he received the rank of boyar. Since 1584 - member of the Supreme Duma and deputy of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich in Kazan and Astrakhan. A gradual process of eliminating Godunov’s rivals begins: the Shuiskys, Mstislavskys and Romanovs.

WITH 1585 Mr. Godunov becomes the full-fledged ruler of the state under the incompetent tsar.

IN 1590 g. participated in the Swedish campaign from Novgorod to the mouth of the Neva as a palace governor.

After the death of Fyodor Ivanovich ( 1598 ) was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor. Godunov, according to the unanimous opinion of his contemporaries, was a major state. activist He almost always personally conducted diplomatic negotiations, conducted domestic policy, which met the interests of the main part of the nobility.

His government extended the truce with Poland and entered the war with Sweden ( 1590 - 1593 ) as a result of which Russia returned those lost after the Livonian War ( 1558-1583 gg.) cities of Yam, Oreshek, Ivangorod, etc., expanded access to the Baltic Sea.

Under Godunov, vigorous colonization of Siberia was undertaken.

In the south, for defense against raids, Crimea. The Tatars continued to develop the steppes, where the cities of Valuiki, Voronezh, Belgorod, etc. were built, and Kursk was restored.

During Godunov's reign, Russia's ties with Georgia expanded. To ensure the route to this country, a fortress was built at the mouth of the Tersk, and the Russian. The army twice opposed Dagestan, Shamkal.

Godunov achieved 1589 The Patriarch of Constantinople, taking advantage of his plight, agreed to the establishment of the Russian Federation. patriarchy.

The validity of the reserved years was extended. IN 1592 The population census, started by Ivan the Terrible, ended, the result of which was the final assignment of peasants to their owners.

Near 1592 - 1593 gg. a decree was issued prohibiting the peasants from leaving, which actually completely enslaved the peasants. IN 1597 decrees were issued establishing a 5-year limitation period for claims against runaway peasants and a decree on slaves, according to which enslaved people were deprived of the right to redeem their freedom. At the same time, an entire category of free people, the so-called. "free slaves".

An important act of enslavement of the peasantry was the introduction of “sovereign arable land” in the southern regions of the country, to which fugitive peasants were attached. The sharp increase in serf oppression during the reign of Godunov led to the beginning. XVII century to civilians, war.

The misfortunes of the population of Russia intensified due to severe crop failure 1601 -1603 gg. and terrible hunger.

IN 1603 The uprising of Cotton Crookshank broke out, sweeping the center and districts of the country and with difficulty suppressed by the government. Despite the fact that G. bought bread with his own personal money and distributed it to the starving population, the discontent of the popular masses was so great that they supported False Dmitry I, who opened military operations against Godunov in 1604.

He died suddenly in Moscow and was buried in the Archangel Cathedral.

2) Main events of the Time of Troubles

The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov (1598-1605) as Tsar, who ruled energetically and, according to historians, wisely. But he failed to stop the intrigues of the disgruntled boyars. Rumors about the tsar's involvement in the murder of Dmitry excited the country. The most severe crop failure of 1601-1603. and the subsequent famine made an explosion of social discontent inevitable.

The appearance in Poland of a young Galich nobleman, a monk of the Kremlin Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepyev, who declared himself “the miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry,” was a real gift for King Sigismund III and many magnates. At the end of 1604, having converted to Catholicism, having achieved the tacit support of Sigismund III, and enlisting the help of the Polish magnate Mniszek (whose daughter Marina was declared his bride), False Dmitry entered the southern regions of Russia.

The beginning of the turmoil.

Late 1604 - May 1606: Many cities in southern Russia go over to the side of the impostor; he is supported by Cossack troops and thousands of disgruntled peasants. IN April 1605 Boris Godunov suddenly dies, and the boyars do not recognize his son Fedor as tsar; The army under the command of the tsarist governors Basmanov and Golitsyn goes over to the side of False Dmitry, Fedor and his mother are strangled. In June, the impostor becomes Tsar Dmitry I. His further fate was predetermined: he could not fulfill the promises made to the Poles (convert Russia to Catholicism, give Poland significant territories). The boyars no longer needed Otrepyev. May 17, 1606. Dissatisfied with the arrogance of the Poles who gathered for the wedding of False Dmitry and Marina Mniszech, and with the wedding itself, which awarded the royal crown to a Catholic woman, the boyars rebelled. Grigory Otrepiev was killed.

May 1606-1610: Boyar Vasily Shuisky is “shouted out” by the tsar, who gives a sign of the cross with a promise to rule together with the Boyar Duma, not to impose disgrace and not to execute without trial. Rumors are spreading again about Dmitry's new miraculous salvation. Summer 1606 An uprising breaks out in Putivl, which is joined by very different segments of the population - peasants, townspeople, archers, nobles. The uprising is led by the fugitive military slave Ivan Bolotnikov. The rebels reach Moscow, besiege it, but are defeated (one of the reasons is that the nobles, led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov, went over to the side of the Tsar). Bolotnikov with his loyal supporters retreats to Tula and for several months resists the royal regiments. Summer of 1607 The rebels surrender, Bolotnikov is captured, exiled to Kargopol and killed there.

Meanwhile, the turmoil is growing. A new impostor False Dmitry II appears (there is no exact information about who he was), the surviving participants in Bolotnikov’s uprising, the Cossacks led by Ivan Zarutsky, and Polish troops unite around him. Marina Mnishek also recognizes the impostor as her husband.

WITH June 1608 False Dmitry II settled in the village of Tushino near Moscow (hence his nickname - “Tushino Thief”) and besieged Moscow. The Troubles lead to the actual split of the country: two kings, two Boyar Dumas, two patriarchs (Hermogenes in Moscow and Filaret in Tushino), territories recognizing the power of False Dmitry II, and territories remaining loyal to Shuisky.

The successes of the Tushino residents force Shuisky to February 1609 conclude an agreement with Sweden, hostile to Poland. In exchange for the Russian fortress of Korela, the tsar receives military assistance, the Russian-Swedish army liberates a number of cities in the north of the country. But the participation of the Swedish corps in Russian events gives the Polish king Sigismund III a reason to begin an open intervention: in the fall of 1609, Polish troops besieged Smolensk. Meanwhile, the actions of the Tushins (the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, robberies, looting) deprived False Dmitry II of the support of the population. The impostor flees from Tushino, and the Tushino residents who left him conclude at the beginning of 1610. an agreement with the Polish king on the election of the eldest son of the prince Vladislav to the Russian throne. The Poles, having inflicted a crushing defeat on the tsarist army near the village of Klushino, are rapidly approaching Moscow. IN July 1610 The boyars force Vasily Shuisky to abdicate the throne and announce that power is passing to a government of seven boyars - the seven-boyars.

Seven Boyars in August 1610 signs an agreement with Sigismund III on the election of Vladislav as king, provided that he converts to Orthodoxy. In September, Polish troops enter Moscow.

1611-1612: The Troubles have not been overcome, the Seven Boyars have no real power, Vladislav refuses to fulfill the terms of the agreement and accept Orthodoxy. Patriotic sentiments are growing, calls for an end to discord and restoration of unity are intensifying. The center of gravity of patriotic forces becomes the Moscow Patriarch Hermogenes, who calls for a fight against the interventionists.

IN 1611 The First Militia is created. Participating in it are the noble detachments of P. Lyapunov, the Cossacks of D. Trubetskoy and I. Zarutsky, and former Tushino residents. A temporary government body is established - the Council of the Whole Land. But it is not possible to liberate Moscow. The contradictions between the nobles and the Cossacks lead to a conflict between the leaders of the militia - Zarutsky and Lyapunov. IN July 1611 Lyapunov was killed by the Cossacks. The first militia disintegrates.

Meanwhile, the Poles manage to capture Smolensk after a two-year siege, the Swedes occupy Novgorod. In the autumn of 1611 On the initiative of the merchant elder of Nizhny Novgorod Kuzma Minin, the Second Militia was created, headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. IN August 1612. The militia approaches Moscow, and in October the Polish garrison capitulates.

1613-1618: in January 1613, with the aim of electing a new tsar, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, one of the most representative in the history of this body of power. From many candidates, the Council selects 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, a representative of an ancient and popular boyar family among various segments of the population, with whom hopes are associated for a return to order, peace and antiquity. The beginning of a new dynasty of Russian tsars was laid. The main efforts were devoted to ending the Troubles, eradicating robbery and robbery, and restoring the normal functioning of the state apparatus. IN 1617 The Treaty of Stolbovo was signed with Sweden, which received the Korelu fortress and the coast of the Gulf of Finland. IN 1618 The Deulino Truce was concluded with Poland: Russia cedes Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities.

The long and difficult crisis was finally resolved. According to many historians, the Troubles were the first civil war in the history of Russia.

Homework No. 7

Eastern customs spread uncontrollably in Rus' during the time of the Mongols, bringing with them a new culture. The clothing changed in general: from white long Slavic shirts and long trousers they moved to golden caftans, to colored trousers, to morocco boots.

That time brought about a great change in the situation of women:

The domestic life of a Russian woman came from the East. In addition to these major features of everyday Russian life of that time, abacus, felt boots, coffee, dumplings, the uniformity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlins of Beijing and Moscow - all this is the influence of the East

Church bells, a specific Russian feature, came from Asia, and from there the Yamsk bells. Before the Mongols, churches and monasteries did not use bells, but “beat and rivet.” Foundry art was then developed in China, and bells could have come from there.

The influence of the Mongol conquest on cultural development is traditionally defined in historical works as negative. According to many historians, cultural stagnation occurred in Rus', expressed in the cessation of chronicle writing, stone construction, etc.

While recognizing the presence of these and other negative consequences, it should be noted that there are other consequences that cannot always be assessed from a negative point of view.

To understand the consequences of the beneficial influence of Mongol rule on Russian culture, it is necessary to abandon the view of the Mongol state as a state entity. It owes its emergence and existence to the brute and unbridled power of a large and wild “horde”, whose leaders had the only method of controlling the conquered peoples was the cruelest terror.

If we talk about the notorious “cruelty” of the Mongols, it should be noted that among the successors of Genghis Khan on the imperial throne there were certainly enlightened and humane monarchs. According to all researchers studying the issue from primary sources, “the government of the Chingizids was useful for their subjects, and the Chingizids were educated above their age.” The founder of the empire himself, in that cruel time, saturated with human blood, managed to leave a saying that can be ranked among the best achievements of human culture: “I respect and honor all four (Buddha, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed) and I ask the one who is truly the greatest of them so that he becomes my assistant."

Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to Far East, the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West. In war-ravaged Muslim lands, scientists and architects lived under the Mongols, if not until the Golden Age, then until Silver Age, and XIV century. in China was a century of flowering of literature and a century of brilliance - the century of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. This time can be safely called the Golden Age, especially under the enlightened Emperor Kublai, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Only after the Mongol conquest could European preachers of Christianity venture to appear in distant Asian countries. In the 13th century Papal legates appeared for the first time in China, enjoying the patronage of the Mongol monarchs. In 1299, the first Catholic church was built in Beijing, and the translation of the New Testament into Mongolian began.

In the Volga region, the remains of houses with marble cladding, water pipes, tombstones, parts of silver objects, and Venetian glass testify to the life of Mongol-Tatar cultural relatives in the 13th-14th centuries. And relations with other peoples of the East.

The power of the Golden Horde state tradition was not exhausted in the “great century” of the Golden Horde. A major factor is the two-fold revival of the state-political tradition of the Golden Horde. The first of them can be called Timur's revival (late XIV - early XV centuries), the second - Mengli-Giveev or Crimean-Ottoman XV-XVIII centuries. Interesting information about the life and everyday life of the Golden Horde capitals. The town near the village of Selitrenogo is the old Saray, the town near Tsarev's settlement is the new Saray (founded by Uzbek).

The hydraulic irrigation structures of New Saray are remarkable. The city was crossed by canals and irrigated by ponds (water was also supplied to individual houses and workshops). One of the pool systems was located along the slope of Syrt. The fall of water was used by factories built near the dams. Remains of iron drive wheels were found. During the time of Uzbek, the Old Sarai was primarily industrial center: ruins of forges, a brick factory, entire towns of ceramic workshops. Also in Novy Sarai, the remains of a mint, jewelry, driving shoemakers, tailors and other workshops were discovered. In the trading quarter, remains of goods originating from all parts of the Mongolosphere were discovered, for example, coffee, which rejects the opinion that coffee came into use only in the 17th century. Spruce logs are found in wooden structures (the nearest spruce forests are several hundred kilometers away from Sarai). In both cities there were areas consisting entirely of brick buildings. The residential buildings of the Golden Horde city were technically well equipped and comfortable: beautiful floors and an interesting heating system indicate cleanliness, warmth and comfort. In the surrounding area there were palaces surrounded by gardens. The tents of the steppe inhabitants who migrated to the city were located on the outskirts.

The influence of the East left its mark on folk art. A significant part of Great Russian folk songs, ancient and wedding rituals are composed in the so-called “five-tone” or “Indo-Chinese” scale. This range exists, as the only one, among the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basin, among the Bashkirs, among the Siberian Tatars, among the Turks of Turkestan, among all the Mongols. In Siam, Burma, Cambodia and the rest of Indochina, it still dominates. This continuous line from the East ends at the Great Russians.

The same originality is represented by another type of art - dancing. While in the West in dance there should be a couple - a gentleman and a lady, in Russian and Russian dances eastern peoples it doesn't matter. They dance alone, and when they dance as a couple, the presence of the lady is not necessary; two gentlemen can dance together or in turn, so the element of contact does not play such a prominent role in them as in Western dances. The man's movements are given room for improvisation. When moving the legs, there is a noticeable tendency to keep the head still, especially in women. In purely oriental dances, the legs move on their toes, to the rhythm, and the body and arms dance. The beauty of dance in the East lies in the flexibility and plasticity of movements of the body and arms, and not in dancing with the legs. Like oriental dances, Russian dance is more of a competition in agility, flexibility and rhythm of the body.

The style of the Russian fairy tale has an analogy with the style of fairy tales of the Turks and Caucasians. The Russian epic in its plots is connected with the “Turanian” and steppe “Horde” epic.

Many Christian burials have been discovered in Novy Sarai. There are also ruins associated with an ancient Russian church. There was a whole Russian quarter in Sarai.

The main share of the Mongol yoke on Russia relates to the area of ​​spiritual ties. It can be said without exaggeration that the Orthodox Church breathed freely during the rule of the Mongols.

All Russian clergy and church people were spared from paying the heavy Tatar tribute. The Tatars treated all religions with complete tolerance, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received from the khans especially preferential letters, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and the inviolability of church property. In the difficult times of the Tatar yoke, the church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of Russian Christianity, which opposed itself to the filthiness of its conquerors and oppressors, which subsequently served as a powerful means of national unification and national-political liberation from the yoke of the “wicked Hagarians.” .

The khans issued golden labels to the Russian metropolitans, which placed the church in a position completely independent of the princely power. The court, revenues - all this was subject to the jurisdiction of the metropolitan, and, not torn apart by strife, not robbed by princes who were constantly in need of money for wars, the church quickly acquired material resources and land property and could provide refuge to many people who sought its protection from princely tyranny. In general, the Orthodox clergy enjoyed honor and patronage among the Mongols. In 1270, Khan Mengu-Timur issued the following decree: “in Rus' no one will dare to disgrace churches and offend metropolitans and archimandrites subordinate to him, archpriests, priests, etc.” Khan Uzbek even expanded the privilege of the church: “All ranks of the Orthodox Church, all monks, are subject only to the court of the Orthodox metropolitan, not to the officials of the Horde and not to the princely court. Anyone who robs a clergyman must pay him three times. Whoever dares to mock the Orthodox faith or insult a church, monastery, or chapel is subject to death without distinction, whether he is Russian or Mongolian. May the Russian clergy feel like free servants of God.”

From a few historical facts one can judge the attitude of the Golden Horde towards Orthodoxy. Saint Alexander Nevsky, realizing that Russia was not able to fight the Mongols, began to serve the khan not out of fear, but out of conscience. Only in alliance with the Mongols could he protect himself from the onslaught of militant Catholicism on the Orthodox East. Otherwise, history would have to record the fact of the Russians’ transition to Latinism. In this historical role, the Golden Horde was not only the patroness, but also the defender of Russian Orthodoxy. The yoke of the Mongols - pagans and Muslims - not only did not touch the soul of the Russian people, their Orthodox faith, but even preserved it.

To characterize the attitude of the Mongols to other religions of the peoples subordinate to them, the decree of Genghis Khan, the ancestor of all the Golden Horde khans and the founder of the policy of absolute religious tolerance, is interesting. This decree was given to the head of the Taoist religious teaching, Chang Chun, spiritually called Qiu-sheng-hsien. “The Most Holy Command of King Chinggis, Command to the leaders of all places. Whatever monasteries and houses of asceticism the Qiu-shen-hsien has, in them those who read books daily and pray to Heaven, let them pray for the long life of the king for many years. Let them be freed from all large and small duties, dues and taxes, the monasteries and houses of monks belonging to Qiu-sheng-hsien in all places, let them be freed from duties, taxes and dues. Apart from this, whoever falsely calls himself a monk, under an illegal pretext, refuses duties, will report to the authorities and punish him at his discretion and upon receipt of this Command, but do not dare to change or resist it. This is why this testimony was given.”

Having noted this, it can be established as a historical fact that Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to the rise of the culture of the old world.

In preparing this work, materials from the site were used

Russian ornaments: at the top - initials from Psalter No. 3 (XIV century); in the middle there is a screensaver from the Gospel (Pogodin collection; 16th century); below - a screensaver from the Apostle of the 16th century, in the Russian National Library of St. Petersburg. According to Butovsky

Cultures in Russian lands after invasions and the establishment of Horde domination as a whole did not undergo such serious destructive changes, similar to those that occurred in the socio-political sphere. However, as a result of the Tatar raids, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands began to be felt from the middle of the 13th century, which negatively affected the development of all-Russian cultural processes. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', construction temporarily ceased

construction of stone buildings. The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost (production of products with niello and grain, with cloisonne enamel, etc.). The scale of production of handwritten books has decreased. The horizons of the chroniclers are significantly narrowed; they almost lose interest in the events taking place in other principalities.
At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, tales, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.
In the XIV century. understanding Mongolian A whole series of tales are dedicated to the conquest: about the battle on Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, the legend about Evpatiy Kolovrat, as well as about the defender of Smolensk, the young man from Smolensk Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from Batu’s army.
In North-Eastern Rus', which during the XIV - early XV centuries. gradually moved towards the restoration of state unity, favorable preconditions were created for cultural upsurge, enriched by the growth of national self-awareness. The Battle of Kulikovo gave a powerful impetus to the development of patriotic feelings of the Russian people. A number of outstanding works of literature are dedicated to the brilliant victory of Russian soldiers on the Kulikovo field: a chronicle story, a military story. Another work from the anti-Horde cycle is the historical song about Shchelkan Dudentievich, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327, about Tokhtamysh’s destruction of Moscow in 1382, about invasions to Rus' of Tamerlane and Khan Edigei.
The idea of ​​national liberation and patriotism is also reflected in works dedicated to the defense of the northwestern borders of the Russian Land: “The Life of Dovmont” and Alexander Nevsky>.
A number of hagiographies are dedicated to the princes who died in the Horde. This and. The princes appear in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and their Fatherland.
Gradually from the second half of the 13th century. Chronicle writing is gradually being restored in Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, a little later (from about 1250) Vladimir, and from the end of the 13th century - Tver. From the second half of the 14th century.
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the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books is experiencing a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition, and Simonov, Andronikov and other monasteries become its centers. It came to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle of the early 15th century. and, unlike local chronicles, is the first collection of an all-Russian character since the times of Ancient Rus'.
Along with the development of literature, writing develops. An indicator of the degree of spread of literacy among all segments of the population are those found in the 20th century. birch bark documents during excavations in Novgorod. Gradually, with the development of bookishness, the nature of writing changes and business documentation expands. In the XIV century. is being replaced by more fluent and free writing. And from the end of the 14th century. The development of cursive writing begins, the very name of which speaks about the principle of writing. Expensive parchment is gradually being replaced by a cheaper material - paper.
At the end of the XIII-XIV centuries. Stone construction is being resumed in Russian lands. To this day, the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna (1292), the Church of Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream (1360) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) have been preserved in Novgorod. Several civil buildings from the 14th - early 15th centuries have also been preserved in Novgorod. The most interesting building among them is the Faceted Chamber (the name appeared later), created in 1433. It was erected on the orders of Archbishop Euthymius of Novgorod, an ardent opponent of Moscow, to emphasize the sovereignty of Novgorod.
Under Ivan Kalita, four are being built in the Moscow Kremlin stone temple: Assumption Cathedral (1326), Church of Ivan the Climacus (1329), Church of the Savior on Bor (1330) and Archangel Cathedral (1333). Some fragments have survived from some of them. The resumption of stone construction in Moscow is associated with the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, during which the white stone fortifications of the Moscow Kremlin were erected (1360s). Monuments of stone architecture that have reached us from the first quarter of the 15th century. indicate their new technical quality. An example of this kind of monument is the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod. In addition to Moscow, stone fortresses are being built around a number of monasteries, as well as in Izborsk, Oreshok, Yama, Koporye and Porkhov.
The powerful rise of Russian culture at the end of the 14th century. was reflected in the development of Russian painting. One of the most early monuments monumental painting are the frescoes of the cathedral of the Snetogorsk monastery in Pskov (1313). The most important artist of this period was Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - 61

after 1405), Byzantine master. The fresco paintings of Theophanes the Greek in the surviving Novgorod churches are distinguished by extraordinary virtuosity of execution, freedom in handling eschatological traditions, and original monochrome execution in deep red-brown tones.
In addition to fresco painting, Theophanes the Greek is credited with depicting the Assumption on the back of a famous icon from the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow. The large icon from Pereyaslavl Zalessky belongs to his brush. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, a Russian national school of icon painting. This time dates back to the early period creativity of the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev.
A huge role in the development of culture in Rus' in this era was played by the great spiritual shepherds Metropolitan Alexy (c. 1310-1378) and Abbot Sergius of Radonezh (1314 (or 1319)-1392). The latter, the founder of the Trinity Monastery near Moscow, is the true inspirer of the struggle of the Russian people against Horde rule.

If during Kievan Rus the basis of economic development was foreign trade and exploitation natural resources, then by the end of the XII-XIII centuries. the economy reoriented towards agricultural production within the framework of the feudal fiefdom. This had a negative impact on the level of entrepreneurial activity. Even greater damage was caused by the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted almost two and a half centuries.

Villages and cities were destroyed, including a number of large economic centers: Vladimir, Ryazan, Tver, Suzdal, Kyiv. A significant part of the working population and means of production were destroyed. The payment of tribute meant the regular withdrawal of a significant part of the gross product. Center economic life moved to the northeast; which significantly changed the economy and life. Traditional foreign economic relations have sharply decreased. Critical incentives have been undermined economic activity: prosperity could only increase the tribute to the Golden Horde. The destruction (during the first period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion) of most of the large trading cities, the periodic deportations of skilled artisans to the Horde led to the decline of Russian crafts, and some of the industries were no longer revived (filigree, stone carving, etc.). Agriculture suffered significantly less trade and crafts. Its extensive development continued, and as a result, it gradually became a leading sector of the economy. It was during the Mongol period that Russia became predominantly agrarian. The center of commercial entrepreneurship remained in the north-west, where Veliky Novgorod survived the Tatar-Mongol invasion. On the one hand, the difficult natural conditions that hindered the development of agriculture in these areas played a certain role. The forested, swampy area, in which meadows and deciduous trees were rarely found in those days, was absolutely impassable for the equestrian Tatar hordes, who did not find enough food for their horses. The Tatars tried twice to conquer the Novgorod lands, and both times were unsuccessful. On the other hand, the Novgorodians, who had significant experience in dealing with eastern nomads, developed during the Volga trade, were able to diplomatically establish relations with the Golden Horde. Gifts to the khans and their entourage allowed Novgorod to get rid of oppression and even maintain the former freedom of trade on the Volga. Having lost practically nothing, during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke Novgorod managed to achieve the highest prosperity, remaining in fact the only major intermediary between Western and North-Eastern Europe, and partly Asia.

Thus, the center of Russian entrepreneurship during the period of the Mongol-Tatar conquest remained in Veliky Novgorod. Novgorod trade was based on the following principles: exploitation of the richest forestry industries of Northern Rus'; purchasing raw materials throughout Rus' for export to Hanseatic cities; close ties with the Hanseatic League; trade with the Volga region.

Forestry industries became somewhat scarcer compared to the early period, although furs still remained the main Russian product and often replaced money: fines were taken with furs, travel and trade duties were paid, and donations were even made to monasteries and churches. Furs were used not only in foreign trade, but also in domestic markets. Fur clothing not only protected from the cold, but was also a sign of social status. Thus, the lower classes wore only goat or sheepskin furs, while the upper classes dressed in squirrel, fox, beaver, mustel, and sable fur coats. Thus, each type of fur had its own market segment, and there was a steady demand for each type in the domestic market. Of course, not only Novgorodians traded such goods, but furs were concentrated primarily in their hands through an extensive network of trading agents and associated traders. The massive demand for fur in the domestic and foreign markets led to the depletion of resources in the Novgorod lands and gave rise to the need to colonize the north of the European part of Russia. As a result, Novgorodians came to the banks of the Northern Dvina, to the Vyatka and Pechora regions, to the Urals and even to Siberia. At the same time, Novgorodians rarely engaged directly in fishing outside the Novgorod lands, limiting themselves to buying, i.e. mediation operations, which were fraught with considerable dangers. Conducting trade required significant skills in military affairs, and in the XIV-XV centuries. A layer of merchant-warriors arose, called ushkuiniki, who made trips both to the northern territories and to the Volga on river oared vessels.

Fishing was of great importance for Novgorodians, since salted and dried fish were a convenient food product during long trading trips. In other areas, meat was more widely consumed. The Novgorodians' need for salt for processing fish early led to the emergence of salt making. Salt trades were no less important than fur trades.

As a result of the conquest by the German knights in the 13th century. Baltic territories, which previously belonged to the Pomeranian and Polabian Slavs, long-standing trade ties with northern Russian cities were interrupted. However, the vacated niche was soon filled by the trade and political union of North German cities - the Great German Hanse, which was formed in the 13th century. initially around Cologne and then around Lübeck.

The Hansa actively bought not only furs, but also bread, flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather, wool, sheepskins and other raw materials. The production of these goods in the Novgorod lands was insufficient even for their own consumption, and therefore local merchants actively bought them in other areas. Since the basis of the economic prosperity of Veliky Novgorod was intermediary trade, the preservation and development of trade relations with the Russian principalities was of great importance. Grain, wax, hemp and honey were bought mainly in the Dnieper region, flax - in the upper reaches of the Volga, as well as in the Smolensk and Pskov lands, leather, wool, sheepskins - partly on the Dnieper, but mainly from the Tatars and other nomads. Trade remained predominantly barter. Novgorod merchants brought furs, salt and items of Hanseatic trade, mainly metal products and fabrics, and wine, to domestic markets. At the same time, imported goods were highly valued. Being monopolists, Novgorod merchants set prices arbitrarily.

Internal: trade remained, as before, under the auspices of the church, which continued to maintain order in trade and moderation of interest on loans.

Trade people were still not allocated to a special class. Not only professionals, but also princes, clergy, and even peasants were engaged in trade. Moreover, engaging in trade significantly increased social status: for an offense inflicted on a trading person, the fine was doubled. The merchants had experience communicating with foreigners and therefore often participated in embassies. As a rule, they also had experience in military affairs.

In internal trade, Novgorodians were forced to widely use credit. Small merchants from the Russian principalities were used by Novgorod wholesalers and as sales agents for the purchase of raw materials. In case of lack of equity capital, agents required a loan. Credit transactions were certified by rumors (witnesses) and the clergy. Violation of obligations was considered a sin, so there was practically no non-repayment of loans in domestic trade. Obligations to people of other faiths were fulfilled less strictly, and therefore relations with them were more wary. Being very interested in buying raw materials, the Hanseatic people were forced to lend, but given the danger of not repaying the loan, they increased the price of goods and used other indirect means of reducing risk. Apparently, due to frequent non-returns, soon (the charter of the German court) of the 13th century. contains a ban on both providing loans and borrowing from Russians.

Novgorodians, in turn, were also not always satisfied with the quality of Hanseatic goods: wines, beer, jam, even salt. However, the great benefits from intermediary trade made relations with the Hansa attractive to the Novgorodians. The closest ties were established with the Hanseatic city of Lübeck. The Lübeck people founded a large trading court in Novgorod, called Petershof. There was an elected representative - the alderman of the courtyard, who was essentially a consul, as well as the alderman of St. Peter (after the name of the German church in the courtyard), who was in charge of the economic part, the center of which was the church of St. Peter. The procedure for interaction between Hanseatic and Novgorod merchants was strictly regulated by agreements; the intermediary was the main Hanseatic office in Novgorod. Hanseatic guests were divided into summer guests, who arrived by sea, and winter guests, who arrived by land. In 1344, fearing the strengthening of Novgorod's ties with German cities and possible competition, the Lübeck Senate decided to stop overland trade. There were no more winter guests in Novgorod.

Novgorodians were supposed to meet summer guests on Kotlin Island at the mouth of the Neva. A special bailiff and pilots were sent there, and they led the Hanseatic ships up the Neva and Lake Ladoga.

The charter of the Hanseatic trading court, which regulated the relationship of the Hansa with Novgorod, was a set of acts called skra. The skra was first compiled at the beginning of the 13th century; the second time at the end of the 13th century; in the third - in the middle of the 14th century. In addition, the Hanseatic people were guided by a charter in Latin (the so-called Latin charter), which was a kind of standard of Lübeck law, on the basis of which representatives of the Hanseatic League drew up agreements with one or another state. Naturally, the agreements drawn up on the basis of the Latin charter resolved all issues in favor of the Hanseatic people, with which Novgorod could not agree. The Hansa's privileges in Novgorod were fewer than in Sweden, Denmark or England. This was explained by the fact that the government of Novgorod did not have loan obligations to the Hansa, like the kings of England and Norway, on the one hand; on the other hand, the benefit of Novgorod trade for the Hansa consisted precisely in mediation with the East, which other countries did not provide.

At the same time, relations with the Hansa were legally formalized in accordance with the acts of the Skry and numerous agreements approved by the Novgorod government. At the same time, the Hanseatic. had significant privileges: they had the right not to allow Russians into their courtyard, loans were issued only with the consent of the main Hanseatic office and the Novgorod authorities. The Hansa leadership largely regulated the activities of its merchants. To keep prices high, the volume of imports of goods and money was limited. Thus, the Hanseatic people were allowed to import money in the amount of no more than 1 thousand marks, so that there would be no temptation to inflate prices when purchasing Novgorod goods, even if it seemed profitable. In its turn. Novgorod allowed German merchants only wholesale trade, and only as an exception, retail trade was allowed for teenagers on a small scale (for training purposes).

The methods of trade chosen were very simple: goods were bought from Novgorodians locally at higher prices than overseas, i.e. used a completely modern method of price competition. Thus, two goals were achieved, the first was to ruin the Gothic and Pomeranian trade, the second was to wean the Novgorodians from navigation, building ships, and sailing independently to foreign cities. Gradually these goals were achieved.

The monopoly of the Hansa and the restriction of independent trade in the West prompted the Novgorodians to concentrate their efforts in the East. Despite Tatar-Mongol invasion, already in 1265 Novgorod merchants traded widely on the Volga and even had permanent clerks and permanent shops in the capital of the Golden Horde - Capae. Furs, which were in great demand there, were still imported into the Horde, as well as European goods: lead, tin, linens, cloth, metalwork, walrus ivory. Bread, steppe and Asian goods were brought from the Horde: spices, dried fruits, flowers, medicinal herbs (aloe, camphor), silk and satin fabrics, gems, Jewelry, pearls, beads.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, other Western Russian lands conducted foreign trade less actively. Smolensk, Vitebsk and Polotsk lands traded mainly along the Western Dvina. In the middle of the 12th century. Bremen ships that accidentally found themselves at the mouth of the Dvina became convinced that profitable trade could be conducted there, and founded the trading posts of Ukskul and Dalen. Through these trading posts, Dvina trade fell into the hands of the Hanseatic people. Salt, malt, herring, wine, beer, silk, linen, etc. came from Riga to the Russian lands. By the 15th century. Even Moscow joined this trade, using mainly two ways to promote goods: the first route: Moscow - Smolensk - Grodno - Augustovo - Lik - Wildminnen - Koenigsberg; the second route: Moscow - Pskov - Riga - Curonian Lagoon - Memel (meaning the Neman River) - Schaaken - Koenigsberg.

A significant role in the economic development of Rus' was played by the transfer of the center of economic and political life from the southern regions to the northeast - into the interfluve of the Oka and Volga (the land of the Vyatichi). New shopping centers (Moscow, Kostroma, Ryazan, Tver) arose and grew rapidly in the 11th-12th centuries. They were located on profitable trade routes and were relatively less subject to destruction. As a result of the decline and plunder of the southern lands, it was to the northeast that refugees flowed in a stream, finding inhabited land there. Local princes showed interest in receiving and settling migrants. This favored the further colonization of the northeast, and then the north, the population increased, arable land expanded, and crafts developed. Subsequently, these lands became the stronghold of the new Russian state and the center of the fight against the Golden Horde.

Before the fall of Veliky Novgorod, Moscow could not become the center of foreign trade of Rus', but already from the 14th century. it was a significant center of internal trade. According to the testimony of foreigners, Muscovites had an extraordinary penchant for small trade; almost every resident of Moscow traded in something. The markets of Moscow were extremely crowded and lively. Connections with the East gave rise to a certain penchant for oriental luxury; Moscow became a major consumer of Asian goods.

The trading rules of Muscovites were in many ways similar to the trading rules of Novgorodians, but it was believed that Moscow merchants were more conscientious and less selfish. Muscovites showed interest in fishing and craft activities, striving to use foreign experience, especially Asian experience. This was the key to the future commercial prosperity of Moscow, which relied not only on trade, but also on production activities. At the same time, craft production developed a work culture, and, accordingly, a general culture.

After the establishment of Peaceful relations with the Tatars in the south, the Don Road acquired great importance. So Muscovite Rus' established trade relations with the Italians who traded on the Taninsky route. The goods were sent to the city of Dankov on the Don and further along the Don to Azov, some even ended up in Kafa (Feodosia). The Don Road played an important role in Moscow's trade with the Crimean Tatars. South Tatar trade was concentrated in the city of Surozh and was of serious importance for Moscow. Guests from Surozh enjoyed significant privileges in Moscow. The Don trade flourished in the 15th century, but it did not last long. The fall, apparently, was connected, firstly, with the increasing frequency of robbery attacks on the Don by Ryazan and Azov Cossacks; secondly, with the transfer of centers of Italian trade with Asia in connection with the opening of new trade routes by Europeans. The Don route continued to be used by the Nogais, who delivered mainly horses to Moscow. The Nogai trade was important for Moscow, connecting Rus' with the peoples of the Caucasus and even with Persia. Trade along the Northern Dvina and in the northeast had not yet received significant development and during the period under review was of a purely local nature. The main routes of communication were still rivers. The shortage of stone was the reason for the lack of paved roads such as those in Western Europe. Overland freight transportation was only possible in winter along frozen rivers and in the steppes. Moreover, additional difficulties arose due to the lack of horses. Trade was also complicated by the fact that, when crossing desert territories, merchants could always be attacked by bandits or nomads. We should not forget that the period under review is a time of unrest and civil strife. All these factors significantly hampered the development of trade relations and reduced entrepreneurial activity.

With the exception of the Novgorod and northern lands, in all Russian lands the main source of prosperity was agriculture. Resettlement to the Upper Volga region from the more fertile and warm Dnieper region required new approaches to organizing the economy and life, and left its mark on the nature of labor and trade. Rural settlements and settlements became smaller than in Kievan Rus, where villages were, as a rule, large. It was necessary to conquer islands from nature for agricultural cultivation. Since the forests in the north were denser, it was necessary to return to the slash-and-shift farming system in a more complex form than before. The abundance of swamps made it even more difficult to find suitable sites. The loamy soil required fertilizers, and the peasant was forced to burn the forest in order to short term increase soil fertility, and then went in search of a new place. This led to a gradual movement to the northeast, away from the raids of nomads and the exactions of the Golden Horde.

Let us note that colonization proceeded mainly peacefully: in the order not of conquest, but of settlement of free territories, on which islands of habitation of the Chuds, the people of the Finno-Ugric group, were only rarely found.

At the same time, the processes of consolidation have intensified land ownership for service people. If in Kievan Rus the service of the prince was rewarded through a system of feeding, and by the 12th century. cash salary (due to the fact that foreign trade provided significant funds), then during the period of appanage principalities, these items of income became extremely unreliable due to the impoverishment of the economy of both princes and the population. The search for more stable sources of income led to the development of land tenure. There were incentives to stop the migration of the population, make it more settled and consolidated on the land.

Low soil fertility forced the search for additional sources of life support. Forests and rivers provided raw materials that could be processed during the long autumn-winter period. Thus, conditions have long been created for the development of local rural crafts, which later became known as handicrafts. Although the decline and stagnation in the development of urban crafts and trade gradually pushed agriculture, which continued to develop, into the main branch of the Russian economy, the enterprising population mastered new types of activities, such as tar smoking, salt making, ironwork, etc. At the same time, hunting and hunting, which had already become traditional, were not forgotten. beekeeping.

Constant movement, new living conditions, variability and unpredictability of nature have given rise to new features of the nature of work: on the one hand, observation and caution, necessary in unfamiliar conditions, and on the other, a willingness to take risks and play luck, which is usually called " hope for the Russian maybe." Impermanence external environment made the concept of labor discipline relative, but cultivated labor ingenuity and endurance, unpretentiousness and patience. These newly acquired in the XIII-XV centuries. qualities of the Russian character are to a certain extent found to this day in Russian economic culture.

A significant increase in yield was greatly hampered by the shortage of horses and livestock, which was observed almost everywhere in the Russian lands. Only after 1380, when the pressure of the Mongol-Tatar yoke diminished, did crafts begin to revive.

Mills appeared only in the 14th century; before that, grain was ground on hand millstones. Vegetable growing and horticulture developed, but had a purely consumer value. Fisheries also developed rapidly and widely. Ownership of waters and fisheries was combined with the right to land ownership.

IN ancient Russian state there was no unified monetary system, although by the end of the period under review there was more coined money in circulation, since from the 14th century. coinage resumed. In the Principality of Moscow, Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy began minting the Tatar silver coin - dengu, then other principalities joined the process. The dominant monetary unit in the Russian principalities was the silver ruble, obtained from a silver stick chopped into small pieces and flattened. The coins were irregular in shape, weighing in most cases about 0.25 pounds of silver, but sometimes significantly less. Therefore, when concluding transactions, money was necessarily weighed. A ruble contained 100 money, 6 money were equal to an altyn, and one money was equal to 4 half rubles. Foreign coins were used in circulation, which were accepted by weight at the rate of 0.25 pounds of silver per ruble; gold was valued at 12 times more expensive.

The large number of principalities gave rise to many trade duties. The main type of duties was washed, i.e. payment from a cart or boat for passage to a certain place, a kind of customs duty. In addition, for trade in churches, and this was commonplace, a fee was charged for the right to trade - tithe (10% of the value of the goods). The tax collectors were called mytniks, and the tithe was collected by elected representatives from among the merchants - foremen. Myto gathered in different places several times and was not large. The right to collect toll belonged to the princes, but they often transferred or donated this right to the church and even to private individuals. The size of the moat could vary greatly. In addition to customs and tithes, during the time of the Tatar-Mongols, a tax was levied on capital - tamga. The size of the tamga also varied, but, as a rule, it amounted to 7 money per ruble from the sales volume. For evading the payment of customs, a fine was collected, called “promyt”; for evading the payment of tamga, a fine was collected - “protamozhe”.

A number of duties were levied not for the treasury, but for the improvement of trade itself: for the creation of warehouses and scales; for payment and maintenance of guards at warehouses; for branding services, etc. Such duties were usually calculated based on the actual volume of the goods, but partly also on the cost.

Duties were divided into darazh and customs. The first were paid at the outposts, while tamga was not collected; customs - directly in cities along with tamga. Darazh duties were taken from transit goods, customs duties only when the goods entered the market.

Only the clergy were exempt from paying duties; other traders, regardless of class, were obliged to pay.

The duty system was extremely complex and burdened not so much with the size of the fee, but with the variety of types and sizes. Merchants could never plan the amount of taxes in advance and therefore inflated the price in order to remain profitable in any case.

In foreign trade, things were simpler. Foreigners did not impose duties on Russian goods at all due to their high profitability, agreeing to pay export duties on Russian goods. The Hansa, which itself paid import duties, did not impose duties on Russian goods. Duties on the Dvina, Don and Volga were not levied on either imported or exported goods. The Tatars were content with gifts from Russian merchants and did not collect any duties.

Foreigners in Russian lands paid some special taxes. Foreigners paid all duties without complaint due to the extreme profitability of Russian trade. High profits were ensured due to the difference in prices between Russia and Europe, which arose as a result of the artificial isolation of Rus' created by the Hansa.

Economic and social upheavals of the 13th century. trade and crafts fell into decline for a long time, but gradually life improved, which was greatly facilitated by the preserved trade ties with the northern Russian lands. In the Russian Volga region by the 14th century. became an important trading center Nizhny Novgorod, where the Tatars actively traded.

The inability to clearly predict the results of economic activity has created a tendency to analyze the past rather than to set goals and determine ways to achieve them.

The gradual restoration of commodity production and the rise of great duchies and cities were created in the second half of the 14th century. conditions for the resumption of Russian coinage.

Thus, during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and feudal fragmentation, entrepreneurial activity did not freeze, but continued to develop, adapting to new conditions. The movement of the economic center to the north-west stimulated the interaction of disparate Russian lands, and also made it possible to create a system of relationships with Asian partners. The preservation of the center of foreign trade with Western Europe in Veliky Novgorod and Pskov also contributed to the preservation and development of the entrepreneurial spirit, although trade there was limited mainly to intermediation.

The primary concern of the church rulers was the restoration and increase of the material property of the church.

This was greatly facilitated by the fact that the Mongol-Tatar conquerors endowed the church in Rus', as well as everywhere in the countries they conquered, with great privileges. The church was exempt from paying tribute to the Horde. The possessions of the church became inviolable. The conquerors understood the power of church influence and, not without reason, hoped to receive their ally in her person. The privileged position of the church was one of the most important reasons, according to which the church in the XIV - XV centuries, especially in North-Eastern Rus', became the largest feudal landowner. The acquisitiveness of the church has always been justified by “divine” interests. In the acts that assigned land ownership to the church, it was usually written that the land did not belong to the monastery itself, but to the “Most Pure Mother of God,” “Holy Trinity,” etc. Letter of grant from the Ryazan Grand Duke Oleg Ivanovich to the Olgov Monastery in the second half of the 14th century. was richly decorated with images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, apostles, and saints; this expressed the sacredness of monastic ownership of land. The lands of monasteries, metropolitan houses, episcopal sees, cathedral churches grew in different ways. Princely grants played a significant role in the growth of church land ownership, but it should be borne in mind that in many cases princely charters only formalized the possessions of clergymen on peasant lands they had already seized.

The formation of the Russian people is associated with the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the creation of a centralized Russian state around Moscow in the 14th-15th centuries. This state included the northern and north-eastern ancient Russian lands, where, in addition to the descendants of the Slavs - the Vyatichi, Krivichi and Slovenes, there were many immigrants from other regions. In the 14th-15th centuries. these lands began to be called Russia in the 16th century. - Russia. Neighbors called the country Muscovy. The names “Great Rus'” as applied to lands inhabited by Russians, “Little Rus'” to Ukrainian lands, and “White Rus'” to Belarusian lands appeared in the 15th century. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, along with the ancient name, Russians were sometimes called Great Russians. The colonization of the northern lands by the Slavs (the Baltics, Zavolochye), which began in ancient times, Verkh. The Volga and Kama regions continued in the 14th-15th centuries, and in the 16th-17th centuries. Russian population appeared in the Middle and Lower Volga region and in Siberia. The Russians came into close contact with other peoples here, exerted economic and cultural influence and themselves perceived the best achievements of their economy and culture.