What is interesting about the literature of the second half of the 20th century. Literature of the second half of the twentieth century
XX - EARLY XXI CENTURIES
Literature of the second half of the 20th century.
Literature of the second half of the 20th century. felt the impact of the two world wars that had just ended. Half the world lay in ruins, the number of human victims was measured in the millions. Humanity could not recover from the shock of the crimes of German Nazism and Soviet Stalinism...
The Second World War split the world into two “poles”: the socialist camp, led by the USSR, and the capitalist camp, led by the United States. Of course, such a political, economic and cultural “bipolarity” of the world could not but affect the development of the cultural and literary process. If in the USSR and socialist countries socialist realism was intensively implanted, then in the West the equality of vectors of cultural and literary development prevailed.
Of course, the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. marked by comprehension of the bitter experience of world wars (especially the Second World War and the Resistance movement to fascism). In Germany (the country from where Hitlerism began its bloody campaign), the literature of reckoning with the past dealt with such comprehension. A striking phenomenon of this literature is the work of the German writer Heinrich Böll, already familiar to you. Remember the difficult thoughts of the anonymous hero of the story “Traveler, when you come to Spa...” over what, exactly, did he fight for and for what ideals was he crippled? Such reflections are not limited to one single character - they were pondered by millions of former Wehrmacht soldiers and other Germans who saw the shameful defeat of Hitler's ambitions and claims to world domination. Another of the German writers who developed similar themes was the outstanding playwright Bertolt Brecht. In his drama “The Life of Galileo” he raises the acute problem of a scientist’s responsibility for his discoveries. Should a scientist serve any power, especially one that can use his discovery to harm other people? After all, do not forget that this drama was written at a time when humanity faced new, previously unheard of threats. It is worth remembering at least the horrors of a nuclear fire, which instantly claimed the lives of tens of thousands of residents of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and nuclear weapons were developed not by some semi-literate ignoramuses, but by intellectuals, scientists, and highly educated specialists. And does this make it any easier for mothers whose children were burned in a nuclear flame? The Chernobyl tragedy of 1986 was still almost half a century away, but the writer made a “diagnosis”, and one cannot help but pay tribute to the gift of this seer, who even in those years warned: “The atomic bomb both as a technical and as a social phenomenon- this is the final result scientific achievements and social failure"...
Reflections on what man and the world are in a situation where all traditional fundamental ideals Western civilization(humanism, faith in man (“The crown of creation is man”), her mind, in scientific, technical and social progress, etc.) were, if not completely destroyed, then questioned, and such a phenomenon as the philosophy of existentialism arises.
It is significant that the most outstanding existentialist philosophers of the 20th century. were also outstanding writers. This situation was reminiscent of the times of the Enlightenment, when literary geniuses - Voltaire, D. Diderot, J. J. Rousseau and others - were at the same time outstanding philosophers: they propagated and disseminated their ideas through fiction. In the middle of the 20th century. This combination, of course, was also not accidental, because it was at this time that the allegorical, different, parabolic nature of literary works came to the fore.
In general, the use of parabola, allegory, and parable is a favorite technique of writers of the second half of the 20th century. Thus, the French existentialist writer Albert Camus in his famous novel “The Plague,” he seemed to depict the epidemic of this terrible disease in the city of Oran. In fact, there are dozens of associations (“fascism is the brown plague”), hints (black smoke, like the smoke of the crematoria of concentration camps), precautions (the plague bacillus never disappears, just as the danger of a repetition of fascism does not disappear) indicate a deep, different layer, subtext this literary masterpiece.
One of the French existentialist philosophers and at the same time a famous writer, Jean Paul Sartre, stated: “Existentialism is humanism.” Even in the allegorical novel by A. Camus “The Plague” there is a direct author’s recognition: “People are more deserving of admiration than of disdain.” And at the same time, the author has a courageous position of resistance to evil, since, according to the author’s testimony, the meaning of the novel lies in highlighting the “struggle of the European Resistance against fascism” (it is very important that the existentialist writers themselves took part in the resistance movement against the fascists).
Familiarity and parable-likeness are also inherent in the work of the famous American writer Ernest Hemingway. It is the deep philosophical subtext (the famous “iceberg principle”) inherent in many of his works, including the story “The Old Man and the Sea.” By external simple drawing(old Santiago caught, but could not save the fish) a hidden associative series that the number of comments on this work several times exceeded its volume.
From the second half of the 20th century. actively enters the world cultural space fiction Japan. Thanks to translations, Western readers are reading the works of Japanese authors. Since 1945, Japan has firmly embarked on a course of liberal democratic reforms, which contributed to its rapid political, economic and cultural revival and growth (the “Japanese miracle”), which continues today. Immediately after the end of the war, all ideological prohibitions and dictates were lifted, and already at the end of 1945, new literary periodicals were organized, and the publication of works written “on the table” during the war by such outstanding masters of words as Tanizaki Junichiro and Naoya Shiga began.
The second half of the 1940s - 1950s saw the activity of two significant literary groups, "Sengoha" ("post-war" - an analogue of the French literary group "after the war"), which arose in January 1946 around the magazine "Kindai Bungaku" ("Literature new era"). The writers of this group advocated the revival and democratization of literature, tried to separate literature from politics and orient it towards the traditions of Russian and modern Western modernist literature. The leading themes in the work of the writers of the “post-war group” were condemnation of war, showing the suffering it brings, the fate of the “little man”, deceived by the false ideals of the past. The activities of this group are associated with the introduction to literature of one of the most prominent representatives of post-war Japanese literature, Kobo Abe. In the late 1950s - 1970s appears in Japanese literature a large number of autobiographical, everyday, detective, historical works, as well as works that are characterized by an in-depth study of human psychology (Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima, Kenzaburo Oe, etc.). The artistic arsenal of writers of this time consists mainly of techniques of avant-garde literature.
In 1968, Japanese writer Yasunari Kawabata (1899-1972) became the first Nobel laureate in the field of literature for achievements in the field literary creativity. Kawabata is widely known abroad for numerous translations of his works, such as “The Land of Snow”, “A Thousand Cranes”, “ Ancient capital", "The Moan of the Mountain", etc. His style is permeated with a desire for beauty, extraordinary lyricism and heightened sensitivity. He managed to delicately combine the best of the literary techniques of the East and West.
The success of Japanese literature was no coincidence. This is evidenced by the fact that in 1994 the Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to another Japanese writer, Kenzaburo Oe. And the current popularity of the Japanese writer Haruki Murakami is another evidence of the unusual interest that Japanese culture and literature have in the world.
Another remarkable phenomenon of the literary process of the second half of the 20th century. is the revitalization of the literatures of the “third world” countries, in particular the emergence of the novel and poetry of Latin America in the 1950s and 1960s to the forefront of world literature. In the 1960s, the Latin American novel experienced unprecedented prosperity. Soon he received worldwide recognition. Among its most prominent representatives are G. Garcia Marquez (Colombia), G. Asturias (Guatemala), A. Carpentier (Cuba), C. Fuentes (Mexico), X. Cortazar (Argentina), M. Vargas Llosa (Peru) and etc.
The renewal of the Latin American novel is taking place in two main directions. Firstly, the narrative style has been modernized: in the arsenal of modern Latin American writers there are complex techniques of composition and narration, time shifts, editing, stream of consciousness, polyphony, elements of fantasy, generalized symbolic forms, complex neo-mythological models, equal reminiscences and allusions.
Secondly, the themes of the Latin American novel were significantly modernized. He actively absorbs the high intellectual achievements of world culture. At the same time, a new phase in the development of the Latin American novel is characterized by a deepening interest in national culture. However, unlike previous attempts, which for the most part concerned the external, mainly ethnographic realities of Latin American reality, representatives of the new novel with social and everyday signs are trying to comprehend the deep, root foundations of national existence. It is from here that deep interest in the mythological origins of modern culture, which, according to many artists, predetermine originality and originality national type thinking and worldview, act as its hidden driving forces and give it a deep, philosophical and symbolic meaning.
This gives rise to a striking characteristic feature of the new Latin American novel, called magical realism, that is, such a method of depicting reality in which the rational-logical picture of the world is intricately combined with illogical, mythological forms of its semantic measurement and interpretation. The origins of magical realism can be traced back to 1949, when the first works appeared, beginning with the novels “A Kingdom of This World” by A. Carpentier and “The Corn People” by M. Asturias.
The characteristic heroes of works of magical realism are the Indians, who are carriers of a radically different type of thinking and worldview from the European one. Magic realism reached its peak achievements in the work of one of the most prominent representatives of Latin American and at the same time world literature, Gabriel García Márquez. Thus, in his famous novel “One Hundred Years of Solitude”, the features of the mythological worldview (for example, the possibility of the “return” of heroes after death) are combined with the most real signs of the socio-political life of Latin America in the mid-20th century. At the same time, the artistic achievements of the new Latin American novel are not limited to the use of elements of a magical-mythological type of worldview and actively absorb the entire arsenal of artistic techniques from surrealism to postmodernism. The range of topics is just as wide that it is being developed by the modern Latin American novel.
All of the above gives reason to talk about activation in the second half of the 20th century. leading genres of intellectual prose - the parabolic novel and the mythical novel. No wonder one of the most famous modernists of the 20th century. T. S. Eliot noted: “Instead of the narrative method, we can now use the mythical method.”
It should be noted that a distinctive feature of the literary process last third XX century began the development of modernism into postmodernism.
Now we live in the new 21st century, the years and decades of which are also becoming history... Everything in this world repeats itself, including the “border of centuries”...
Transcript
1 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION OMSK STATE UNIVERSITY RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE XX CENTURY (second half) Practical training program for fifth-year students of the Faculty of Philology Published by Omsk Omsk State University 2002
2 Russian literature of the twentieth century (second half): Practical training program for fifth-year students of the Faculty of Philology / V.I. Khomyakov. Omsk: Omsk. state university, s. The methodological instructions are a systematized set of the most important topics for practical classes in Russian literature of the twentieth century. Each topic is accompanied short bibliography and task. All topics are organically connected with the problems of the lecture historical and literary course given at the Faculty of Philology of Omsk State University. The work was approved as guidelines by the Department of Russian Literature of the 20th Century and Journalism of Omsk State University and the editorial commission of the Faculty of Philology of Omsk University,
3 Practical classes occupy an important place in the preparation of a philology student. The combination of lecture courses with practical ones allows you to intensify the learning process, make it lively and dynamic. During independent work in practical classes, students have the opportunity to concretize lecture and educational material, comprehend both general and specific laws of the literary process, learn to analyze text, collect bibliographic material, and work with critical literature. The author of the proposed methodological instruction takes into account that the course of twentieth-century literature is the final course in the study of Russian literature. Because of this, he views Russian literature as a logical link in the development of Russian literature. Given a certain independence of those sections that are highlighted in the manual, they should not be considered in isolation, but only in interaction. The study of Russian literature of the twentieth century is based on already studied courses in Russian and foreign literature, aesthetics and philosophy. All this allows us to better understand the leading trends in the literature of the twentieth century and understand its complex and dramatic history. Formulating the basic requirements for practical classes, the author of this manual proceeds from the fact that students must, firstly, carefully study the works indicated in the plan; secondly, they must be able to work with bibliography, scientific and critical literature; thirdly, be able to compare different points of view, testing them with independent observations of a literary text. The skills acquired in practical classes will help in the development of a future language teacher and journalist. The work was approved as methodological guidelines by the Department of Russian Literature of the 20th Century and Journalism of Omsk University and the editorial commission of the Faculty of Philology
4 LESSON 1 POEM BY A. TVARDOVSKY “VASILY TERKIN”. ITS GENRE AND ARTISTIC FEATURES Task 1. Prepare an abstract report on the genre-compositional originality of the poem of the war years. 2. Learn by heart any passage from the poem. Plan 1. Genre-compositional originality of the poem of the war years (N. Tikhonov “Kirov with us”, O. Berggolts “February Diary”, V. Inber “Pulkovo Meridian”, M. Aliger “Zoya”, P. Antokolsky “Son”) . 2. Creative history of A. Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”. 3. Genre originality of the poem. Features of the composition. 4. The image of Terkin in the poem. Observe how the author correlates the hero’s behavior and experiences with the course of the war. 5. The image of the author and his function in the poem. 6. Artistic skill of A. Tvardovsky (nationality of the poem, role folklore traditions, humor in the work). Features of poetic vocabulary and phraseology. LITERATURE Literary texts Tvardovsky A. Vasily Terkin. Main 1. Tvardovsky A. How “Vasily Terkin” was written (answer to readers) // Tvardovsky A. Collection. Op.: In 6 vols. M., T. 5. From “Vasily Terkin” folk epic. Voronezh, Lyubareva E.P. Epic by A. Tvardovsky. M., (Chapter 2 “For the sake of life on earth”). 4
5 4. Kondratovich A. Alexander Tvardovsky. 2nd ed. M., (Chapter “Terkin and his author”). 5. Grishunin A.L. “Vasily Terkin” by A. Tvardovsky. M., Additional 1. Roshchin P.F. Poem by A. Tvardovsky “Vasily Terkin”: A manual for teachers. 2nd ed. M., Kotov M.S. In Tvardovsky's poetry workshop. Saratov, Makarov A. Alexander Tvardovsky and his book about a fighter // Makarov A. Coming after. M., Turkov A. Alexander Tvardovsky. M., Abramov A. Lyrics and epic of the Great Patriotic War: Issues, poetic style. 2nd ed. M., Dementyev V. Alexander Tvardovsky. M., Makedonov A. Tvardovsky’s creative path. Houses and roads. M., Memoirs of A. Tvardovsky. M., LESSON 2 ARTISTIC SKILLS OF A. PLATONOV (based on the writer’s military prose) Task 1. Read 3-4 stories of the writer during the war years. Make statements in workbook in accordance with the points of the plan and the list critical literature. 2. Clarify, based on the work of literary scholars, the concept of “style” literary work. Plan 1. Creative biography of Andrei Platonov (general characteristics). 2. The philosophical concept of man and the world in the writer’s work (using the example of works known to you). 5
6 3. How are the plots of the analyzed works constructed? What makes them unique? 4. What artistic techniques does the writer use to create this or that human character? Determine the features of Plato’s style, make notes in your notebook of the most original phrases and phrases. LITERATURE Literary texts Platonov A. Spiritualized people, Mother (Recovery of the dead), Inanimate enemy, Aphrodite, Girl Rose, Return. Main 1. Poltavtseva N. Philosophy of Andrei Platonov’s prose. Rostov-on-Don, Vasiliev V. Andrey Platonov. M., Akimov V. A soldier begins with a thought about the fatherland... // A. Platonov. Spiritualized people. M., Shubin L. Searches for the meaning of separate and common existence. M., Chalmaev V. Andrey Platonov. M., Land of Philosophers by Andrei Platonov. Sat. M., Additional 1. Zalygin S. Fairy tales of a realist and the realism of a storyteller // Questions of literature, 1971, Evtushenko E. Platonov’s fate // Soviet culture, 1988, August 20. 3. Semenova S. Overcoming tragedy. M., (Chapter “In an effort towards the future tense” Philosophy of Andrei Platonov). 4. Karasev L. Signs of abandoned childhood (“permanent” in A. Platonov) // Questions of Philosophy, 1990, Varlamov A. Platonov and Shukshin. Geopolitical axes of Russian literature // Moscow, 1988, 2. 6
7 6. Radbil T.B. Mythology of language by Andrei Platonov. Nizhny Novgorod, Khryashcheva N.P. “Boiling Universe” by Andrei Platonov. Dynamics of image creation and world comprehension. Ekaterinburg; Sterlitamak, LESSON 3 LATE LYRICS OF N. ZABOLOTSKY Task 1. general characteristics creative evolution N. Zabolotsky. 2. Learn by heart one poem by N. Zabolotsky from the cycle “ last love"and make it written analysis. Plan 1. Features of N. Zabolotsky’s early lyrics. Zabolotsky and the Oberiuts. 2. The main themes and motives of N. Zabolotsky’s late lyrics. What do you find the connection and difference between Zabolotsky’s early lyrics and his late creativity? 3. Describe the image of the poet’s lyrical hero: his spiritual world, his experiences. 4. Analyze the features of Zabolotsky’s poetics: what artistic traditions the poet relies, his features poetic language, verse form. LITERATURE Literary texts Zabolotsky N.: Stolbtsy; cycle “Last Love”; Ugly girl; Old actress; About the beauty of human faces; Don't let your soul be lazy; Give me a corner, starling. 7
8 Main 1. Makedonov A. Nikolai Zabolotsky. L., Rostovtseva I. Nikolai Zabolotsky. M., Turkov A. Nikolay Zabolotsky. M., Gerasimova A. OBERIU (the problem of the funny) // Questions of literature, 1988, 4. Additional 1. Alfonsov V. Words and colors. Essays on the history of creative connections between poets and artists. M.-L., Memoirs of N. Zabolotsky. 2nd ed. M., Zabolotsky N. Life N.A. Zabolotsky. M., LESSON 4 THE MORAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL WORLD OF B. PASTERNAK’S NOVEL “DOCTOR ZHIVAGO” Task 1. Get acquainted with various critical assessments of the novel and determine your attitude towards them. 2. Learn by heart one poem from their cycle “Poems of Yuri Zhivago” and make a written analysis of it in a notebook. Plan 1. The writer’s path to the novel “Doctor Zhivago” and his creative history. 2. The image of Yuri Zhivago. a) trace the main stages in the development of the hero’s personality; b) show, using specific examples from the text, how the hero’s fate relates to historical events, what position he takes in the debate about humanism and cruelty, about the morality of choice, about art. 3. Female images in the novel. Pay attention to the main stages in the development of Lara's character. 8
9 4. Historical destinies Russia in the artistic consciousness of the novel's heroes. (Pay attention to the historical and philosophical judgments of Vedenyapin, Gordon and other heroes about the idea of a free individual, about the idea of life as a sacrifice. The attitude of the heroes to Russia, to the people, to the revolution and war). 5. The artistic perfection of the novel. a) what is the plot and compositional role"Poems of Yuri Zhivago." b) what is unique about the genre and composition of the novel; c) the role of gospel motifs and images in the novel; d) features psychological characteristics characters in the novel "Doctor Zhivago". LITERATURE Literary text Pasternak B. “Doctor Zhivago.” Main 1. Likhachev D.S. Reflections on B. Pasternak’s novel “Doctor Zhivago” // New World, Borisov V.M., Pasternak E.B. Materials for the creative history of B. Pasternak’s novel “Doctor Zhivago” // New World, 1988, Discussing B. Pasternak’s novel “Doctor Zhivago” // Questions of literature, “Doctor Zhivago” yesterday and today // Lit. Newspaper, 1988, June 15. 5. Piskunova S., Piskunov V. Our everyday immortality // Literary review, 1988, Gorelov P.G. Reflections on the novel // For altars and hearths. M., “Doctor Zhivago” by B. Pasternak: C different points vision. Sat. materials and articles. M., Smirnov Igor P. Novel of secrets “Doctor Zhivago”. M.,
10 Additional 1. Ivanova N. The Death and Resurrection of Yuri Zhivago // Youth, 1988, Kuzicheva A. Diagnosis of “Doctor Zhivago” // Book Review, 1988, June 24. 3. Kolobaeva L. From the temporary to the eternal // Questions of literature, 1988, Vilmont N. About Boris Pasternak. Memories and thoughts. M., Correspondence of Boris Pasternak M., To the 100th anniversary of the birth of B.L. Pasternak // Questions of literature, 1990, Ovchinnikov N.F. B.L. Pasternak: search for a calling (from philosophy to poetry) // Questions of Philosophy, 1990, “And behind me is the noise of the chase.” Boris Pasternak and power. Documents M., LESSON 5 STORY BY A. SOLZHENITSYN “ONE DAY IN IVAN DENISOVICH” IN THE CONTEXT OF CAMP PROSE Task 1. Get acquainted with various critical assessments of these works and determine your attitude towards them. 2. Write down in your workbook the most characteristic words and figures of speech that reflect the features of the writers’ style. Plan 1. Camp, its structure and purpose. The social hierarchy of camp life and its laws (based on the story of A. Solzhenitsyn). Compare this description with the image of the camp by V. Shalamov, G. Vladimov, S. Dovlatov. What are the similarities and what are the differences? 10
11 2. The image of Ivan Denisovich Shukhov in Solzhenitsyn’s story. What, from your point of view, shows the wisdom of Shukhov’s behavior in the camp? Comment on the episodes that reveal the character of the hero, his attitude to camp life. 3. How does V. Shalamov’s “Kolyma Stories” express the author’s attitude to the problem of survival in the camp? (for example, you can take the stories “Single Measurement”, “Berry”, “To the Show”). 4. Compare the endings of Solzhenitsyn’s stories “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” and V. Shalamov’s “Single Measurement”. How do they reveal the author's position, the author's view of the fate of a person behind barbed wire? How does Shalamov “object” to Solzhenitsyn? 5. What are the camp “commandments” in the works of S. Dovlatov and G. Vladimov? How do these writers answer the “damned” Russian question, “who is to blame” for the fact that the destinies of many people are distorted? LITERATURE Literary texts Solzhenitsyn A. One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich; Shalamov V. Kolyma stories; Dovlatov S. Zone; Vladimov G. Verny Ruslan. Main 1. Lakshin V. Ivan Denisovich, his friends and enemies // New World, 1964, Lakshin V. Magazine paths. From the literary polemics of the 60s. M., Tertz A. People and animals. Based on the book by G. Vladimov “Faithful Ruslan” // Questions of literature, 1990, Vinokur T.G. Happy new year, fifty-second // Questions of literature, 1991, Timofeev L. Poetics camp prose// October, 1991, Shklovsky E. Varlam Shalamov. M., Palamarchuk P.G. Alexander Solzhenitsyn. Guide. M.,
12 8. Niva Zh. Solzhenitsyn. M., Genis A. Dovlatov and its surroundings // New World, 1993, Muromsky V.P. From the history of literary controversy around the story by A.I. Solzhenitsyn “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” // Literature at school, 1994, Sukhikh I. Sergei Dovlatov: time, place, fate. St. Petersburg, Additional 1. Reshetovskaya P.E. Alexander Solzhenitsyn and reading Russia. M., Shalamov V. From the literary heritage // Znamya, 1990, Lakshin V. “New World” during the time of Khrushchev. Diary and incidental (). M., Spivakovsky P.E. The phenomenon of A.I. Solzhenitsyn: a new look. M., Mikhailik A. Another shore // New Literary Review, 1997, 28. LESSON 6 LYRICS OF THE “SIXties”: ANALYSIS OF THE CREATIVE INDIVIDUALITY OF ONE OF THE POETS (B. AKHMADULINA, R. ROZHDESTVNSKY, E. YEVTUSHENKO, B. OKUDZHAVA, A. VOZNESENSKY) Task 1. Select the work of one of the poets for specific analysis. 2. Compose thesis plan analysis and draw a general conclusion about the characteristic features of the poet’s lyrics, using the points of the plan. 3. Learn by heart one poem by any poet and make a written analysis of it. 12
13 Plan 1. Brief description of life and creative path poet. 2. What social processes reflected in the poet's lyrics? 3. Identify the range of main themes and motifs characteristic of the work of this poet. 4. The image of the lyrical hero, his spiritual world. 5. The art of words, rhythm, rhyme. LITERATURE Literary texts Lyrics by B. Akhmadulina, R. Rozhdestvensky, E. Yevtushenko, A. Voznesensky, B. Okudzhava of the 60s. Main 1. Zaitsev V. Modern Soviet poetry. M., Mikhailov A. Rhythms of time. Sketches about Russian Soviet poetry of our days. M., Gusev V. In anticipation of the new. About some features of the literature of the sixties. M., Lavlinsky L. Heart explosive power. About lyric poetry of the 60s. M, And our thoughts were pure About one meeting thirty years later // Ogonyok, 1987, 9. Select literature on the work of specific poets yourself. 13
14 LESSON 7 PEOPLE AND TIME IN Y. TRIFONOV’S STORIES Task 1. Read two stories by Y. Trifonov of your choice. 2. Prepare a summary report on the topic: “The main stages of the life and work of Yu. Trifonov.” 3. Based on the analysis of one of the stories, draw a conclusion about the uniqueness of the conflict and the peculiarities of the poetics of the work. Give examples of quotes from the text. Plan 1. The main stages of the life and work of Yu. Trifonov. 2. Life and being in the stories of Yu. Trifonov. How does the writer solve the problem of the collision of material and spiritual values? 3. Heroes of Yu. Trifonov and variants of moral programs and norms. The everyday and socio-psychological significance of the situation of exchange in the stories of Yu. Trifonov. 4. The author's attitude to the position of the heroes. 5. Mastery of plotting, “key word” as one of the features of the narrative. The originality of the writer's psychologism. LITERATURE Literary texts Exchange, Preliminary results, Long farewell, Another life. (two stories of your choice) Main 1. Pankin B. In a circle or in a spiral // Friendship of Peoples, 1977, Terakopyan L. Urban stories by Y. Trifonov // Trifonov Y. Another life. M., Velembovskaya I. Sympathies and antipathies of Yu. Trifonov // New World, 1980, 9. 14
15 4. Ivanova N. Prose by Yu. Trifonova. M., Turkov A. Eternal flame. M., Additional 1. Bocharov A. Demanding love. The concept of personality in modern Soviet literature. M., Sakharov V. Renewing world: Notes on current literature. M., Tekevelyan D. Day of worries. Reflections on urban prose of the 1920s. M., Belaya G. Artistic world modern prose. M., Trifonov Yu. How our word will respond. M., LESSON 8 ORIGINALITY OF CONFLICT IN LATE STORIES BY V.M. SHUKSHINA Task 1. Prepare a report on the topic: “Disputes about “village prose” in criticism and literary criticism.” 2. Repeat from “Introduction to Literary Studies” the material about artistic conflict and its types. 3. Read 4-5 stories by the late Shukshin. Using the material of the selected works to trace the originality of the conflict and its methods artistic realization. Plan 1. What aspects of the life and spiritual world of the heroes does the author focus on? 2. Pay attention to the search for the meaning of life by Shukshin’s heroes, to how the writer solves the problem of life and death. 15
16 3. Shukshin’s solution to the “damned” Russian questions “who is to blame?” and “what should I do?” a) how does the main conflict develop in Shukshin’s stories? b) how do the heroes themselves comprehend the contradiction of their existence? c) what is unique about the expression? author's position in understanding the drama of the lives of your heroes? 4. Methods of artistic realization of conflict in Shukshin’s stories. LITERATURE Literary texts Shukshin V. Grief; At the cemetery; How the bunny flew balloons; Resentment; The wife accompanied her husband to Paris; Borya; Suraz; There lived a man; Dancing Shiva; At night in the boiler room, Microscope; Pardon me, madam; Alyosha Beskonvoyny; I believe. Main 1. Belaya G. Antiworlds of Vasily Shukshin // Literary Review, 1977, Gorn V. Characters of Vasily Shukshin. Barnaul, Apukhtina V. Prose of Shukshin. M., Pankin B. Vasily Shukshin and his “eccentrics” // Pankin B. Strict literature. M., Korobov V. Vasily Shukshin. M., Chernosvitov E. Walk along the edge: Vasily Shukshin: Thoughts about life, death, immortality. M., Kozlova S.M. Poetics of stories by V.M. Shukshina. Barnaul, Creativity V.M. Shukshina in modern world. Barnaul, Korobov V.I. Vasily Shukshin: Prophetic word. M., Sigov V. Russian idea V.M. Shukshina. M., Additional 1. Kuznetsov F. The fate of the village in prose and criticism. M.,
17 2. Lobanov M. Lessons “ village prose» // Lobanov M. Internal and external. M., Protchenko V. Modern “village prose” in literary criticism// Russian literature, 1977, Vilchek L. Downstream of village prose; Chalmaev V. “An arch of air has risen” // Questions of literature, 1985, 6. LESSON 9 THEATER OF ALEXANDER VAMPILOV Task 1. Read the play by A. Vampilov “ Duck hunting" 2. Review material about drama and its genre forms. 3. Draw a general conclusion about the uniqueness of A. Vampilov’s theater. Plan 1. Creative biography of A. Vampilov (general characteristics). 2. Problems and heroes of the play by A. Vampilov. a) The cruelty of inhumanity, indifference, the clash of good and evil. b) Social and moral-psychological reasons for the brokenness of human life. 3. Features of the conflict, plot and composition of the play, the role of symbolism. 4. Stage interpretations of the play. LITERATURE Literary text Vampilov A. “Duck Hunt”. Main 1. Rudnitsky K. Beyond fiction: Notes on the dramaturgy of A. Vampilov // Questions of literature, 1976,
18 2. Smelkov Y. Zigzags of Zilov’s fate (“Duck Hunt”: how to stage it? How to stage it?) // Literary Review, 1979, Cronin M. The most truthful theater. About the poetics of A. Vampilov // Literary studies, 1979, Tenditnik N. Alexander Vampilov. Novosibirsk, Tolstykh V. Among our own, a stranger // Literary studies, 1981, Sushkov B. A. Vampilov: Reflections on ideological roots, issues, artistic method and the fate of the playwright’s work. M., Additional 1. Demidov A. Notes on the dramaturgy of A. Vampilov // Theater, 1974, Shaitanov I. Four options for one problem // Siberian Lights, 1974, Sakharov Vs. Theater by A. Vampilov // Our contemporary, 1976, Gushchanskaya E. Dramaturgy by A. Vampilov // Star, 1981, Sergeev M. Theater by A. Vampilov // Literature of Siberia. History and modernity. Novosibirsk, Streltsova E. “The threshold situation” in the plays of A. Vampilov // Baikal, 1984, Streltsova E. Gun or telephone? : On the symbolism of the play “Duck Hunt” by A. Vampilov // Russian Speech, 1988, Rasputin V. Where are you, my soul is alive? // Literature at school, 1992, 2. LESSON 10 POEM “REQUIEM” by A. AKHMATOVA Task 1. Prepare an abstract message on the topic: “Disputes about “returned” literature in criticism and literary criticism.” 2. Identify historical, folklore and biblical images and characterize them. 3. Learn by heart any passage from the poem. 18
19 Plan. 1. “Returned” literature (general characteristics). 2. The history of the creation and publication of A. Akhmatova’s poem “Requiem”. 3. The image of the lyrical heroine of the poem. 4. The artistic originality of the poem (the role of symbolism, features of the verse of the poem). LITERATURE Literary text by Akhmatov A. “Requiem”. Main 1. Ivanova N. Fathers and sons of the era // Questions of literature, 1987, Rodnyanskaya I. Returned poets // Position. M., Abelyuk E.S. Reader's comment: Concept and implementation // Literature at school, 1989, Naiman A. Stories about Anna Akhmatova. M., Vilenkin V. In the hundred and first mirror. M., Additional 1. Zhirmunsky V.M. The work of Anna Akhmatova. L., Pavlovsky A.I. Anna Akhmatova. Essay on creativity. L., Meetings with the past. Vol. 3. M., Skatov N. “I am your voice”; Kushner A. Poetic perception of the world // Literary newspaper, 1989, July 21. 19
20 V.I. Khomyakov RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE XX CENTURY (second half) Practical training program for fifth-year students of the Faculty of Philology Technical editor M.V. Bykova Editor Submitted for publication..02. Paper format 60x84 1/16. Risography. Pech. l.. Academic ed. l.. Circulation copy. Order. Publishing and Printing Department of Omsk State University, Omsk-77, Mira Ave., 55a, State University 20
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« The Thaw generation of readers discovered new names for themselves and read textbook lines in a new way, they breathed and lived poetry, they greedily absorbed the air of new prose. The dialogue with the writer continued, it captured more and more interlocutors, it actively involved them in the artistic world of Russian literature of the 20th century. It is symbolic that the era that came after Stalin’s death received its name from literature from the poem by N. Zabolotsky “ Thaw" The publication of the “spring” poem in the October book of “New World” for 1953 was for many a fairly transparent hint of the imminent changes in the political atmosphere in the country, although there is not a single line in the poem that allows it to be interpreted allegorically. Then there was a story by I. Orenburg with the same name - “The Thaw” (1954). Soon spring, with its characteristic awakening of new hopes and new strength, was in full swing both in the country and on the pages of new books and magazines.
What word became defining for the entire era that came with the “thaw”? In our opinion, this word " memory"It was precisely with memory - individual and national - that socialist realism, imposed by the authorities, fought. Remember, neither in the officially approved nor in Gorky's definition This method does not have a single word associated with the concept of tradition, continuity, memory. The knowledge of how their ancestors lived before the revolution was erased from the consciousness of entire generations, everything bad was declared “relics of the past,” people were forced to live with dreams of a “bright future,” weaned from looking back.
A real cultural explosion during the “thaw” era led to the fact that living problems returned to the pages of books. Gained particular popularity in prose genre of artistic-journalistic, problem-based essay. Even in poetry, poets again wanted to “equate the pen to a bayonet,” to write on the topic of the day. It was during this period that an amazing the phenomenon of “loud”, “pop” lyrics, as it was called then. It was based on the tradition of Russian futurism, the tradition of the poet’s direct appeals to the mass public. It was poetry of “direct action”, for the voice and ear, and not reflection; it was characterized, in the words of a critic, “high-speed methods imaginative thinking" Writers and poets felt an urgent need to contact their readers directly, without intermediaries in the form of books or magazines. Poetry came to concert halls and stadiums. A whole galaxy of young poets appeared on stage, trashing everyday life, vulgarity, the vices of modern man, and relics of the past. Among them, A. Voznesensky, E. Yevtushenko, and R. Rozhdestvensky occupied a special place.
However, official literature socialist realism with her obliviousness, she was not able to answer one of the cornerstone questions of the second half of the 20th century, asked by the philosopher Adorno: “How can one compose music after Auschwitz?” Literature began to tell the truth about the Nazi and Stalinist camps, about the atrocities and suffering of soldiers in World War II. 50s - 70s of the XX century - present explosion of military prose, carefully transgressing the boundaries of what is permitted in order to convey to readers "trench truth"- the truth that was revealed to the soldiers not in newspaper editorials or explanations of political workers, but was seen by them through the parapet of a trench or heard in the groans of wounded comrades, sounded in cautious conversations during breaks between battles. It is no coincidence that it has become especially popular story genre, because it was this genre that made it possible to show the fate of a person in its extent, while avoiding the temptation of large generalizations and mass paintings characteristic of many works of the Stalinist period.
In the stories of M. Sholokhov “The Fate of a Man” and A. Solzhenitsyn “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”, the novel by V. Grossman “Life and Fate” the reader heard the living confession of a man who went through all the circles of a man-made hell prepared by man for man. Socialist realism could not stand such a truth. After all, the power of dogma demanded that any work of art that was more or less acceptable from an ideological point of view should be declared to meet the criteria of socialist realism. As a result, the very concept of “socialist realism” expanded incredibly and began to mean so much that it no longer meant almost anything.
And the final blow to the “unified method of Soviet literature” was the emergence in the 60s of such a powerful cultural phenomenon, How prose of "village writers". V. Rasputin, V. Belov, V. Astafiev, V. Shukshin and others refused to create in the name of “victory over nature” and to sing of a “bright future.” Two key concepts of village prose - “memory” (V. Rasputin) and “ladness” (V. Belov) did not fit well into the concept of socialist realism with its pathos of reorganizing the world and getting rid of “remnants of the past.” “Soil” writers argued that the basis of personality is not ideology at all, but memory—what a person has accumulated over the years of his life, which is unique and distinguishes him from any other person. Loss of memory means loss of personality, its substitution - and therefore the call to “come to your senses” literally meant “return to yourself,” to your roots, origins, to your essence. The idea of “lada” required recognizing that the world that had developed over centuries was based on reasonable principles, and an attempt to rebuild it only leads to chaos, to the loss of stable guidelines for people. Thus, gradually the word “realism” was cleared of the ideological makeweight “socialist” and regained its true essence - loyalty to reality, its immutable and fundamentally wise laws.
She spoke about the same thing "quiet lyrics", which arose in the 60s and 70s largely as a reaction to “loud” pop lyrics.
The spiritual heritage of centuries has turned out to be so enormous that it has already begun to be perceived as unbearable for an individual who is simply unable to assimilate this heritage to a sufficient extent. It is even more difficult to say your own, a new word after the great classics, who seemed, if not to answer, then to reveal in their work all the basic questions of existence, going through all possible artistic forms and techniques, bringing them to perfection. From the hopeless feeling that “everything has been said”, close to the tragic words of Ecclesiastes “there is nothing new under the sun” (Eccl. 1: 9), at the turn of the 60-70s such a contradictory phenomenon arose as postmodernism- a special worldview that brought a new attitude to culture, to the word, to wisdom.
While some writers created new artistic forms from the experience of the secondary nature of any word, playing with the reader in the “death of literature,” others intuitively groped for new paths and saw completely new questions that life poses to humanity. Among these problems are ecology, the destruction of previously clear boundaries between relatively speaking “high” and “mass” culture, the development electronic means communications and media technologies. The very emergence of these problems gave birth to new artistic forms to reflect them. Already in the 60s she came to literature environmental issues, writers are increasingly striving to create “multi-layered” works that are interesting both to the ordinary reader, lacking deep humanitarian training, and to the “highbrow” esthete. Finally, the book ceased to be associated exclusively with “paper media”, moving into electronic format, becoming “virtual”, which significantly expanded its capabilities. Moreover, it is increasingly becoming clear not only to specialists that it was the advent of writing that allowed humanity to make such a leap from barbarism to modern civilization in just a few millennia.
Nothing develops a person’s thinking abilities more, nothing spiritually enriches and ennobles him as good book. The ability to distinguish letters and add them to a word, to compose texts from words, to extract meanings and subtexts from a text, receiving higher, aesthetic, spiritual and moral pleasure from it, is a unique type of human activity. Therefore, all the talk about the death of literature, about the uselessness of reading, is devoid of any meaning. Literature enters the new century with us, inhabits it with us. And here we find ourselves very necessary to each other: readers to the author, the author with his special, sharp gaze and apt words to the readers.
Lectures on the history of Russian literature of the 2nd half of the twentieth century.
Faculty of Philology of BSU, professor I. S. Skoropanov.
Periodization of Russian literature of the second half of the 20th century
LITERATURE DURING THE THAW YEARS
Poetry of the Thaw
Prose of the Thaw
Drama of the Thaw
LITERATURE OF THE POST-THAW TWENTIETH YEARS
Prose of the post-thaw twenty years
Prose of representatives of the legal opposition
Historical prose
Military prose
Prose of the Pochvenniks
Creativity of Vasily Shukshin
Prose of dissidents
Works of Alexander Solzhenitsyn
Satirical prose
Prose of the underground
Modernists
Postmodernists
Prose of third wave emigrants
Poetry of the post-thaw twenty years
Quiet lyrics
Philosophical lyrics
The works of Joseph Brodsky
Neo-avant-garde poetry
Drama of the post-thaw twenty years
Realistic drama
Works of Alexander Vampilov
Post-vampil wave
Postmodern drama
LITERATURE DURING THE YEARS OF GLASNOST
Prose during the years of glasnost
Drama during the years of glasnost
Poetry during the years of glasnost
MODERN RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Periodization of Russian literature of the second half of the 20th century
In its development, four main periods can be distinguished, associated with changes in the sociocultural and literary situation.
First: 1956 – 1964, “thaw”.
Second: 1965 – 1985, the “post-thaw” twentieth anniversary.
Third: 1986 – 1991, “glasnost”.
Fourth: begins in December 1991 and continues to this day, Russian literature of the late XX - beginning of the XXI centuries.
The most characteristic feature of the development of Russian literature during the years of the “Thaw” is its beginning of emancipation in the post-Stalin era. A well-known departure from normativity, an expansion of the scope of a truthful depiction of life. Socialist realism, which is undergoing renewal, still dominates during this period. In addition, at the unofficial level, items banned under Stalin are beginning to be revived. critical realism and avant-garde.
The period of the post-thaw twenty years is the period of decomposition of the totalitarian system. During these years, oppositional sentiments intensified in Russian literature. In parallel with official literature, unofficial literature has been developing throughout the last twenty years. Representatives of the first still follow socialist realism, and in the second there is a final revival and further development of critical realism, modernism, including its radical varieties, and the Russian branch of postmodern literature is born.
Glasnost period. Freedom of speech and press came to the USSR, guaranteed at the official level by the Law on the Press and Other Mass Media. Under these conditions, there is a gradual decline in the literature of socialist realism. A huge layer of so-called returned literature appears, that is, what was prohibited during the years of Soviet power begins to be published. Critical realism, modernism in various modifications and postmodernism receive legitimate status. Literature is experiencing a problem-thematic and aesthetic renewal.
Since December 1991, the modern period of literary development begins, main feature which is aesthetic pluralism. A radical revaluation of values is taking place in literature. Also, a new feature in the development of Russian literature is the appearance at the turn of the last and present centuries of “seteratura,” that is, literature created on the network. This is a fundamentally new phenomenon, indicating the crossing of literature with technology. Seteratura has a certain impact on book literature, offering it some new ways and techniques for mastering reality and working with text.
These general provisions will be fleshed out in lectures devoted to the development of literature in each period.
Literature during the Thaw
1956 – 1964 (the period of the “classical thaw”); Some researchers distinguish early and late “thaws”. (She has not yet arrived, but some features have already appeared.) These are, respectively, from 1953 to 1956 and from 1964 to 1968.
In 1954, Ilya Erenburg wrote the story “The Thaw,” the title of which was subsequently used to designate a new stage in the life of Soviet society, which began after the death of Stalin and was characterized by a sharp change in the socio-political and economic course in the direction of its liberalization. The country's leadership, primarily in the person of Khrushchev, proclaims a renunciation of political terror and mass repression, for which it places the blame on Stalin, and begins a kind of restructuring of Soviet society. It was supposed to leave the existing socialist system intact, that is, the type itself social order not change, but reform, improve it. Restore the rule of law, expand the rights and freedoms of citizens, implement democratization, use the achievements of scientific and technological progress to improve the material standard of living of people and establish the so-called humane socialism, or socialism with a human face. Having accomplished this program, it was thought to move on to the full-scale construction of communism. “The current generation of Soviet people will live under communism.” If this promise of Khrushchev had come true, communism would have arrived in the late 1970s. 20 years seemed quite enough for this dream to come true.
The country is carrying out a broad propaganda campaign to debunk Stalin's personality cult and overcome the consequences of Stalinism that have taken root in the life of society. First of all, Khrushchev carries out the rehabilitation of the innocently repressed. (“Hey, driver, drive to the Butyrsky farm... - And you, comrade, are late.” - Vysotsky. “So that there are no more camps in Russia.”)
The principle of material interest in the results of labor. The average salary doubled under Khrushchev and reached 50 rubles per month. Peasants receive passports and the right to leave the village without permission from their superiors (previously this was prohibited), especially since many workers were required at the so-called construction sites of communism (Siberia, Virgin Lands). Extensive housing construction is underway across the country. Previously, up to half the country's population lived in barracks. Two days off per week are being introduced while maintaining the same salary. The first satellite was launched. The world's first synchrophasotron and the first nuclear icebreaker were created. And although there were more problems than achievements, during the “thaw” the country made a big leap forward in many respects. These were the results of liberalization and the (relative) freedom that came.
The USSR in these years resembled Gulliver, who was tied to the ground by the Lilliputians during his sleep. And then some kind of emancipation gradually begins, the country begins to move and emerge from its stupor. The very atmosphere of life has changed, fear has disappeared from life. People began to visit every day, gather in groups and discuss everything that was happening in the country. (And before, “informing” was very developed.) And in these conversations, the so-called public opinion gradually arose.
The subsequently famous Vladimir Bukovsky writes: if it were his will, he would erect a monument to a typewriter in the center of Moscow (“They chirped and typed in all major cities”). Without waiting for official publication, people reprinted for their personal use those prohibited in Soviet time authors. The second monument, according to Bukovsky’s proposal, is to a man with a guitar, because during the “thaw” the author’s song was born. The idols of those times were Galich, Vysotsky, Okudzhava, Vizbor and some others. This new type poetry, song poetry. Bards have done a lot to free minds from mossy dogmas.
The international festival of youth and students (1958) in Moscow played its role in the beginning of the emancipation of minds. For the first time, Soviet people saw live Latin Americans and Africans in person, not in pictures. The phenomenon of “statism” has emerged - fans of certain aspects of US culture: jazz, vinyl records with foreign music, American art, architecture, Western clothing. The management did not like those who dressed fashionably and waged an active struggle with the “hipsters”.
A gap opened to the west. The most popular Western writer was Ernest Hemingway. “Almost every second house has a photograph of him.” Foreign influence on Soviet literature increased significantly at this time.
Unable to withstand the pangs of conscience, Fadeev shot himself (1956). The writers' organization behaved shamefully under him. Not a single fact is known when she would have stood up for the repressed. On the contrary, the sanction of the leadership of the Writers' Union for arrest was required. Fadeev gave this sanction. The writers who returned from the camps spat in his face. Standing at his coffin, Pasternak said: “He atoned for his guilt.” Fadeev is replaced by the more progressive, but also more cautious Fedin.
Literary life brightens up sharply. Daniil Andreev, Solzhenitsyn, Shalamov, Smelyakov, Serebryakova, Dombrovsky, Chichibabin returned from the camps. They brought their tragic experience into literature.
Under Stalin, writers' congresses, after the first one, were not held for 20 years. They resume in 1954. In the future – once every five years.
During the “thaw” years, a number of new literary magazines and almanacs appeared. The most popular was “Youth” (for young people, it published the most talented young authors of that time). New theaters are starting to operate. The most popular is the Sovremennik Theater. Basically, this theater also staged young, modern drama.
Since 1956, annual Poetry Days have begun to be held in the USSR, and once a year an almanac is published under the same name, where, as far as possible, the relatively best are selected. 1956 – several poems by Tsvetaeva. Zabolotsky was also published.
Young Moscow poets have developed a tradition of meeting at the Mayakovsky monument and reading their poems. The authorities didn't like it. These gatherings were closely watched by the police and so-called vigilantes. They took control of anyone who seemed suspicious to them and dealt with them quite harshly. (Acquaintance of Alena Basilova with her future husband Leonid Gubanov: both were shoved into a car and taken to the police; young man they beat their heads against the wall.) So, freedom came, but it was of a rather limited nature. This can be seen in many examples.
During the “thaw,” a new generation of writers came to literature: Brodsky, Akhmadulina, Voznesensky, Rubtsov, Solzhenitsyn, Bondarev, Aitmatov, Shukshin, Belov, Bitov, Volodin and a number of others. In the writing community there is a split between Stalinists and liberals, since the attitude towards events in the country was far from unambiguous. The Stalinists considered changes in society to be a betrayal of the cause of communism, and every step towards progress was achieved due to their efforts with enormous difficulty. The stronghold of Stalinism is “October” (editor-in-chief Vsevolod Kochetov). The magazine “New World”, headed by Tvardovsky, became a stronghold of liberalism during the “thaw”. The reactionaries did not sleep. Under their pressure, Boris Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union and was publicly persecuted throughout the country for being awarded the Nobel Prize for 1958. (On the other hand, he did not go to prison and was not subjected to forcible deportation abroad.)
In 1960, Vasily Grossman’s manuscript “Life and Fate,” which he offered on legal terms to one of the magazines, was confiscated. But the editor-in-chief “snitched” to the KGB about a harmful anti-Soviet work. Both copies and even carbon copies made by the typist were confiscated. (One copy was secretly given to friends in another city.) Since it was not possible to publish everything, samizdat was born. These are illegal, uncensored works that were often viewed as dangerous. The most influential samizdat magazine is “Syntax” (publisher Alexander Ginzburg). The 1st issue was published in 20 copies. Brodsky, Vsevolod Nekrasov, Sapgir, Kholin, Akhmadulina and others were published there. The publication ceased after the 3rd issue due to the arrest of Ginzburg.
For the same reason, bohemia appeared. Under Khrushchev, they were classified as declassed elements and parasites (like Brodsky). In fact, they sometimes worked three times harder than others, but did not receive money. Bohemia flaunted its asceticism, demanded intellectual and spiritual autonomy and did not betray freedom. The life of representatives of bohemians and unofficial literature was measured by the number of books read (mostly banned) and manuscripts created. I worked intensively on myself. Representatives of unofficial literature took a nonconformist position.
Fearing that the process would get out of party control, Khrushchev in 1962-63 organized large-scale meetings in the Kremlin with the creative intelligentsia. He sought support from writers who, even during the years of Stalinism, had not completely lost their authority in the eyes of society, since he had many opponents even in the Central Committee; on the other hand, he wanted to show that party control over literature and art would be maintained at all costs. In his speech, he stated that the main thing for Soviet literature is high ideology and artistic skill, party affiliation and nationality. Khrushchev even had the idea of uniting all creative people of different professions into a single creative union: This makes it easier to control. For a number of reasons this did not happen. During the meetings, some writers correctly and gently dared to challenge certain theses of the country's leader. Ehrenburg, Yevtushenko, Shchipachev defended the idea of creative freedom.
However, there was a moral “beating” of Aksyonov and Voznesensky. The party did not like the fact that it had competitors as masterminds. An entire public performance was staged to show these idols in an unsightly light. Khrushchev “clung” to Voznesensky’s statement about how he allocates for himself best writers in literature: the vertical of high - low. Pasternak was named among the writers of the “high” hierarchy. (Motives for personal acquaintance.) But just shortly before that, Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union. “If you don’t like it in the USSR, we will issue you a passport at any time.” To which Voznesensky began to read the poem “Lonjumeau” about Lenin.
Khrushchev’s final remark from the reading (meaning): “Well, we listened to you all here, we listened. And who will decide? People. Who is this, people? And these are his best sons. And the best sons of the people are our party. And the will of the party is embodied by its central committee. And the central committee is me. So I will decide.” We must give Khrushchev his due: under him, no matter how much he insulted anyone, not a single Soviet writer went to prison. From later memoirs: “We in the leadership were consciously in favor of a thaw. But we were afraid that a torrent would follow the thaw and we would not be able to control it... Direct the movement of the “thaw” in such a way as to stimulate only creative forces, which would contribute to the strengthening of socialism" (Khrushchev).
Main creative method continues to be socialist realism. However, in theoretical terms and in practice, it is gradually beginning to be re-evaluated. He gave an untendentious interpretation Andrey Sinyavsky in the article “What is socialist realism”, published in 1957 in France in French (transferred illegally). The author of the article recalls that already in the first paragraph of the charter of the Union of Soviet Writers a definition is given: “Socialist realism presupposes a truthful, historically specific depiction of reality in its revolutionary development with the aim of ideological remodeling and the communist education of the working people.”
Sinyavsky draws attention to the fact that Balzac and Tolstoy depicted life as it really is, and shows that the socialist realist recreates everything he sees around him from the standpoint of the communist ideal. The main principle for assessing a person is the class-ideological principle. Art was supposed to help the construction of communism in the USSR.
“Soviet art is teleological through and through.” Soviet literature is characterized by an affirmation of the goal towards which the world community is moving. This goal is communism. But, asks Sinyavsky, is the world really moving towards communism? No, he says, this is a utopia. When he compares the postulate with reality, he does not see the given movement and correspondence. This means that the literature of socialist realism does not reflect the truth of life. Ideology has become a new religion, which is simply fanatically believed in. And a true believer is not able to understand and accept the point of view of another believer. Communist ideology predetermines the writer's narrow-mindedness. To actually achieve the goal, says Sinyavsky, the Soviet Union stops at literally nothing. “We sacrificed our snow-white soul to the ideal. To make prisons disappear forever, we built new prisons. ... But when we look around, we don’t find what we hoped to find and for which so many sacrifices were made.” The means that were used to create an ideal society radically changed its appearance.
Freedom of speech, Sinyavsky emphasizes, is organically alien to communist culture. What freedom can a true, fanatical believer have? Only freedom to praise your God even more fiercely. Here, the communist party and its leaders, as well as the communist ideal itself, act as God. And since the conductor of ideology in the USSR is the party, it exercises the so-called leadership, that is, it stifles literature and does not give it the opportunity to develop normally. Plots are always constructed in such a way as to create the impression of the next step closer to a bright future, a communist society. Therefore, they are of the same type, no matter what is written about.
But is it bad, as Sinyavsky asks, that there is optimism? It's not bad when there is reason for optimism. And historical optimism is based on blind faith. An example is a number of titles of works of Western and Soviet literature. "Death of a Hero", "For Whom the Bell Tolls", "A Time to Live and a Time to Die", "Journey to the End of Night", "Death in the Afternoon", "Everyone Dies Alone" ( Western authors) – “Happiness”, “First joys”, “Good”, “Fulfillment of desires”, “Winners”, “Light above the earth” (Soviet authors).
A significant part of Soviet literature is represented by educational novels, which, as a rule, show the communist metamorphosis of an individual and an entire team, the process of “the birth of a new man.” In fact, this is the introduction of communist ideology and morality into human consciousness. Everything that serves the victory of communism is recognized as moral. The cornerstone of Soviet literature is the Positive Hero, thoroughly imbued with communist ideology, who has no other goals and objectives in life other than serving communism. He is usually embellished, he has answers to all questions, he always knows what to do in all easy and difficult situations. Old realism, reminds Sinyavsky, is characterized by searching hero, and for Soviet literature – the finder.
In the 1940s, texts finally appeared in which all the heroes, without exception, are positive, there are simply no negative ones, and the struggle is only between the good and the best; the so-called conflict-free theory, according to which all conflicts in Soviet society have been overcome, triumphed. Thus, socialist realism is transformed into false socialist realism. This is an industry of myths that has completely abandoned life-like realities. (Myths about Lenin, Stalin, war, collectivization, etc. The “White Birch” by Bubyonnov is given as an example.)
From Sinyavsky’s point of view, in terms of the type of hero, content and general pathos, the literature of socialist realism is much closer to classicism rather than genuine realism XIX centuries. A more accurate designation of the method would be, according to Sinyavsky, “socialist classicism.” What brings it closer to classicism is the principle of normativity. What should be is portrayed as real, as really existing. “Maybe in the future we will come up with something else, but it is unlikely to be the literature of socialist realism.”
During the Thaw years, however, there was an overcoming of the stereotypes of false socialist realism. Socialist realism itself is somewhat strengthening its position. It becomes more possible for a truthful depiction of the realities of life. The renewal of socialist realism is most fully demonstrated by the creativity of the sixties. The sixties - those representatives of the creative intelligentsia who advocated socialism with a human face and were uncompromising in their criticism of Stalinism, called for overcoming its consequences. But Stalinism was criticized in the name of strengthening and improving socialism; its criticism was carried out from the standpoint of idealized Leninism. Characteristic figures of sixties literature: Yevtushenko, Rozhdestvensky; Bondarev, Aitmatov; Rozov, Volodin and some others.
Poetry of the Thaw
Poetry reflected the changes that took place in society with the greatest completeness and expressiveness. We can name several of its directions:
1. Civil (lyrical-journalistic), addressed to current events of its time, the interpretation of which is given through the personal perception of the poet. Publicism, an open appeal to the reader is one of the most bright features. Tvardovsky, Smelyakov, Yevtushenko and other authors.
2. Romantic poetry. It does not glorify the ideals of the revolution or the heroism of labor. During the “thaw” period, romantic poetry poeticizes the beauty in life itself and in man. Her characteristic figures are Okudzhava, Yunna Moritz, Novella Matveeva.
3. Philosophical lyrics, which are addressed to the so-called eternal problems of existence: what is the world, life, death, what is the problem of the meaning of life, how death and immortality relate. These are the late texts of Pasternak, Tarkovsky, Zabolotsky.
During this period, several generations of authors took part in the creation of poetry. Firstly, poets who are today perceived as classics: Georgy Ivanov, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Nikolai Zabolotsky. Secondly, representatives of the older generation who did not previously have the opportunity to publish: Arseny Tarkovsky, Maria Petrovykh, Semyon Lipkin. Some writers who were previously in a creative crisis are returning to literature: Alexander Tvardovsky, Vladimir Lugovskoy, Mikhail Svetlov (book of poems “The Hunting Lodge”). During the “thaw”, the so-called “front-line poets of the second conscription” were able to publish for the first time - authors who began to write poetry on the eve of the war or during its years, peers of Kulchitsky, Kogan, Mayorov, who did not publish their poems due to censorship reasons: Yuri Levitansky , Bulat Okudzhava, Boris Slutsky and some others. A new generation of poets is also entering literature. During the “thaw” years, they seemed approximately equal to each other in talent. Of those who left their mark in poetry, it is worth mentioning Brodsky, Kushner, Rubtsov, Moritz, Matveeva, Chukhontsev, Akhmadulina, Rozhdestvensky, Voznesensky.
The greatest fame during this period became poets of the sixties, whose worldview is consonant with the worldview of the majority of the population of the Union. These are poets, civically courageous. The four that resonated the most were Yevtushenko, Rozhdestvensky, Voznesensky, and Akhmadulina.
Yevtushenko was perceived as the true leader of the entire sixties movement. He revived in his work the tradition of the late Mayakovsky, which he crossed with the tradition of the late Yesenin (the utmost sincerity and openness of the lyrical feeling that permeates political works poet). Yevtushenko sets the task of reviving true citizenship, and contrasts true citizenship with official citizenship. According to him, citizenship is morality in action. It’s not for nothing that Yevtushenko has several poems called “Citizenship.” Yevtushenko's poetry is addressed to current socio-political problems of the era. Modernity is the nerve of his creativity. As soon as the event had time to take place, Yevtushenko already had time to react to it.
The young poet’s initial fame came from the poem “Stalin’s Heirs” (1956, published in Pravda), published during the 20th Congress of the CPSU, when a report on the cult of personality was first made. The poem seemed to sound in unison with the events that followed in society. Before that, Stalin was in the Mausoleum together with Lenin, and after the 20th Congress, a decision was made to remove the body from the Mausoleum. Yevtushenko describes this specific fact, and then translates everything into a metaphorical plane. Stalin's body was taken out of the Mausoleum, and now it is necessary for Stalin to be taken out of our souls. (“The ideological nails were hammered in very early.”) Lenin in the Mausoleum is who we should worship. Lenin acted for the sixties as the banner of humanism and democracy.
Yevtushenko’s largest work in terms of volume, on which he worked throughout the Thaw years, was the poem “Bratsk Hydroelectric Power Station”. Here ideas and motifs scattered across a large number of his poems and poems crossed. The history of Russia is revealed in this poem as the history of the struggle of the people and their best representatives for freedom and a better future for the country. The main stages of the revolutionary movement in Russia, starting with Stepan Razin, are captured. The narrative has been brought up to date. In the Introduction, the poet contrasts the points of view of historical pessimism and optimism. The symbol of the first glance becomes the Egyptian pyramid: a symbol of slavery and suppression, disbelief in the possibility of changing the world. She considers human oppression to be a norm that has existed in all countries in all centuries, and believes that today's civilization is the same ancient Egypt, only in a new package. “Song of the Taskmasters”: what makes Ancient Egypt civilization is the suppression of the individual. The rhythm has a distinctly militarized character.
The newly built Bratsk hydroelectric power station is entering into a dispute with the Egyptian pyramid. Without denying that the modern world still has a lot from ancient Egypt, the Bratsk Hydroelectric Power Station at the same time asserts that there are forces in humanity that will make it possible to rebuild the world on the basis of humanism. The history of Russia (the main text of the poem) is given in the persons of: Razin, Pushkin (Decembrists), Chernyshevsky (revolutionary democrats and populists). What is characteristic is that each person in the poem is shown at a particularly difficult and sad moment for him. Basic concept: the spark of freedom passes from generation to generation. In the chapter “Fair in Simbirsk” the image of young Lenin appears, which is no coincidence, since the sixties, who condemned Stalin, had Lenin as their ideal. This is a high school student, a boy who, during a holiday in Simbirsk, sees a drunk woman fallen in the mud, helps her get up and takes her home. This episode is also translated into a metaphorical plane: the Bolsheviks wanted to lead to normal life poor and unhappy Russia wallowing in the mud. The motive of faith in a better future for Russia. This is followed by chapters on the era of revolution and the main stages of Soviet times. The chapter “Walkers Are Coming to Lenin” shows the leader in his adulthood. The sixties always emphasized the democracy and humanism of Lenin as opposed to the despotism and anti-humanism of Stalin. Walkers go to Lenin for the truth, and Lenin listens carefully to every popular voice in order to put into practice what the people demand.
Yevtushenko turned out to be the first exponent in Soviet literature of the negative changes that the cult of personality brought with it. The poem says that during Stalin’s time there were, as it were, two lives of the USSR. In the chapter “Bolshevik” the Bolshevik Kartsev gives the floor. It also tells about the beginning of great changes taking place in Soviet society. Chapter "Echelon": trains of former prisoners return back to European Russia, and in the opposite direction, volunteers are sent to build a hydroelectric power station. Due to the fact that there is nowhere to sleep, former camps are used as shelters, where the barbed wire has been removed, bouquets of flowers are on the tables, and laughter and songs can be heard.
The most famous among the stories about the builders of the Bratsk hydroelectric power station was the chapter “Nyushka” - the confession of a girl who, on a Komsomol ticket, came to work at a construction site, but her life did not turn out the best: a scoundrel deceived her, and she ended up in a maternity hospital. An entire Komsomol brigade meets her and her child. The heroine most of all wants purity in human relationships, and also “so that we can achieve communism.” The author expresses the hope that all the terrible things are behind us, and that a wonderful and bright life awaits Soviet people ahead. the main problem poems - freedom, political and mental, liberation from totalitarian stereotypes.
Abstract on the topic:
Literature of the second half of the twentieth century.
In the second half of the 20th century. The social cultural atmosphere in the world is changing. Climate softening and the rapid development of science and technology have affected all spheres of life and art. An important event of the 60s was the entry of man into space, which made the world think about the fate of civilization. With the exploration of outer space, humanity began to associate new projects for transforming reality. U.eko called the 60s “awakening from a heavy sleep with bloody pictures and scenes of numerous murders.” However, the world has not been able to solve all its problems. Spiritual elevation was replaced by the tragedy of the threat of environmental crisis and nuclear disaster. The largest event of the end of the 20th century. there was a collapse of the socialist system, which led to a change in geographical and economic boundaries, the search for new principles of coexistence of different states; This process is not easy, which is associated with the complexity of changing social forms and consciousness, but the main result of the 20th century. - awareness by humanity of the harmfulness of violence in all its manifestations and the interdependence of everyone on the planet.
World progress of the second half of the 20th century. was determined primarily by the development of Western civilization, which had both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, people received modern technology, living conditions improved, and on the other, civilization began to absorb personal interests, negatively affecting moral
state of society. The general alienation increases, reality turns “into a mechanical puppet theater, where Madame Machine acted as the director” (A. Camus). Urbanization leads to the depersonalization of a person who feels “very uncomfortable in the cold Universe” (U.eko).
End of the 20th century caused concern among many cultural representatives. The alienation of man, changes in social foundations, the rapid development of civilization, the rejection of previous ideas have raised new questions: what will happen to man and the world, where is society going, how to restore moral values? Therefore, the central phenomenon of the literary process of the second half of the 20th century. was the transition to postmodernism, which the philosopher A.M. Foucault called "the sickly child of late-age literature, full of foreboding, catastrophism, fear of reality."
Postmodernism (Latin past - prefix, means continuity; French moderne - modern, newest) is the general name of trends in art outlined in recent decades, the main features of which are the display of destroyed consciousness, deformed reality, and the stuffy atmosphere of the era.
Appearing in 1917, the term spread in the late 60s, first to designate stylistic trends in architecture, directed against faceless standardization and technicalism, and soon - in literature and painting. The popularity of postmodernism was facilitated by the reasoning of the philosophers J. Derridi, J. Batey, J.-F. Liotard.
In the West, the emergence of postmodernism was primarily due to the exhaustion of industrial society - the emergence of multinational monopolies, computer civilization, the threat of environmental and nuclear disasters, as well as the need to update modernism. In the literature of Eastern European countries, according to the Ukrainian literary critic G. Sivachenko, this phenomenon, in addition, arose as one of the few opportunities for a writer to preserve his own artistic and human position, to defend, at least in this way, his own view of the world in conditions of powerful political and ideological pressure.
Postmodernism is a phenomenon of a fairly wide scale that arises on the basis of total technologies and ideologies, but is not limited to their denial. The idea of the philosopher J. Baudrillard that reality is “agonizing” has become popular among postmodernists. A.-M. Foucault put forward the question back in the 60s: “has man himself already died?”
The hero of postmodern literature is a man who is lost in everyday life, has lost touch with the Universe, and is acutely aware of his alienation and loss of spiritual guidelines. She does not know where to go, what to believe, even what to think and what to feel, since her thoughts and feelings are distorted under the influence of tragic reality. Postmodernism in figurative and symbolic form reproduces the general absurdity of life, the severance of social and spiritual ties in the world, the fall of humanity into the abyss, where there is no chance of salvation.
The works of postmodernism are distinguished by their special poetics. The author interacts with the text as with the whole world. Understanding the “text of the world” brings forth numerous reminiscences, emphasized quotation, which, on the one hand, reproduce reality in the broken images of the previous culture, and on the other hand, remind us of the need to unite “torn pieces of reality” into a coherent picture, to find the lost connection between events and thoughts , feelings.
The technique of aesthetic play has become extremely relevant in the literature of postmodernism. The play of writers with the realities of everyday life and literary archetypes (prototypes) violates deep connections, instead of a moral background - a plasma of lack of spirituality. In many works life appears scary theater, some kind of apocalyptic carnival. A literary game makes it possible to rethink reality, moreover, to replay certain situations in order to find answers to complex questions. And when play is combined with laughter, it turns into a confrontation with the general absurdity. The well-known theorist and practitioner of postmodernism, Italian scientist and writer U. Eco, believes that “when the past cannot be destroyed, because its destruction leads to muteness, it should be rethought ironically, without naivety,” saving a person from the terrible fear of existence.
The plot in postmodern works, as a rule, breaks up into a large number of micro-plots, digressions, comments, etc. The text is a kind of collage of thoughts, feelings, situations, reminiscences; The purpose of such a “disaggregation” of the story is to show the loss of integrity in reality itself, the disharmony of human existence in the world. However, all microplots are united in the creative imagination of the narrator. He appears as the Creator and at the same time as a character of a reality greater than the “text” - life. The writer hopes that the individual will be able to overcome his alienation and become a unifying force not only in the “text”, but also in the world.
Characteristic feature Postmodernism is a combination of the comic and the fantastic. Parody, grotesque, artistic foresight help authors master the logic of the absurd, look beyond the edge of the real, and contrast the sheer chaos with “the laughter of life.”
Often, representatives of postmodernism use elements of various directions and movements - realism, naturalism, "stream of consciousness", expressionism, surrealism, etc., which intensify the search for means to combat the tragedy of life.
Postmodernism is a complex and multidimensional movement of modern thought, its unique reaction to changes in world civilization. According to the American researcher J. Hassan, this is “an effort to understand our historical modernity, to comprehend the mutual influence of languages, knowledge and power in our era, to unite and support the real categories of our existence." According to G. Sivachenko, postmodernism is largely a conscious working with other matter, the space of culture, which is a category no less real.
Postmodernism develops in the genres of fantastic parable, confessional novel, dystopia, short story, mythological story, socio-philosophical and socio-psychological novel, etc. Genre forms can be combined, opening up new artistic structures. Recognized "masters of postmodernism are U. Eco, Kobo Abe, D. Fowles, I. Calvino, V. P"etsukh, A. Bitov, Y. Andrukhovich and others.
In the second half of the 20th century. the genre of science fiction is becoming more active, which in its best examples combined with prognostication (forecasts for the future) and dystopia. Science fiction writers are trying to understand the general trends in the development of civilization, to show the influence of scientific achievements on human life, to warn about the danger of turning an individual into a “cog” of the state machine, about the responsibility of humanity for the fate of the Universe. The fantastic story is increasingly acquiring a symbolic-allegorical character and contains broad philosophical generalizations (J. Atzdike, K.-A. Porter, J.-R. Tolkien, R. Sheckley, R. Bradbury, S. Lem, A. and B. Strugatsky and others).
During this period, in prose, poetry, and drama, the tendency towards deepening intellectualism intensified.
Intellectualism (Latin intellectus - mind, knowledge, intellectualis - mental, judicious) is the conventional name of the stylistic dominant of a work or literary movement, type, genre, associated with a tangible advantage of intellectual and verbal elements of imaginative thinking over emotional and sensual ones.
Intellectualization of literature of the second half of the 20th century. manifests itself in increased attention to complex philosophical problems(man and the world, nature and civilization, technology and culture, progress and morality, etc.), as well as in the inclination of the characters, the narrator, the lyrical hero to mental reflection, introspection, in the breakdown of the drama of the thinking process, in the attraction to certain mental abstractions. The development and confrontation of ideas and concepts becomes the driving force of the plot. During this period, intellectualism determined the development of parables, philosophical novels, drama of ideas, and philosophical lyrics.
In the pre-war period, existentialism emerged and actively developed after the Second World War. Existentialism (from the Latin existentiel - existence) is a direction in philosophy and the movement of modernism, in which the source of the work of art is the artist himself, which expresses the life of the individual, creating artistic reality, which reveals the mystery of existence in general.
The sources of existentialism were contained in the works of the German thinker of the 19th century. E.-S.K'erkegaard. The theory was formed in the works of German (M. Heidegger, І889-1976; Jaspers, 1883-1969) and French (A. Camus, 1913-1960; J.-P. Sartre, 1905-1980 ) philosophers and writers. M. Heidegger believed that art cannot be analyzed, interpreted, it only needs to be experienced, the truth that a work carries is always subjective and individual, because reality can be “negated” in a work of art, it is “overcome”, confirming activity. conscious and subconscious in the artist. These provisions are developed in different ways by representatives of existentialism. For G. Marcel, a somewhat mystical understanding of these postulates is characteristic, for J.-P. Sartre - a socio-political one. everything political.
Existentialism in works of art reflects the sentiments of the intelligentsia, disillusioned with social and ethical theories. Writers strive to understand the reasons for the tragic disorder of human life. The categories of the absurdity of existence, fear, despair, loneliness, suffering, and death come first. Representatives of this philosophy argued that the only thing a person has is her inner world, the right to choose, and free will.
Existentialism is spreading in French (A. Camus, J.-P. Sartre, etc.), German (E. Nossack, A. Deblin), English (A. Murdoch, V. Golding), Spanish (M. de Unamuno), American (N. Mailer, J. Baldwin), Japanese (Kobo Abe) literature. In Ukraine, it appeared in the 1920s in the work of Pidmogilny, and later in the legacy of I. Bagryany, T. Osmachka, Barka, V. Shevchuk and others.
In the second half of the 20th century. A “new novel” (“anti-novel”) is developing, which, according to D.S. Nalivaik, arises as a negation of existentialism.
Anti-novel - a genre variety of modern French novel of the 1940-1970s pp.
The term was first introduced by J.-P. Sartre in the preface to N. Sarraute’s novel “Portrait of an Unknown” (1947). Representatives of this genre (N. Sarraute, A. Robbe-Grillet, M. Butor, K. Simon, etc.) reproduced the torn consciousness of a person, the state of her feelings and impressions. In anti-novel there is no “reflected reality”, comfort, plot collisions, beginning or ending, no hero; his motivated actions and emotions. In the aesthetics of the anti-novel, an important place is occupied by the techniques of heroless and plotless stories. Each of the writers uses his own style of writing, resorting either to depicting the mystical power of things over people (A. Robbe-Grillet), then to the “suspense”, stream of consciousness, internal dialogicity of the subconscious (N. Sarrot), then to a mosaic of perceptions, huddles, reflections (M. Butor). Contrasting ourselves with the masters classic novel in the aspect of describing modern man and looking for new means of expression, the “new novelists” achieved considerable skill, however, some writers, like F. Sollers, J. Ricardo, suffered creative defeat, refusing to show the spiritual world of man.
A significant phenomenon of the theatrical avant-garde of the second half of the 20th century. with the so-called "theater of the absurd". The term chain became widespread thanks to the monograph of the English literary critic M. Esslin ("Theater of the Absurd" - 1961). M. Esslin united playwrights of the second half of the 20th century. behind certain typological characteristics, namely: the absence of place and time of action, destruction of plot and composition, irrationalism, paradoxical collisions, a fusion of the tragic and the comic. In the drama of the “theater of the absurd,” nothing happens, and what happens is absurd and incomprehensible, but it turns out to be unknown why and for what purpose. M. Esslin, introducing a new term, emphasized that the very concept of absurdity regarding the phenomena of modern drama does not fit into its dictionary meaning of “nonsense” or “nonsense.” It has a deep moral and philosophical meaning, and the “theater of the absurd” should be considered not as something negative, but as a reflection of the essential spiritual trends of our time, from the creation of the state of modern man, who is at odds with the world, nature, other people, and himself.
The most talented representatives of the “theater of the absurd” are S. Beckett, E. Jonesco, E. Albi, M. Frish, S. Mrozhek, G. Grass, J. Relber, A. Kopit and others, although the playwrights themselves deny their belonging to any direction or school. Various researchers have repeatedly attempted to “invent” a new term for the phenomena that lie behind the concept of “theater of the absurd.” Among them: “theater of indignation” (R. Brustein), “theater of protest and paradox” (J. Wellworth), “theater of ridicule” (E. Jacard), etc. The uncertainty of the period, however, does not deny the established trends in modern drama, which continues to search for new paths in art.
A noticeable phenomenon in the global process of the second half of the 20th century. became "magical realism".
“Magical realism” is a direction that organically combines elements of the real and the imaginary, the real and the fantastic, the everyday and the mythological, the probable and the mysterious, everyday existence and eternity.
It is most developed in Latin American literature (A. Carpenter, J. Amado, G. Garcia Marquez, M. Vargas Llosa, M. Asturias, etc.). Special role In the works of these authors, myth plays a role, which serves as the basis of the work. The artist, trying to comprehend diverse phenomena (real, cultural, conscious, subconscious, etc.), strives for the universality of his images and the creation general model being. A classic example of this method is the novel by G. Garcia Marquez “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967), where the history of Colombia and all of Latin America is recreated in mythical-real images.
According to A. Carpenter, the specificity of Latin American “magical realism” involves the writers’ commitment to baroque forms, which allow them to create amazing and bright world, “where all races and cultures united and all eras met.” The authors try to comprehend the historical EXPERIENCE of humanity in a broad mythological and cultural context, not focusing on individual facts or events, but highlighting the general trends of spiritual and social evolution.
In the second half of the 20th century. Traditional realism is also developing, acquiring new features. Images of individual existence “are increasingly combined with historical analysis, which is due to the desire of artists to understand the logic of social laws (G. Bell, E.-M. Remarque, V. Bikov, N. Dumbadze, etc.). In artistic prose, philosophical and political journalism.
The means of constructing an essay become more complex: various time and spatial plans are intertwined in the narrative, events unfold in different directions. The compositional principle of counterpoint is often used - a combination of relatively independent storylines that develop at unequal speed and not always consistently (B. Pasternak, V. Faulkner, etc.). This principle helps writers reproduce the versatility of the modern era.
Realists have a noticeable desire for broad generalizations, which is manifested in the depiction of events in different countries and peoples from ancient times to the present day. The world seems to be gaining lost integrity in the imagination of writers who gravitate towards reunification real connections and relationships (Ch. Aitmatov, E, etc.). However, the synthetism of the narrative is often violated - both in content, and in composition, and in the style of the work, indicating the lack of harmonious unity in the surrounding reality.
As O. Zverev noted, realistic literature XX century fought off the disintegration of the Universe into separate worlds, showed the drama of the existence of a person who has no “other realism of personal life left - lonely, terrible, hopeless, but still real” in a mysterious and mysterious existence.
Thus, literary process second half of the 20th century determined primarily by the transition from modernism to postmodernism, as well as the powerful development of intellectual trends, science fiction, “magical realism,” avant-garde phenomena, etc. In general, the art of the second half of the 20th century. is particularly dramatic, but, as E wrote, “hope comes out of nowhere, and this is its strength.” In recent literature, hopes are expressed for the return of the world's lost ideals, the restoration of broken ties, and the overcoming of alienation.
Questions and tasks
1. Consider the conditions for the emergence of postmodernism in the countries of Western and Eastern Europe.
2. Name the main features of postmodern works.
3. How do you understand the formula “the world as text” and “text as the world”? Explain using examples from the works you read.
4. For what purpose do representatives of postmodernism use literary games?
5. Name the modernist trends that continue to develop in the 50-90s, as well as new ones.
6. What is "magical realism"? In the works of which writers is it represented?
Literature
1. Zverev A. 20th century as a literary era // Questions of literature. - 1992. - No. 2.
2. Kuritsyn V. Postmodernism: a new primitive culture // New World. - 1992.-No. 2.
3. Nosov V. Literature and play // New World. - 1992. - No. 2.
4. Sivachenko G.M. Postmodernism and Slovak prose of the 70-80s // Issues of literary criticism. - Chernivtsi, - 1996. - Issue 3 (60).
5. Discussion about postmodernism // Issues of literature. - 1991; - No. 11-12.
6. Nikolenko O.N. Modern dystopia. - Kharkiv; 1996.
7. Literary dictionary-reference book. - K., 1997. "
